Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CHAPTER 2
SEISMIC INTERPRETATIONS
2.1
INTRODUCTION
The first Chapter of this training material was on the topic of geology. In it we stressed the
importance of understanding geological principles because our end product - the seismic section - is
a representation in time of the geology.
This course would not be complete if we did not have a look at the interpretation of seismic data.
No matter what our particular job is in the industry, we should all have an understanding of the
problems forced by the interpreter, whose job it is ultimately to identify a feature that is a possible
drilling creation.
In this chapter, then, we will look first at the tools used by the interpreter, and then do a couple of
interpretation exercises on data from two completely different tectonic regimes. Hopefully these
exercises will bring the course to a satisfactory conclusion, and help you to understand how the
seismic tool images the geology.
2.2
2-1
Seismic Interpretations
The other parameter important to the geophysicist is formation density. Densities are measured
using a gamma-ray source and a detector shielded so that it records only back-scattered gamma
radiation from the formation (Figure 2.3). (The figure is that of a compensated detector; it employs
a second, short range detector, which responds more to the mudcake and small amplitude borehole irregularities; these reading are used to correct the readings from the main detector.) The
intensity of the back-scattered radiation depends upon the electron density of the formation, which
is roughly proportional to the bulk density. The form of presentation of the density log is shown in
Figure 2.4.
So we have two parameters measured within the well. What do we do with them?
Figure 2.1 THE SONIC TOOL
1
2-2
Seismic Interpretations
Figure 2.2 THE SONIC LOG
2-3
Seismic Interpretations
Figure 2.3 THE DENSITY TOOL
2-4
Seismic Interpretations
Figure 2.4 THE DENSITY LOG
2-5
Seismic Interpretations
2-6
Seismic Interpretations
2-7
Seismic Interpretations
2-8
Seismic Interpretations
Figure 2.8 VSP - PLOT
2-9
Seismic Interpretations
2.3
2.4
2.5
2-10
Seismic Interpretations
Receiver Problems
When dealing with mistying data sets, look at the header on the sections to see if the geophones
were of different type. If so, they may have different frequency responses and may contribute again
to a phase difference between the sections.
Recording Problems
Different recording systems will introduce different phase problems into the data.
Datum Elevations And Replacement Velocities
You will often find that different vintages of data have used different datum elevations and/or
different replacement velocities so immediately there will be a mistie.
Processing
If you examine the headers of the different vintages of data, you will undoubtedly find that different
processing streams have been used; different types of decons, and different filtering, have been
applied. This will again affect the phase of the data as well as the frequency content and hence the
data probably won't tie.
So - given all these factors that combine to make two data sets mistie, what do you do about it?
One solution (the one that keeps processing houses happy) is to take the complete data set - all
vintages - and reprocess the complete set with the same processing parameters. It may be
necessary to apply some kind of phase matching process as well. Even reprocessing all the data to
the same elevation, using the same decon and filters and phase matching may still leave you with a
residual mistie problem.
Here then we must consider that the end product wanted by the interpreter is a drilling location. A
location may be picked on the basis of structural mapping, with the faults in their correct map
position. If the misties are minor enough - or if, say, it is only one or two lines that mistie, then it
may be possible to apply a bulk shift to bring the mistying data into line. However a structure map
based on data with significant bulk shifts will always be suspect. The only real solution is to map
isochrons; even if two lines misty in time, the isochrons between reflectors should be the same. We
deal with isochron mapping later on in this Chapter.
2.6
2-11
Seismic Interpretations
producing a large reflection coefficient. This can give rise to a strong seismic reflector that in some
places can be followed for many kilometres.
The angular unconformity gives a distinctive seismic expression; underlying dipping reflectors can
be seen to truncate against the unconformity.
2.7
2.8
2.9
2-12
Seismic Interpretations
2-13
Seismic Interpretations
Figure 2.9 HORIZON FLATTENING - DIAGRAM
2-14
Seismic Interpretations
2.12 DEFINITIONS
Polarity
- The SEG standard for seismic data states that the onset of a compressional pulse
is represented by a negative number. Positive polarity for a seismic wavelet relates to an
increase in acoustic impedance, or a positive reflection coefficient. For a zero-phase
wavelet, a positive reflection coefficient is represented by a central peak,
normally plotted black.
Unconformity - A surface of erosion or non-deposition that separates younger strata from older
rock. Often forms a good seismic reflector and may be angular or not
Anisotropy
- Velocity parallel to the bedding plane different from the velocity perpendicular to
the bedding plane
Anomaly
Anticline
- A fold in strata in which the rocks dip in opposite directions away from the crest.
The layers are convex upward. Opposite of a syncline
Antithetic fault
- A secondary fault having a throw in the opposite direction to that of the
main (synthetic) fault with which it is associated
Bright spot
Diffraction
- The bending of wave energy around obstacles; the result is that wave energy
penetrates into areas forbidden by geometric optics
Flower structure
- Geological structure resulting from strike-slip movement associated with
convergence. Characterized by high angle reverse faults with antithetic faulting; the fault
pattern appears to "branch" vertically
Horizon
Interval transit time - Travel time of a wave over a unit distance. In well logging, measured in
microseconds per metre (or per foot)
Isochron
2-15
Seismic Interpretations
Isopach
Mis-tie
Monocline
- An area in which dip is everywhere the same direction, although not necessary
the same amplitude
Multiple
Paleo
- Referring to some past time. Thus a paleosurface is a surface that existed at some
time in the past. A paleosection is one in which the bedding is represented as it may have
looked at some time in the geological past
Pull-up
Rarefaction
Transducer
- A device which converts one form of energy to another
Well log (Borehole log) - A record of one or more physical parameters as a function of
depth in a well
2-16