Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Characteristic or attribute
Can assume different values
CONTINUOUS
Infinitely many values
Real line
Examples: Height, Life span
QUALITATIVE VS.
QUANTITATIVE
QUALITATIVE
Categorical
Descriptive
QUANTITATIVE
Numerical
Represents amount or quantitiy
WHAT IS MEASUREMENT?
Process
Determine value or label of variable
Based on observations
WHY MEASURE?
Important
Determine appropriate tool
NOMINAL
ORDINAL
INTERVAL
RATIO
Classification + Ranking
Arrange categories according to magnitude
No exact measurement between two orders
Examples
Shirt sizes
Awards
Year level
Evaluation scores
Examine
Source
Availability
Scope
What is a survey?
Data collection method
Asking questions
Personal interviews
Telephone
Self-administered
Online surveys
Focus group discussion
PROS
Shares some advantage of
personal interview:
INTERVIEWER
Easier to supervise work of
interviewers
Cost- and time-efficient
CONS
Respondents that can be
reached are limited
Time for interview is limited
PROS
Cost-efficient
Convenient for respondents
Own time and pace
Freedom in expressing self
CONS
More prone to
misinterpretation of questions
More prone to vague
answers
Response rate is low
Delay in responses
May be
remedied
Basic steps
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Major approaches
Duration recording (how long
behavior lasts)
Frequency count recording (how often
behavior happens)
Latency recording (length of time
between stimulus and fist occurrence)
Interval recording (partition time;
number of intervals behavior occurs)
Time sampling (checks for behavior at
a specified time)
Two types
Participant
Non-participant
Sample
Subset of population of
interest
Should be representative
Homogenous population not
always a requirement
Range of data is important
Probability theory
Sample survey
Use depends on
Type of problem
Population of interest
Amount of resources
Sampling design
High precision, low cost
Select the design which meets
Budget
Time
Precision requirement
Population
Target population. The population
about which information is desired
Sampled or sampling population.
The population from which sample is
actually obtained.
More economical
Accomplished faster
Wider scope
More accurate
Most feasible method
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Each unit has a known,
nonzero probability of being
in the sample
Rules and procedures present
for sample selection and
estimation
Objective: make inferences
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Probabilities of selection are not
specified
Some elements may not have a
chance to be in the sample
No objective way of assessing
results obtained
Pros
Convenience
Economical
Easy
Cons
Error in sampling cant be measured
Sample may not be representative
Random sample
n observations
Each subset of n observations
of the population has the
same chance of being
selected
With replacement or
without replacement
Appropriate for
homogenous populations
Advantages
Theory involved is much
easier to understand
Estimation methods are
simple and easy
Disadvantages
Sample chosen may be
widely spread
Population list (frame) is
needed
May not be applicable for
heterogeneous populations
Population should be
divided or stratified into
homogenous groups
Select simple random
sample from each
subgroup
Strata
Related to topic being
studied
Different from each other,
homogeneous within
Advantages
May increase precision of
estimates
Comprehensive analysis
Convenient
Disadvantages
List for each stratum is
needed
Additional prior info is
needed
Population
Sub-populations
Advantages
Easy to draw sample
Possible to select sample
without frame
Sample is spread evenly
Likely to give more precise
estimates compared to SRS
Disadvantage
Sample may consist of only
similar types if there are
periodic regularities in the list
Advantages
Population list not needed
Only list of clusters needed
Reduced transportation cost
Disadvantages
Difficult estimation
procedures
Costs and problems or
statistical analyses are
greater
Sampling accomplished
on two or more steps
First stage primary units
second stage or
secondary units
Further steps may be
added
Advantages
Reduced listing cost
Reduced transportation
cost
Disadvantages
Estimation procedures are
difficult
Much planning is needed
Dependent on
Population
Nature
Size
Purpose of study
Textual
Tabular
Graphical
Political crises in the Middle East and in North Africa resulted in zero growth in Net
Primary Income (NPI). This zero growth, in turn, impeded the growth in gross national
income (GNI) from 11.5 percent the previous year to 3.6 percent this quarter.
In terms of seasonally adjusted data, GDP grew by 1.9 percent whereas GNI grew,
albeit at a slower pace, by 0.9 percent. Growth for the Agriculture, Hunting, Fishery, and
Forestry sector was recorded at 0.9 percent. This continued growth is attributed to the
rebound of production of palay, sugarcane, and corn. Meanwhile, the strong
performance of Manufacturing, Mining & Quarrying, and Construction neutralized the
contraction of Electricity, Gas, and Water Supply. As a result, the Industry sector grew
by 3.2 percent this quarter, from its 2.1 percent gain from the fourth quarter of 2010.
Services sector likewise perked up in the first quarter. The sector grew by 1.3 percent
after a 0.7 percent decline in the fourth quarter of 2010. All service subsectors posted
positive growth, apart from Public Administration and Defense.
As projected population reached 95.1 million, per capita GDP rose by 2.9 percent.
Per capita GNI and Household Final Consumption Expenditure also grew by 1.7 and 2.9
percent, respectively.
Leader Work
Simplest layout
No table title or column headings
Within text; support
Descriptive or introductory
statement is needed
Heading
Table number
Table title
Head note
Box Head
Spanner head
Column heading
panel
Text Tabulation
Has column headings and table
borders
Not table title and number
Introductory statement needed
Stub
Stub head
Center head
Row caption
Block
Field
Line
Column
Cell
Footnote
Source note
1
4
5
3
1 Heading
2 Stub
4 Boxhead
5 Field
3 Notes
Accurate
Clear
Simple
Professional
Well-designed
Types
Line chart
Vertical bar chart
Horizontal bar chart
Pictograph
Pie chart
Statistical map
Chart title
Coordinate axes
Point of origin
Scale divisions
Grid lines or coordinate lines
Scale figures
Scale labels or legends
Curves
Curve legends
Footnote
Source note
30.00
25.00
Exports
Imports
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
-
(5.00)
2010:1 2010:2 2010:3 2010:4 2011:1 2011:2 2011:3 2011:4 2012:1 2012:2
(10.00)
(15.00)
Source: NSCB
Note: Previous issues use data with 1985 as the base year; starting 2011, the NSCB uses 2000 as the new
base year.
Disadvantages
Inconvenient as data becomes voluminous
Does not picture clearly the distribution for large masses of data
Summarized table
Classes are distinct values or intervals with frequency counts
Two types
Single-value grouping. Frequency count of observed values where
classes are distinct values.
Grouping by class intervals. Frequency count of observed values where
classes are intervals.
16500
10850
11850
7500
13500
23500
16500
10500
11000
12500
4500
5250
16500
9950
13950
18950
24000
15000
10000
9900
Three ways
Frequency histogram
Shape of distribution
Class boundaries on the
horizontal axis, class
frequencies on the vertical
axis
Frequency polygon
Frequencies on the vertical,
class marks on horizontal
Closed shape
Ogives
For less than or greater than
cumulative frequencies
Less than ogive less than
CF
Greater than ogive
greater than CF
Given the following data for the price (in pesos) per gallon of a
sample of brands of sparkling mineral water sold in super
markets, construct a stem-and-leaf display
31
40
28
30
63
35
38
33
42
22
36
68
31
32
36
34
46
34
34
28