Grand Duchy of Lithuania

The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state

from the 13th century[1] until 1795.[2] The state was
founded by the Lithuanians, one of the polytheistic Baltic
tribes from Auktaitija.[3][4][5]

the neighbours, with a truncated state (principal cities being Krakw, Warsaw and Vilnius) remaining only nominally independent. After the Kociuszko Uprising, the
territory was partitioned among the Russian Empire, the
Kingdom of Prussia, and Austria in 1795.

The duchy later expanded to include large portions of the

former Kievan Rus and other Slavic lands, covering the
territory of present-day Belarus, Latvia, and Lithuania,
and parts of Estonia, Poland, Russia, and Ukraine. At its 1 Etymology
greatest extent in the 15th century, it was the largest state
in Europe.[6] It was a multi-ethnic and multi-confessional The Statutes of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania name
state with great diversity in languages, religion, and cul- the complete name of the state as Grand Duchy
tural heritage.
of Lithuania, Ruthenia and Samogitia (Ruthenian:
, ,
Consolidation of the Lithuanian lands began in the late [13][14]

).
The title of Grand Duchy was con12th century. Mindaugas, the rst ruler of the Grand
sistently
applied
to Lithuania from the 14th century
Duchy, was crowned as Catholic King of Lithuania in
[15]
onward.
1253. The pagan state was targeted in the religious crusade by the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian Order. In other languages, the Grand Duchy is referred to as:
The multi-ethnic and multi-confessional state emerged
only at the late reign of Gediminas[7] and continued to
Belarusian:
expand under his son Algirdas.[8] Algirdass successor
Jogaila signed the Union of Krewo in 1386, bringing
German: Grofrstentum Litauen
two major changes in the history of the Grand Duchy of
Estonian: Leedu Suurvrstiriik
Lithuania: conversion to Catholicism and establishment
of a dynastic union between the Grand Duchy of Lithua Latin: Magnus Ducatus Lituaniae
nia and the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland.[9]
Lithuanian: Lietuvos Didioji Kunigaiktyst
The reign of Vytautas the Great marked both the greatest territorial expansion of the Grand Duchy and the defeat of the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of Grunwald in
1410. It also marked the rise of the Lithuanian nobility.
After Vytautass death, Lithuanias relationship with the
Kingdom of Poland greatly deteriorated.[10] Lithuanian
noblemen, including the Radvila family (Radziwis), attempted to break the personal union with Poland.[11]
However, the unsuccessful MuscoviteLithuanian Wars
with the Grand Duchy of Moscow forced the union to
remain intact.

Old literary Lithuanian: Didi Kunigyst Lietuvos

Latvian: Lieitija or Lietuvas Lielkaziste
Polish: Wielkie Ksistwo Litewskie
Ruthenian:
Russian:
Ukrainian: i [14]

Eventually, the Union of Lublin of 1569 created a new

state, the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth. In this
federation, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania maintained
its political distinctiveness and had separate government,
laws, army, and treasury.[12] This federation was terminated by the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791,
and since then there was supposed to be but a single country Respublica Poloniae under one monarch and
one parliament. Shortly after, the unitary character of the
state was conrmed by adopting the Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations. The newly reformed Commonwealth
was invaded by Russia in 1792 and partitioned between

2 History
2.1 Establishment of the state
Main article: History of Lithuania (12191295)
The rst written reference to Lithuania is found in the
Quedlinburg Chronicle, which dates from 1009.[16] In
the 12th century, Slavic chronicles refer to Lithuania as
one of the areas attacked by the Rus. Pagan Lithuanians initially paid tribute to Polotsk, but they soon grew
in strength and organized their own small-scale raids. At
1

HISTORY

Navahrudak Castle

the Samogitians, led by Vykintas, defeated the Livonian

Order in the Battle of Saule. The Order was forced to become a branch of the Teutonic Knights in Prussia, making Samogitia, a strip of land that separated Livonia from
Prussia, the main target of both orders. The battle proBalts in the 12th century
vided a break in the wars with the Knights, and Lithuania exploited this situation, arranging attacks towards
the Ruthenian provinces and annexing Navahrudak and
some point between 1180 and 1183 the situation began Hrodna.[22] Belarusian historians consider that Minduto change, and the Lithuanians started to organize sus- gas was invited to rule Navahrudak and that the union
tainable military raids on the Slavic provinces, raiding was peaceful.[23][24]
the Principality of Polotsk as well as Pskov, and even
threatening Novgorod.[17] The sudden spark of military
raids marked consolidation of the Lithuanian lands in
Auktaitija.[1]
The Livonian Order and Teutonic Knights, crusading
military orders, were established in Riga in 1202 and
in Prussia in 1226. The Christian orders posed a signicant threat to pagan Baltic tribes and further galvanized the formation of the state. The peace treaty
with GaliciaVolhynia of 1219 provides evidence of cooperation between Lithuanians and Samogitians. This
treaty lists 21 Lithuanian dukes, including ve senior
Lithuanian dukes from Auktaitija (ivinbudas, Daujotas,
Vilikaila, Dausprungas and Mindaugas) and several dukes
from emaitija. Although they had battled in the past,
the Lithuanians and the emaiiai now faced a common
enemy.[18] Likely ivinbudas had the most authority[17]
and at least several dukes were from the same families.[19]
The formal acknowledgment of common interests and the
establishment of a hierarchy among the signatories of the
treaty foreshadowed the emergence of the state.

2.2

Kingdom of Lithuania

Main article: Kingdom of Lithuania

Mindaugas, duke[20] of southern Lithuania,[21] was
among the ve senior dukes mentioned in the treaty with
GaliciaVolhynia. The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle, reports that by the mid-1230s Mindaugas had acquired
supreme power in the whole of Lithuania.[22] In 1236,

Trakai Island Castle

In 1248 a civil war broke out between Mindaugas and

his nephews Tautvilas and Edivydas. The powerful coalition against Mindaugas included Vykintas, the Livonian
Order, Daniel of Galicia, and Vasilko of Volhynia. Mindaugas, taking advantage of internal conicts, allied with
the Livonian Order. He promised to convert to Christianity and gift some lands in western Lithuania in exchange for military assistance against his nephews and
the royal crown. In 1251 Mindaugas was baptized and
Pope Innocent IV issued a papal bull proclaiming the creation of the Kingdom of Lithuania. After the civil war
ended, Mindaugas was crowned as King of Lithuania on
July 6, 1253, starting a decade of relative peace. Mindaugas later renounced Christianity and converted back
to paganism. Mindaugas tried to expand his inuence
in Polatsk, a major center of commerce in the Daugava
River basin, and Pinsk.[22] The Teutonic Knights used this

2.4

Territorial expansion

period to strengthen their position in parts of Samogitia and Livonia, but they lost the Battle of Skuodas in
1259 and the Battle of Durbe in 1260, encouraging the
conquered Semigallians and Prussians to rebel against the
Knights.

the Yotvingians in 1283; the Livonian Order completed

its conquest of Semigalia, the last Baltic ally of Lithuania,
in 1291.[26] The Orders could now turn their full attention
to Lithuania. The buer zone composed of other Baltic
tribes had disappeared, and Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Encouraged by Treniota, Mindaugas broke the peace with was left to battle the Orders on its own.
the Order, possibly reverted to pagan beliefs, and allied The Gediminids dynasty ruled the Grand Duchy for
with Alexander Nevsky of Novgorod. He hoped to unite over a century, and Vytenis was the rst ruler from the
all Baltic tribes under the Lithuanian leadership. As mili- dynasty.[27] During his reign Lithuania engaged in contary campaigns were not successful, the relationships be- stant warfare with the Order, the Kingdom of Poland,
tween Mindaugas and Treniota deteriorated. Treniota to- and Ruthenia. Vytenis was involved in succession disgether with Daumantas assassinated Mindaugas and his putes in Poland, supporting Boleslaus II of Masovia, who
two sons, Ruklys and Rupeikis, in 1263,[25] and the state was married to a Lithuanian duchess, Gaudemunda. In
lapsed into years of internal ghts.
Ruthenia, Vytenis managed to recapture lands lost after
the assassination of Mindaugas and to capture the principalities of Pinsk and Tura. In the struggle against the
2.3 Rise of the Gediminids
Order, Vytenis allied with citizens of Riga; securing positions in Riga strengthened trade routes and provided
a base for further military campaigns. Around 1307,
Polotsk, an important trading center, was annexed by military force.[28] Vytenis also began the construction of a
defensive castle network along the Neman River. Gradually this network developed into the main defensive line
against the Teutonic Order.

2.4 Territorial expansion

The expansion of the state reached its height under Grand
Duke Gediminas, who created a strong central government and established an empire that later spread from the
Black Sea to the Baltic Sea. In 1320, most of the principalities of western Rus were either vassalized or annexed by Lithuania. In 1321 Gediminas captured Kiev,
sending Stanislav, the last Rurikid to rule Kiev, into exile. Gediminas also re-established the permanent capital of the Grand Duchy in Vilnius, presumably moving
it from Trakai in 1323; some researchers, such as Maciej
Stryjkowski,[29] claim that Navahrudak was the capital of
the 13th century state.

Gediminas Tower in Vilnius

From 1263 to 1269, Lithuania had three Grand Dukes

Treniota, Vaivilkas, and Svarn. The state did not
disintegrate, however, and Traidenis came to power in
1269. He strengthened Lithuanian control in Black
Ruthenia and fought with the Livonian Order, winning
the Battle of Karuse in 1270 and the Battle of Aizkraukle
in 1279. There is considerable uncertainty about the
identities of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania between his
death in 1282 and the assumption of power by Vytenis
in 1295. During this time the Orders nalized their conquests. In 1274 the Great Prussian Rebellion ended, and
the Teutonic Knights proceeded to conquer other Baltic
tribes: the Nadruvians and Skalvians in 12741277, and

The ruins of Kaunas Castle from the mid-14th century were restored in the late 20th century

Lithuania was in an ideal position to inherit the western

and the southern parts of Kievan Rus. While almost ev-

HISTORY

ery other state around it had been plundered or defeated

by the Mongols, the hordes stopped at the modern borders
of Belarus, and the core territory of the Grand Duchy was
left mostly untouched. The weak control of the Mongols
over the areas they had conquered allowed the expansion
of Lithuania to accelerate. Rus principalities were never
incorporated directly into the Golden Horde, maintaining
vassal relationships with a fair degree of independence.
Lithuania annexed some of these areas as vassals through
diplomacy, as they exchanged rule by the Mongols or the
Grand Prince of Moscow with rule by the Grand Duchy.
An example is Novgorod, which was often in the Lithuanian sphere of inuence and became an occasional dependency of the Grand Duchy.[30] Lithuanian control resulted from internal frictions within the city, which attempted to escape submission to Muscovy. Such relationships could be tenuous, however, as changes in a citys
internal politics could disrupt Lithuanian control, as happened on a number of occasions with Novgorod and other Poland and Lithuania 1386-1434
East-Slavic cities.
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania managed to hold o Mongol incursions and eventually secured gains. In 1333 and
1339, Lithuanians defeated large Mongol forces attempting to regain Smolensk from the Lithuanian sphere of
inuence. By about 1355, the State of Moldavia had
formed, and the Golden Horde did little to re-vassalize
the area. In 1362 regiments of the Grand Duchy army defeated the Golden Horde at the Battle at Blue Waters.[31]
In 1380 a Lithuanian army allied with Russian forces to
defeat the Golden Horde in the Battle of Kulikovo, and
though the rule of the Mongols did not end, their inuence in the region waned thereafter. In 1387, Moldavia
became a vassal of Poland and, in a broader sense, of
Lithuania. By this time, Lithuania had conquered the territory of the Golden Horde all the way to the Dnieper
River. In a crusade against the Golden Horde in 1398 (in
an alliance with Tokhtamysh), Lithuania invaded northern Crimea and won a decisive victory. In an attempt to
place Tokhtamish on the Golden Horde throne in 1399,
Lithuania moved against the Horde but were defeated in
the Battle of the Vorskla River, losing the steppe region.

2.5

a decisive Polish-Lithuanian victory against the Teutonic

Order. Vytautas backed economic development of the
state and introduced many reforms. Under his rule, the
Grand Duchy of Lithuania slowly became more centralized, as the governors loyal to Vytautas replaced local
princes with dynastic ties to the throne. The governors
were rich landowners who formed the basis for the nobility of the Grand Duchy. During Vytautas rule, the
Radziwi and Gotautas families started to gain inuence.

The Battle of Grunwald, 1410, with Ulrich von Jungingen and

Vytautas at center

Union with Poland

Lithuania was Christianized in 1387, led by Jogaila,

who personally translated Christian prayers into the
Lithuanian language.[32] The state reached a peak under
Vytautas the Great, who reigned from 1392 to 1430. Vytautas was one of the most famous rulers of the Grand
Duchy of Lithuania, serving as the Grand Duke from
14011430, and as the Prince of Hrodna (13701382)
and the Prince of Lutsk (13871389). Vytautas was the
son of Kstutis, cousin of Jogaila, who became King of
Poland in 1386, and he was the grandfather of Vasili II of
Moscow.

The rapid expansion of Muscovy inuence soon put it

into a position to rival the Grand Duchy of Lithuania,
and after the annexation of Novgorod in 1478, Muscovy
was among the preeminent states in Northeastern Europe.
Between 1492 and 1508, Ivan III further consolidated
Muscovy, winning the key Battle of Vedrosha and regaining such ancient lands of Kievan Rus as Chernigov and
Bryansk.

On 8 September 1514, the allied forces of the Grand

Duchy of Lithuania and Kingdom of Poland, under the
command of Hetman Konstanty Ostrogski, fought the
Battle of Orsha against the army of Grand Duchy of
In 1410 Vytautas commanded the forces of the Grand Moscow under Konyushy Ivan Chelyadnin and Kniaz
Duchy in the Battle of Grunwald. The battle ended in Mikhail Golitsin. The battle was part of a long series of

5
MuscoviteLithuanian Wars conducted by Russian rulers
striving to gather all the former lands of Kievan Rus
under their rule. According to Rerum Moscoviticarum
Commentarii by Sigismund von Herberstein, the primary
source for the information on the battle, the much smaller
army of PolandLithuania (under 30,000 men) defeated
the 80,000 Russian soldiers, capturing their camp and
commander. The Russians lost about 30,000 men, while
the losses of the PolandLithuania army totaled only 500.
While the battle is remembered as one of the greatest
Lithuanian victories, Muscovy ultimately prevailed in the
war. Under the 1522 peace treaty, the Grand Duchy of
Lithuania made large territorial concessions.

the French invasion of Russia, the lands of the former

Grand Duchy revolted against the Russians. Soon after
his arrival to Vilnius, Napoleon proclaimed the creation
of a Commissary Provisional Government of the Grand
Duchy of Lithuania, which in turn renewed the PolishLithuanian Union.[36] However, the union was never formalized, as only half a year later Napoleons Grande Arme was pushed out of Russia and forced to retreat further
westwards. In December 1812, Vilnius was recaptured
by Russian forces, bringing all plans of recreation of the
Grand Duchy to an end.[36]

3 Religion and culture

2.6

PolishLithuanian Commonwealth

Main article: PolishLithuanian Commonwealth

The loss of land to Moscow and the continued pres-

See also: Lithuanian mythology

After the baptism in 1252 and coronation of King

"Christianization of Lithuania in 1387, oil on canvas by Jan

Matejko, 1889, Royal Castle in Warsaw

The Grand Duchy of Lithuania within the Polish-Lithuanian

Commonwealth c.a. 1635

sure threatened the survival of the state of Lithuania,

so it was forced to ally more closely with Poland, uniting with its western neighbor as the PolishLithuanian
Commonwealth (Commonwealth of Two Nations) in the
Union of Lublin of 1569. During the period of the Union,
many of the territories formerly controlled by the largely
Ruthenized[33] Grand Duchy of Lithuania were transferred to the Crown of the Polish Kingdom, while the
gradual process of Polonization slowly drew Lithuania itself under Polish domination.[33][34][35] The Grand Duchy
retained many rights in the federation (including a sepa- St. Annes Church and the church of the Bernardine Monastery
rate government, treasury and army) until the May Con- in Vilnius
stitution of Poland was passed in 1791.
Mindaugas in 1253, Lithuania was recognized as a Christian state until 1260, when Mindaugas supported an up2.7 Partitions and the Napoleonic period rising in Courland and (according to the German order)
renounced Christianity. Up until 1387, Lithuanian nobles
Following the Partitions of the PolishLithuanian Com- professed their own religion, which was polytheistic. Ethmonwealth, most of the lands of the former Grand Duchy nic Lithuanians were very dedicated to their faith. The
were directly annexed by the Russian Empire rather than pagan beliefs needed to be deeply entrenched to survive
attached to the Kingdom of Poland, a rump state in per- strong pressure from missionaries and foreign powers.
sonal union with Russia. However, in 1812, soon before Until the seventeenth century there were relics of old faith

LANGUAGES

reported by counter-reformation active Jesuit priests, like

feeding altys with milk or bringing food to graves of ancestors.
The lands of modern-day Belarus and Ukraine, as well
as local dukes (princes) in these regions, were rmly
Orthodox Christian (Greek Catholic after the Union of
Brest), though. While pagan beliefs in Lithuania were
strong enough to survive centuries of pressure from military orders and missionaries, they did eventually succumb. In 1387, Lithuania converted to Catholicism,
while most of the Ruthenian lands stayed Orthodox. At
one point, though, Pope Alexander VI reprimanded the
Grand Duke for keeping non-Catholics as advisers.[37]
There was an eort to polarise Orthodox Christians after the Union of Brest in 1596, by which some Orthodox
Christians acknowledged papal authority and Catholic
catechism, but preserved their liturgy. The country also
became one of the major centers of the Reformation.
In the second half of the 17h century Calvinism spread
in Lithuania, supported by the families of Radziwi,
Chodkiewicz, Sapieha, Dorohostajski and others. By the
1580s the majority of the senators from Lithuania were
Calvinist or Socinian Unitarians (Jan Kiszka).
In 1579, Stefan Batory, King of Poland and Grand Duke
of Lithuania, founded Vilnius University, one of the oldest universities in Northern Europe. Due to the work of
the Jesuits during the Counter-Reformation the university
soon developed into one of the most important scientic
and cultural centers of the region and the most notable
scientic center of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[38] The
work of the Jesuits as well as conversions from among the
Lithuanian senatorial families turned the tide and by the
1670s Calvinism lost its former importance though it still
retained some inuence among the ethnically Lithuanian
peasants and some middle nobility, by then thoroughly
Polonized.

Languages

In the 13th century, the center of the Grand Duchy

of Lithuania, was inhabited by a majority which spoke
Lithuanian,[39] but it was not a written language until the
16th century.[40] In the other parts of the duchy, the majority of the population, including Ruthenian nobles and
ordinary people used both spoken and written Ruthenian
languages.[39] Nobles who migrated from one place to another would adapt to a new locality and adopt the local
religion and culture and those Lithuanian noble families
which moved to Slavic areas, often took up the local culture quickly over subsequent generations.[41] Ruthenians
were native to the east-central and south-eastern parts of
the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

The Constitution of May 3 was one of the rst ocial state documents, issued in both Polish and Lithuanian language. Lithuanian language edition of the Constitution.

From the time of Vytautas, there are fewer remaining

documents written in Ruthenian than there are in Latin
and German, but later Ruthenian became the main language of documentation and writings, especially in eastern and southern parts of the Duchy. In the 16th century
at the time of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Lithuanian lands became increasingly polonized over time and
started to use the Polish language instead of the Lithuanian and Ruthenian languages and Polish ocially became the chancellery language of the Lithuanian-Polish
Commonwealth in 1697.[41][42][43][44]

The voivodeships with the predominant ethnic Lithuanian

population, Vilnius, Trakai and Samogitian voivodeships,
remained almost wholly Lithuanian speaking, both colloquially and by ruling nobility. In the extreme southern parts of Trakai voivodeship, and south-eastern parts
of Vilnius voivodeship Ruthenian communities were also
present. In addition to Lithuanians and Ruthenians, other
important ethnic groups on throughout the Grand Duchy
of Lithuania were Jews and Tatars.[41] Vilnius city popThe Ruthenian language, also called Chancery Slavonic ulation and its surroundings were multi-ethnic, among
in its written form, was used to write laws alongside Pol- languages spoken here, there were Lithuanian, Polish,
ish, Latin and German, but use varied between regions. Belarusian, Yiddish, German also Tatar, Karaim etc.

4.2

4.1

Lithuanian language situation

Languages for state and academic pur- both Polish- and Lithuanian-speaking courts.[48]
poses
From the beginning of the 16th century, and especially
after a rebellion led by Michael Glinski in 1508, there
were attempts by the Court to replace the usage of Ruthenian with Latin.[49] But the Ruthenian tongue had deep
cultural roots. Its use by academics in areas formerly
part of Rus and even in Lithuania proper was widespread.
Court Chancellor of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania Lew
Sapieha, noted in the preface of the Third Statute of
Lithuania (1588) that this code was to be written exclusively in Ruthenian.
And clerk must use ruthenian letters and
ruthenian words in all pages, letters and requests, and not any other language or words...
-
,
,
..., The Statute of GPL
1588. Part 4, article 1[50]

Nonetheless, Mikalojus Dauka, writing in Polish, noted

in his Postilla (1599) that many people, especially
szlachta, preferred to speak Polish rather than Lithuanian,
but spoke Polish poorly. Such were the linguistic trends
in the Grand Duchy that by the political reforms of 1564
1566 parliaments local land courts, appellate courts and
other State functions were recorded in Polish.[49] and Polish became increasingly spoken across all social classes.

4.2 Lithuanian language situation

Tribunal of Grand Duchy of Lithuania, printed in Ruthenian

language, 1586

Numerous languages were used in state documents depending on which period in history and for what purpose. These languages included Lithuanian, Ruthenian
(East Slavonic; Old Belarusian or Old Ukrainian),[44][45]
Polish and, to a lesser extent (mostly in diplomatic communication), Latin and German.[40][41][43]
The Court used Ruthenian to correspond with Eastern
countries while Latin and German were used in foreign
aairs with Western countries.[44][46] During the latter
part of the history of the Grand Duchy, Polish was increasingly used in State documents, especially after the
Union of Lublin.[43] By 1697, Polish had largely replaced
Ruthenian as the ocial language at Court,[40][44][47]
although Ruthenian continued to used on a few ocial
documents until the second half of the 18th century.[42]
Usage of the Lithuanian language still continued at Court Area of the Lithuanian language in the 16th century
after the death of Vytautas and Jogaila while Grand
Duke Alexander I could understand and speak Lithua- Ruthenian and Polish languages were used as state lannian. The last Grand Duke, Zygmunt August, maintained guages of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, besides Latin

5 DEMOGRAPHICS

and German in diplomatic correspondence. Vilnius,

Trakai and Samogitia were the core voivodeships of the
state, being part of Lithuania Proper, as evidenced by the
privileged position of their governors in state authorities,
such as the Council of Lords. Peasants in ethnic Lithuanian territories spoke exclusively Lithuanian, except transitional border regions, but the Statutes of Lithuania and
other laws and documentation were written in Ruthenian.
Following the royal court, there was tendency to replace
Lithuanian with Polish in the ethnic Lithuanian areas,
whereas Ruthenian was stronger in ethnic Belarusian and
Ukrainian territories. There is Sigismund von Herberstein's note left, that there were in an ocean of Russian
language in this part of Europe two non Ruthenian regions: Lithuania and Samogitia.[49]
At one point in the history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the higher strata of Lithuanian society from ethnic
Lithuania spoke Lithuanian, although since the later 16-th
century gradually began using Polish, and from Belarus
Old Belarusian. Samogitia was exclusive through state in
its economical situation it lay near ports and there were
fewer people under corvee, instead of that, many simple
people were money payers. As a result, the stratication
of the society was not as sharp as in other areas. Being more similar to a simple population the local szlachta
spoke Lithuanian to a bigger extent than in the areas close
to the capital Vilnius, which itself had become a center
of intensive linguistic Polonization of surrounding areas
since the 18th century.
In Vilnius University there are preserved texts written
in the Lithuanian language of the Vilnius area, lying
south-eastwards from Vilnius, then called Lithuanian language, today called a dialect of Eastern Auktaitian.
The source are preserved in works of graduates from
Stanislovas Rapalionis Vilnius based Lithuanian language
school graduate Martynas Mavydas and Rapalionis relative Abraomas Kulvietis.

The Statute of Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1588) in Ruthenian

printed in Vilnius

One of the main sources of Lithuanian written and common language is Eastern Auktaitian dialect (Vilnius dialect), preserved in the Konstantinas Sirvydas in a trilingual (Polish-Latin-Lithuanian) 17th-century dictionary,
the main Lithuanian language dictionary used until the
late 19th century.

An estimate of the population in the territory of

Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania together gives
a population at 7.5 million for 1493, breaking them
down by ethnicity at 3.75 million Ruthenians (ethnic
Ukrainians, Belarusians), 3.25 million Poles and 0.5 million Lithuanians.[54] With the Union of Lublin, 1569,
Lithuanian Grand Duchy lost large part of lands to the
Polish Crown.

In the mid and late 17th century, due to Russian and

Swedish invasions, there was much devastation and
population loss on throughout the Grand Duchy of
Lithuania,[55] including ethnic Lithuanian population in
Vilnius surroundings. Besides devastation, Ruthenian
population declined proportionally after the territorial
losses to Russian Empire. By 1770 there were about 4.84
million inhabitants in the territory of 320 thousand km2 ,
the biggest part of whom were inhabitants of Ruthenia
and about 1.39 million or 29% of ethnic Lithuania.[51]
During the following decades, the population decreased
in a result of partitions.[51]

Demographics

See also: Demographics of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

In 1260 the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was the land
of Lithuania, and ethnic Lithuanians formed majority
(67.5%) of its 400,000 people.[51] With the acquisition of
new Ruthenian territories, in 1340 this portion decreased
to 30%[52] By the time of the largest expansion towards
Rus lands, which came at the end of the 13th and during the 14th century, the territory of the Grand Duchy

of Lithuania was 800 to 930 thousand km2 , just 10% to

14% of which was ethnically Lithuanian.[51][53]

9
day. While there were certainly substantial regional differences in Kievan Rus, it was the Lithuanian annexation
of much of southern and western Ruthenia that led to the
permanent division between Ukrainians, Belarusians, and
Russians. Some argue, that the ethnic and linguistic divisions amongst inhabitants of Ruthenia were not initiated
by division of this area between Mongols and Lithuania,
and are older than the creation of the Grand Duchy of
Lithuania. They state that until the twentieth century, ethnic and linguistic frontiers between Ukrainians, Belarusians, and Russians coincided with no political borders.
Notwithstanding the above, Lithuania was a kingdom under Mindaugas I, who was crowned by authority of Pope
Innocent IV in 1253. Gediminas and Vytautas the Great
also assumed the title of King, although uncrowned. A
failed attempt was made in 1918 to revive the Kingdom
under a German Prince, Wilhelm Karl, Duke of Urach,
who would have reigned as Mindaugas II of Lithuania.

7 Gallery
Lithuanian ancient hill fort in Rudamina
Lithuanian ancient hill fort mounds in Kernav, now
listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site
The rst printed book in Lithuanian The Simple Words of Catechism (by Martynas Mavydas) printed in Knigsberg (Prussia).
Dedicated to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Ruins of Navahrudak Castle. Current state (2004)

Mir Castle

Legacy

See also: Statutes of Lithuania.

Some Russian historians claim, one of the most crucial
eects of Lithuanian rule was ethnic divisions amongst
the inhabitants of former Kievan Rus. From this point
of view, the creation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
played a major role in the division of Eastern Slavs. After
the Mongolian conquest of Rus, Mongols attempted to
keep Eastern Slavs unied and succeeded in conquering
most of Ruthenian lands.

St. George church (1487) in Kaunas

Vilnius University and the Church of St. John

8 See also
Belarus
Cities of Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Crimea

Prussian tribes (of Baltic origin) were attacking Masovia,

and that was the reason Duke Konrad of Masovia invited the Teutonic Knights to settle near the Prussian area
of settlement. The ghting between Prussians and the
Teutonic Knights gave the more distant Lithuanian tribes
time to unite. Because of strong enemies in the south and
north, the newly formed Lithuanian state concentrated
most of its military and diplomatic eorts on expansion
eastward.

Duchy of Lithuania

The rest of former Ruthenian lands (Belarusian principalities) joined the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Some
other lands in Ukraine were vassalized by Lithuania later.
The subjugation of Eastern Slavs by two powers created
substantial dierences between them, that persist to this

Lithuania proper

History of Lithuania
List of Belarusian rulers
List of Lithuanian rulers
Lithuania

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Ukraine

10

Notes and references

[1] T. Baranauskas. Lietuvos valstybs itakos. Vilnius, 2000

[2] Suiedlis, Saulius. Historical dictionary of Lithuania
(2nd ed.). Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press. p. 119. ISBN
978-0-8108-4914-3.
[3] Rowell S.C. Lithuania Ascending: A pagan empire within
east-central Europe, 1295-1345. Cambridge, 1994.
p.289-290
[4] Ch. Allmand, The New Cambridge Medieval History.
Cambridge, 1998, p. 731.

NOTES AND REFERENCES

[20] By contemporary accounts, the Lithuanians called their

early rulers kunigas (kunigai in plural). The word was borrowed from the German language kuning, konig. Later
on kunigas was replaced by the word kunigaiktis, used to
describe to medieval Lithuanian rulers in modern Lithuanian, while kunigas today means priest.
[21] Z.Kiaupa, J. Kiaupien, A. Kuneviius. The History of
Lithuania Before 1795. Vilnius, 2000. p. 43-127
[22] V. Speinas. Lietuvos valdovai (XIII-XVIII a.): Enciklopedinis inynas. Vilnius, 2004. p. 15-78.
[23] .
.

[5] Encyclopdia Britannica. Grand Duchy of Lithuania

[6] R. Bideleux. A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and
Change. Routledge, 1998. p. 122
[7] Rowell, Lithuania Ascending, p.289.
[8] Z. Kiaupa. Algirdas ir LDK ryt politika. Gimtoji istorija 2: Nuo 7 iki 12 klass (Lietuvos istorijos vadovlis).
CD. (2003). Elektronins leidybos namai: Vilnius.
[9] N. Davies. Europe: A History. Oxford, 1996, p. 392.
[10] J. Kiaupien. Gediminaiiai ir Jogailaiiai prie Vytauto
palikimo. Gimtoji istorija 2: Nuo 7 iki 12 klass (Lietuvos istorijos vadovlis). CD. (2003) Elektronins leidybos
namai: Vilnius.
[11] J. Kiaupien, Valdios krizs pabaiga ir Kazimieras Jogailaitis. Gimtoji istorija 2: Nuo 7 iki 12 klass (Lietuvos
istorijos vadovlis). CD. (2003). Elektronins leidybos
namai: Vilnius.
[12] D. Stone. The Polish-Lithuanian state: 1386-1795. University of Washington Press, 2001, p. 63.
[13] Statute of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1529), Part.
1., Art. 1.: ,
, , ,
,
, :...; According to.: Pervyi ili Staryi Litovskii Statut // Vremennik
Obschestva istorii i drevnostei Rossiiskih. 1854. Book
18. p. 2-106. P. 2.
[14] Lithuanian-Ruthenian state at the Encyclopedia of
Ukraine
[15] E. Bojtr. Forward to the Past: A Cultural History of the
Baltic People. Central European University Press, 1999 p.
179
[16] Encarta.Lithuania.
Accessed September 21, 2006.
Archived 2009-10-31.
[17] Encyclopedia Lituanica. Boston, 1970-1978, Vol.5 p.395
[18] Lithuania Ascending p.50
[19] A. Bumblauskas, Senosios Lietuvos istorija, 10091795
[The early history of Lithuania], Vilnius, 2005, p. 33.

[24] , ..
.

[25] Senosios Lietuvos istorija p. 44-45

[26] Kiaupa, Zigmantas; Jrat Kiaupien; Albinas Kuneviius
(2000) [1995]. Establishment of the State. The History
of Lithuania Before 1795 (English ed.). Vilnius: Lithuanian Institute of History. pp. 4572. ISBN 9986-810-132.
[27] Lithuania Ascending p.55
[28] New Cambridge p.706
[29] Maciej Stryjkowski (1985). Kronika polska, litewska,
mdzka i wszystkij Rusi Macieja Stryjkowskiego. Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Artystyczne i Filmowe. p. 572.
[30] Glenn Hinson. The Church Triumphant: A History of
Christianity Up to 1300. 1995, p.438
[31] Battle at Blue Waters (Ukrainian Pravda)
[32] Jerzy Kloczowski, A History of Polish Christianity, Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 55.
[33] Within the [Lithuanian] Grand Duchy, the Ruthenian
lands initially retained considerable autonomy. The pagan
Lithuanians themselves were increasingly converting to
Orthodoxy and assimilating into Ruthenian culture. The
grand duchys administrative practices and legal system
drew heavily on Slavic customs, and Ruthenian became
the ocial state language. Direct Polish rule in Ukraine
since the 1340s and for two centuries thereafter was limited to Galicia. There, changes in such areas as administration, law, and land tenure proceeded more rapidly
than in Ukrainian territories under Lithuania. However,
Lithuania itself was soon drawn into the orbit of Poland.
from Ukraine. (2006). In Encyclopdia Britannica.
[34] Formally, Poland and Lithuania were to be distinct, equal
components of the federation,[...] But Poland, which retained possession of the Lithuanian lands it had seized,
had greater representation in the Diet and became the
dominant partner.
from Lublin, Union of (2006). In Encyclopdia Britannica

11

[35] While Poland and Lithuania would thereafter elect a joint

sovereign and have a common parliament, the basic dual
state structure was retained. Each continued to be administered separately and had its own law codes and armed
forces. The joint commonwealth, however, provided an
impetus for cultural Polonization of the Lithuanian nobility. By the end of the 17th century it had virtually become
indistinguishable from its Polish counterpart.
from Lithuania, history in Encyclopdia Britannica
[36] Marek Sobczyski. Procesy integracyjne i dezintegracyjne na ziemiach litewskich w toku dziejw (pdf)
(in Polish). Zakad Geograi Politycznej Uniwersytetu
dzkiego. Retrieved 2007-10-11.
[37] Ludwig von Pastor, The History of the Popes, from the
Close of the Middle Ages, Vol. 6, p. 146. Quote: "...he
wrote to the Grand Duke of Lithuania, admonishing him
to do everything in his power to persuade his consort
to 'abjure the Russian religion, and accept the Christian
Faith.'"
[38] Vilniaus Universitetas. History of Vilnius University. Retrieved on 2007.04.16
[39] Daniel. Z Stone, A History of East Central Europe, p.4
[40] Kevin O'Connor, Culture And Customs of the Baltic States,
Greenwood Press, 2006, ISBN 0-313-33125-1, Google
Print, p.115
[41] Stephen R. Burant and Voytek Zubek, Eastern Europes
Old Memories and New Realities: Resurrecting the Polishlithuanian Union, East European Politics and Societies
1993; 7; 370, online, p.4
[42] (Lithuanian) Lietuvos Didiosios kunigaiktysts
kanceliarins slav kalbos termino nusakymo problema
Z. Zinkeviius
[43] Daniel. Z Stone, A History of East Central Europe, p.46
[44] Bjorn Wiemer, Dialect and language contacts on the territory of the Grand Duchy from the 15th century until 1939, Kurt Braunmller, Gisella Ferraresi, Aspects of
multilingualism in European language history, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2003, ISBN 90-272-19222, Google Print, p.109-114
[45] Stone, Daniel. The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386-1795.
Seattle: University of Washington, 2001. p. 4.
[46] Kamuntaviius, Rustis. Development of Lithuanian State
and Society. Kaunas: Vytautas Magnus University, 2002.
p.21.
[47] Piotr Eberhardt, Jan Owsinski, Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-Century Central-Eastern Europe: History, Data, Analysis, M.E. Sharpe, 2003, ISBN
0-7656-0665-8, Google Print, p.177.
[48] Daniel. Z Stone, A History of East Central Europe, p.52
[49] (Lithuanian) Lietuvi kalba: poreikis ir vartojimo mastai
(XV a. antra pus - XVI a. antra pus); A. Dubonis
[50] [...] ,
[...]; Dubonis, A. Lietuvi kalba

[51] Letukien, Nijol; Gineika, Petras (2003). Istorija. Politologija: kurso santrauka istorijos egzaminui (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Alma littera. p. 182.. Statistical numbers, usually accepted in historiography (the sources, their
treatment, the method of measuring is not discussed in the
source), are given, according to which in 1260 there were
about 0.27 million Lithuanians out of a total population
of 0.4 million (or 67.5%). The size of the territory of
the Grand Duchy was about 200 thousand km2 . The following data on population is given in the sequence - year,
total population in millions, territory, Lithuanian (inhabitants of ethnic Lithuania) part of population in millions:
1340 - 0.7, 350 thousand km2 , 0.37; 1375 - 1.4, 700 thousand km2 , 0.42; 1430 - 2.5, 930 thousand km2 , 0.59 or
24%; 1490 - 3.8, 850 thousand km2 , 0.55 or 14% or 1/7;
1522 - 2.365, 485 thousand km2 , 0.7 or 30%; 1568 - 2.8,
570 thousand km2 , 0.825 million or 30%; 1572, 1.71,
320 thousand km2 , 0.85 million or 50%; 1770 - 4.84, 320
thousand km2 , 1.39 or 29%; 1791 - 2.5, 250 km2 , 1.4 or
56%; 1793 - 1.8, 132 km2 , 1.35 or 75%
[52] Letukien, N., Istorija, Politologija: Kurso santrauka istorijos egzaminui, 2003, p. 182; there were about 0.37
million Lithuanians of 0.7 million of a whole population
by 1340 in the territory of 350 thousand km2 and 0.42
million of 1.4 million by 1375 in the territory of 700 thousand km2 . Dierent numbers can also be found, for example: Kevin O'Connor, The History of the Baltic States,
Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003, ISBN 0-313-323550, Google Print, p.17. Here the author estimates that there
were 9 million inhabitants in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and 1 million of them were ethnic Lithuanians by
1387.
[53] Bjorn Wiemer, Dialect and language contacts on the territory of the Grand Duchy from the 15th century until 1939, Kurt Braunmller, Gisella Ferraresi, Aspects of
multilingualism in European language history, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2003, ISBN 90-272-19222, Google Print, p.109; 125
[54] Based on 1493 population map (p.92) from Iwo Cyprian
Pogonowski, Poland a Historical Atlas, Hippocrene
Books, 1987, ISBN 0-88029-394-2
[55] Jarmo Kotilaine, Russias foreign trade and economic expansion in the seventeenth century: windows on the world,
BRILL, 2005, ISBN 90-04-13896-X, Google Print, p.45

1. S. C. Rowell. Chartularium Lithuaniae res gestas

magni ducis Gedeminne illustrans. Gedimino laikai.
Vilnius, 2003.
2. Norman Davies. Gods Playground. Columbia University Press; 2nd edition (2002), ISBN 0-23112817-7.
3. : .
: , 20052010. . 13.
4. : . 2 . / .. ,
.. , .. .; . ..
, .. . : . .,
2003. . 1.
1917 . 416 .

12

10

5. : 6 . / . [ .];
: . (. .) [ .].
: , 20002012. . 2.
.
: , 2008. 688 .
6. , ..
/ .. . Rzeszw, 2000.
238 . ISBN 985-08-0249-9
7. i, ..
: . : ,
1993. 160 .

10

External links

History of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

Cheryl Renshaw. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania
1253-1795
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Administrative map
Lithuanian-Ruthenian state at the Encyclopedia of
Ukraine

EXTERNAL LINKS

13

11
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