CHAPTER 9

Heat Exchanger
Models

Heat Exchanger Friction Model

In UH3D, heat exchangers are treated as regions of momentum transfer and
heat transfer, and are represented as source terms in the momentum and
energy equations. Airflow resistance due to the tubes and fins is modeled as
momentum losses determined on a cell-by-cell basis, as opposed to modeling
the actual physical geometry of the heat exchangers tubes and fins.

Pressure Drop
The pressure drop across a heat exchanger (normal to the face) is defined as
the product of a dynamic pressure and a friction factor,
1
2
P heat exchanger = --- f m ean U min area
2

(9-1)

where
f

heat exchanger friction factor

m ean

mean air density

U min area

air velocity at the minimum flow area

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Normal Friction Factor

The normal friction factor is the sum of four effects,
f = entrance effect exit effect + flow acceleration + core friction

(9-2)

where the effects are defined as follows,

2

entrance effect = ( K c + 1 1 )

(9-3)

2
2
exit effect = ( 1 2 K e ) ----1

(9-4)

flow acceleration = 2 ----2- 1

1

(9-5)

A m
core friction = f c ----- -----A c 1

(9-6)

where
1

ratio of minimum flow area to inlet area

ratio of minimum flow area to exit area

Kc

entrance loss coefficient

Ke

exit loss coefficient

specific volume at the inlet = 1/inlet density = 1 1

specific volume at the exit = 1/exit density = 1 2

mean specific volume, m --- ( 1 + 2 )

air side surface area

Ac

minimum cross-sectional flow area

fc

core friction factor

1
2

Note: In UH3D, the definitions of the area ratios, 1 and 2 , use the heat
exchanger face area for both the inlet area and the exit area, making 1 and
2 equivalent.
The flow acceleration term, Equation (9-5), accounts for velocity increases
related to density reductions which occur when heat is added to a flow stream,

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and must be considered in the data reduction and data correlation process.
However, the effect of the flow acceleration term is inherently included in the
Navier-Stokes equations, and therefore, is set to zero when calculating the
UH3D momentum source terms to avoid double counting its effect.
From the above definitions, the velocity at the minimum flow area can then be
defined as
U cell
U min area = ---------1

(9-7)

where
U cell

air velocity normal to the heat exchanger face at a given cell.

Entrance and Exit Loss Coefficients

The entrance and exit loss coefficients, K c and K e , are functions of the area
ratios, 1 and 2 . Different models for the loss coefficients are generally used
for the two common types of heat exchanger construction.
For tube and fin designs, the loss coefficients are taken from tube and fin laminar flow, and are defined as follows:
2

(9-8)

(9-9)

K c = 0.4 + 0.4 ( 1 1 )
K e = 1 2.4 2 + 2

For triangular fin designs, the loss coefficients are taken from flat duct turbulent flow, and are defined as follows:
2

(9-10)

(9-11)

K c = 0.4 ( 1 1 )
Ke = ( 1 2 )

Core Friction Model

The core friction factor, f c , is an exponential function of the Reynolds number
based on the hydraulic diameter and the velocity at the minimum flow area,

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f c = aRe mi n

(9-12)

where
a

core friction constant

core friction exponent

Re min

Reynolds number for velocity at the minimum flow area

and the Reynolds number is defined as

m U min area D h
Re min = --------------------------------m

(9-13)

where
m

1
mean air density = --- ( 1 + 2 )

1
mean air viscosity = --- ( 1 + 2 )

Dh

hydraulic diameter

The hydraulic diameter, D h , is found from the core thickness, L , and the ratio
of the minimum flow area to the surface area, A c A ,
Ac
D h = 4L -----
A

(9-14)

The values of all the flow dependent variables in the pressure drop model are
determined on a cell-by-cell basis within the context of the current solution
iteration, i.e., the flow quantities, such as velocity and density (mean and
absolute), used in the pressure drop equations are the local values within the
heat exchanger cells at the current iteration. These values change and converge as the entire solution converges.

Transverse Friction Factor

In UH3D Version 3, source terms are added to the momentum equations to
force the flow in the heat exchangers to flow in a direction which is perpendicular to the inlet face. This treatment differs from that used in previous versions of UH3D which simply assumed that the friction factors in the heat

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Calculating Inlet And Exit Conditions

exchanger transverse directions were ten times greater than those in the normal flow direction.

Calculating Inlet And Exit Conditions

The heat exchanger inlet and exit conditions which apply for each cell are
assumed to be those of the first cell upstream and downstream of the heat
exchanger which lie on the streamline passing through the center of the cell.
Each streamline path is calculated by solving a conservation equation which
has only convection terms in a small box surrounding the heat exchanger.
Narrow differencing is used for the convection term and staggered grids are
accounted for. Cells inside the box, but outside of the heat exchanger, are used
as boundary conditions for the streamline calculation. After the inlet and exit
conditions are found, the momentum source terms can then be calculated and
applied to each cell in the heat exchanger.

Heat Exchanger Heat Rejection Model

Default Condition Using Velocity-Effectiveness Tables
For each cell in the heat exchanger, an effectiveness value is calculated using
the inlet air velocity and the coolant flow rate. The calculated effectiveness
value really applies for a full size heat exchanger operating at the cells conditions; the effectiveness for a cell size portion of this full size heat exchanger
would be larger, but, this difference is temporarily ignored, with the understanding that the total amount of heat being rejected by the heat exchanger
will equal the heat output defined in the run file.
The heat transfer for each cell in the heat exchanger is calculated by the equation
q i = m i c p i ( T hot T of fi T i )

(9-15)

where
i

cell effectiveness

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mi

air mass flow rate through the cell (convection)

cp

specific heat of air

T hot

coolant temperature entering the heat exchanger

T offi

coolant offset temperature difference from the inlet temperature,

T hot , ( T offi is set to zero in the default heat rejection model)

Ti

inlet air temperature entering the heat exchanger, found from the
streamline that passes through the cell.

The total heat transfer from the heat exchanger is calculated by summing the
heat transfer from all of the cells in the heat exchanger, as shown by
Q appli ed =

(9-16)

where
Q appli ed

total applied heat load

and i represents each cell in the heat exchanger. The total, Q appli ed , will not
normally be exactly equal to the user specified heat load, Q . To bring the two
values into closer agreement, the value of T hot is adjusted after each iteration
and the adjusted value is used in the next iteration. Thot is actually a fictitious
value which is used to balance some of the simplifying assumptions, and its
value is not reported to the user. The net effect of this process is to provide an
improved heat distribution function as compared the more simple, and less
physically based assumption of heat being distributed uniformly over the heat
exchanger face.
In the actual implementation of the above heat distribution concept in the
UH3D code, the process is slightly different than described in order to make
the equations more implicit, and thus improve numerical stability and convergence. At convergence, the processes are equivalent.

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Optional Condition Using Position-Based Effectiveness

And Temperature Offset Tables
The non-uniform radiator performance program, NURAD, and the non-uniform condenser performance program, NUCOND, are capable of making
detailed heat exchanger performance calculations and supplying cell effectiveness, i , and temperature offset values, T offi , which are a function of
absolute position on the heat exchanger face. The two programs require complete heat exchanger inlet air velocity and inlet air temperature distributions
which are not available until the UH3D calculations have been completed.
However, after a simulation has been run, NURAD and NUCOND can be
used to output position-based effectiveness and temperature offset tables
which can be used in a restart UH3D run. The restart run will generate a
UH3D solution with additional refinement of the effects of heat exchanger
heat rejection distribution.
The offset temperature, T offi , is the difference between the coolant temperature at the heat exchanger inlet and the coolant temperature at position i on
the heat exchanger face. Coolant temperature variation through the depth of
the core is assumed to be negligible.
The calculation process with position-based tables is identical for the default
velocity-based effectiveness tables, except that i and T offi are supplied from
a different algorithm.

Use Of Heat Exchangers As Flow Meters

It is possible to measure the quantity of flow through a specific region in the
domain by strategically locating a frictionless heat exchanger in the area of
interest. The desired flow is reported in the output tables of the .out file. To
create a flow meter type of heat exchanger, set up the heat exchanger as would
normally be done in the run file. Only three input variables need to be
changed for a frictionless component, and all three are located in the
$component_friction data block. The three variables are set as follows for a
frictionless heat exchanger (see CHAPTER 4 for the data block specifics):
<comp_tot_to_face_area>

1.0

<comp_min_to_face_area>

1.0

<comp_core_const>

0.0

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A zero resistance grille can also function as a flow meter, and a zero resistance grille offers more flexibility regarding the shape of the area which can
be covered, as compared to a heat exchanger.

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