Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Learning outcomes
The Aim You should be able to do the following;
(a) [PA] recognise phagocytes and lymphocytes under the light
microscope;
(b) state the origin and describe the mode of action of phagocytes;
(c) describe the modes of action of B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes;
(d) explain the meaning of the term immune response, making
reference to the terms antigen, self and non-self;
(e) explain the role of memory cells in long-term immunity;
(f) relate the molecular structure of antibodies to their functions;
(g) distinguish between active and passive, natural and artificial
immunity and explain how vaccination can control disease;
(h) discuss the reasons why vaccination has eradicated smallpox but
not measles, TB, malaria, sickle cell anaemia or cholera;
tears
antibacterial
enzymes
mucus linings
traps dirt and
microbes
good gut
bacteria out
compete bad
Mechanical factors
Skin
Epidermis
Mucous membrane
Body hairs
Chemical factors
Lysozyme in sweat, tears, saliva, and
tissue fluid
Low pH in gastric juice
Normal microorganism in the body
competes with pathogen for attachment
and nutrient
Composition of WBC
Neutrophils
70%
Eosinophils
1.5%
Basophils
0.5%
Monocytes
Lymphocytes
24
White blood cells are important in the bodys natural defenses against
pathogens. The following table identifies the major WBCs function and the
type of immune response:
Phagocytes
Phagocytes are produced throughout life
by the bone marrow.
They are stored in the bone marrow
before being distributed around the
body in the blood
They are also known as scavengers,
removing dead cells and invasive
microorganisms.
Phagocytes
Squeezing through the
capillaries to patrol tissues
(liver, spleen, lymph nodes)
NEUTROPHILS (Granulocytes)
The most common type of
Phagocyte it makes up 50 to
70% of the White Blood Cells in
the body. They then engulf and
destroy any pathogens they
encounter.
They move form blood vessels to
injured tissues due to chemotaxis
response to chemical signals
sent by damaged cells
Macrophages/Monocytes
Larger than neutrophils
Tend to be found in
organs (lungs, liver,
spleen, kidney and lymph
nodes) rather than be
found in the blood.
Leave the bone marrow
and travel in the blood
as monocytes
Crucial role in initiating
immune responses.
MONOCYTES (Agranulocytes)
Only constitute 5%
of the leukocytes,
but very effective
Long-lived, excellent
phagocytes
Some microbes can
evade them
They circulate in the
blood for some time,
then they migrate
into body tissues and
become
macrophages
MACROPHAGES (Agranulocytes)
Phagocytes - they
consume and destroy any
pathogens they encounter.
They also rid the body of
worn out cells and cellular
debris
They do not destroy the
pathogens completely, but
cut them up to display
antigens that can be
recognized by the
lymphocytes.
(i)
Phagocytes
- produced & stored in bone marrow before distributed in blood circulation
- feed like Amoeba on bacteria, viruses and dead body cells.
Neutrophils
70% of WBC in blood
travel throughout the body (blood)
Macrophages
Larger than neutrophils
found mostly in lung, brain, liver,
kidney, spleen, & lymph nodes
Stages of Inflammation
1. Vasodilation: Increase in diameter and
permeability of blood vessels.
Triggered by chemicals released by damaged
cells: histamine, kinins, prostaglandins, and
leukotrienes.
2. Phagocyte Migration and Margination:
Margination is the process in which phagocytes
stick to lining of blood vessels.
Extravasation (Emigration): Phagocytes
squeeze between endothelial cells of blood
vessels and enter surrounding tissue.
ANTIGENS
All cells possess antigens
in their cell surface
membranes which acts as
markers, enabling cells to
recognize each other.
The body can distinguish
between its own antigens
(self) and a foreign
antigen (non-self) and
usually make antibodies
against non-self antigens.
Microorganisms carry
antigens on their surface.
Antigens
An antigen is a molecule which can cause
antibody formation
Each antigen is recognized by a specific
antibody
All cells possess antigens in their cell
surface membranes
Usually proteins or glycoproteins
Differences
B cells
T cells
MHC class 2 (antigen presenting cell) ; MHC class 1 (all nucleated cells)
Clonal selection
T Helper
Killer T
In addition to helper & killer cells, memory T cells are produced which
remain in the body & become active quickly during secondary response
Memory cells
Remain circulating in the
body for a long time for
rapid response
If the same antigen is
reintroduced a few weeks
or months after the first
infection, memory cells will
divide rapidly and develop
into plasma cells and more
memory cells.
This allows rapid response
to future infection.
Primary response is
slow because at
this stage there are
very few B cells
that are specific to
the antigen
Secondary response
is faster because
there are many
memory cells which
quickly divide and
differentiate into
plasma cells
vaccination
or immunisation
Eradication of smallpox
Smallpox was caused by variola virus & transmitted
by directed contact
It is distinguished by red spots containing transparent
fluid appearing over the body & swollen eyelids
12-30 % of sufferers died while many who recovered
were often blinded.
Reasons for the success of the vaccine included:
- The variola virus did not mutate and change its antigens.
- It was made from a live harmless strain of a similar virus
- Infected people were easy to identify.
- Smallpox does not infect animals.
- It could be freeze-dried & kept for 6 months aiding distribution
Measles
Measles is caused by a virus by airborne droplets. It causes
rash & fever & fatal complications e.g. blindness & brain damage
However, measles is still a major disease in overcrowded cities, insanitary
conditions & places with high birth rate
This disease easily transmitted among malnourished
infants suffering Vit. A deficiency, thus have low resistance
This disease offers the promise of eradication if
worldwide surveillance was followed-up by vaccination.
However, so far it has failed because:
- poor response to the vaccine been shown by some children, who need nutrition.
- High birth rates and shifting populations make following-up cases difficult.
- Migrants and refugees may spread the disease.
- Measles is highly infectious & 95% immunity of a population is required to
prevent transmission.
- The vaccine only has a 95% success rate.
Poor response
- Some people do not respond at all, or not very well, to
vaccination
- This could be due to defective immune system & thus,
do not develop B & T cells OR suffer from malnutrition
& do not have protein to make antibodies
Antigenic variation
- Although each time you get a cold you have a similar
set of symptoms, each new cold is in fact caused by a
slightly different virus with slightly different antigens.
The virus that causes colds has > 113 different strains
due to high mutation rate