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7
METHODS STUDY FOR MANUFACTURING
SYSTEMS
7.1
INTRODUCTION
Modern industry is constantly searching for better methods. When a
business ceases to move forward it will lose ground and may eventually
fail. It is for this reason that major companies are now organizing
industrial engineering groups, work simplification, value analysis,
suggestion systems, and other methods for analysis of present and
proposed work systems to develop an optimal transformation of input to
output.
7.2
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Methods design and work measurement actually grew out of the
pioneering developments of the Gilbreths (Frank B, and his wife Lillian
M) and Taylor in the late 19th and early 20th century.
Gilbreths developed many of the tools of motion study as a part of
formulating a systematic approach to the analysis of work methods.
Gilbreth has originally introduced his ideas and philosophies into brick
laylers trade where he was employed. After introducing methods
improvements through motion study and operator training, he was able to
increase the average number of bricks laid to 350 per man per hour. Prior
to Gilbreths studies, 120 bricks per man per hour was considered as a
satisfactory rate of performance. Gilbreth eventually became so engrossed
in motion study that he gave up his job in order to concentrate his full
attention on the development of motion study along with his wife Lillian
Gilbreth, who was a psychologist, and they developed many of the
analysis technique in common use to-day.
7.3
FIELD OF APPLICATION
The application of methods design may be utilized to find a preferred way
of doing the work and assist in effectively managing or controlling the
activity. It fits equally well when applied to heavy or light factory, office,
production, maintenance, staff or supervisory work. It is equally
applicable to farm work, housework, cafeteria work, department store or
hotel work, the whole range of government activities, or any other human
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activity since requisite human efforts are in all cases composed of the
same basic acts, and the information relating to the economical use of
human effort is universally applicable.
Method study has its application also in the decision making process
in the cycle of managerial control. For instance the problems of designing
or selecting the tools, equipment, workplaces, and methods may be solved
by various methods design techniques.
7.4
METHODS ANALYSIS PHILOSOPHY
Methods analysis, or methods function, has evolved, as already said, from
the initial efforts of people such as Fredrick W Taylor and Frank Gilbreth.
Today the problem solving approaches, techniques and efforts are being
applied to all functions of the enterprises because the products become
more complex and higher order of mechanization and increased in output
became the pre-requisite for the survival of the companies. The basic
philosophies of methods analysis are the following:
1. Increased productivity and developing man power, facilities and
effectiveness are the objectives for studying systems.
2. Methods analysis is concerned with all phases of system design,
development, installation, operation, control and maintenance.
3. The design and planning of systems should consider alternatives from
models of automation to integrated man-machine systems.
4. All aspects of the system under study regardless of the extent of scope
should be considered in methods analysis.
5. The design or analysis of systems is enhanced through recognition of
people and their abilities and talents as an integral part of the process.
.
Methods design is the systematic study of existing as well as proposed
methods of performing a job with purpose of :
1. developing and applying an easier and effective method called a
preferred method usually the one with lowest cost; and
2. standardizing this method.
Methods design consists of a wide variety of procedures for the
description, systematic analysis and improvement of work methods,
considering:
1. The design of the outputs.
2. The process or method of work.
3. The raw materials.
4. The tools, equipment and work place for each step in the process and
5. The human activity used to perform each step.
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
110
111
7.6
METHODS IMPROVEMENT : QUESTIONING TECHNIQUE
One of the best ways to approach the problem of methods improvement is
to question everything about the job the way the job is being done now,
the materials that are being used, the tools and equipments, the working
condition and the design of the product itself.
The questioning technique consists of two sets of detailed questions:
the primary questions to indicate the facts and the reasons underlying
them, and the secondary questions to indicate the alternatives as a means
of improvement upon the existing method.
Primary questions : The following are the primary questions
under their respective headings:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Purpose.
Place.
Sequence.
Person.
Means.
What is achieved?
Where is it done?
When is it done?
Who does it?
How is it done?
Why is it necessary?
Why there?
Why then?
Why that person?
Why that way?
The primary questions clearly indicate any part of the work which is
unnecessary or inefficient in respect of place, sequence, person or means.
Secondary questions. The following are the secondary questions
under their respective heading. These secondary questions are asked only
when the answers to the primary questions are subjected to further query
to establish alternatives to existing or previously proposed methods.
1.
2.
done?
3.
4.
5.
Purpose.
Place.
: Purpose
: Place and sequence
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4.
2.
3.
7.7.1
Process Chart Symbols
The symbols used for recording the nature of activities are:
Operation : Indicates the main steps (operations) in a process,
method or procedure.
Transport : Indicates the movement of workers, material or
equipment from place to place.
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Storage :
Indicates a controlled storage in which the material is
held, kept or retained for reference purpose.
Temporary storage or delay : D
operation.
7.8.1
Outline Process Chart
The outline process chart or the operation process chart, as it is
sometimes called, shows the chronological sequence of all operations,
inspections, time allowances and materials to the packaging of the finished
product.
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The chart does not show where work takes place or who performs it,
and because it is concerned only with operations and inspections, only the
symbols for operation and inspection are necessary.
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outline process chart effectively states the problem and indicates the areas
which require improvement. A typical outline process chart is shown in
Fig. 7.1.
7.8.2
Flow Process Chart
The flow process chart is an amplification of the outline process chart, in
that it shows transports, delays and storage as well as operations and
Figure 7.2
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117
118
Figure 7.4
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working time and idle time. Fig. 7.5 shows a typical multiple activity
chart.
7.8.6
Man and Machine Chart.
The man and machine chart is a common form of multiple activity chart
where man and
machine
relationship
is
shown. The man
and
machine
work
intermittently on
some types of
work. That is , the
machine is idle
while the worker
loads
it
or
removed
the
finished
work
from the machine.
Again, the worker
is idle when the
machine is in
operation. It is
desirable
to
eliminate the idle
time
of
the
worker and at the
same time to see
Figure 7.5 Multiple activity chart
that the machine
be kept operating
as near capacity
as possible without remaining idle at any time during the working hours.
The first step in eliminating unnecessary waiting time for the worker
and for the machine is to record exactly what each works and what each
does. Many operations consists of three main stages:
1. Make ready required to prepare the material or workpiece and set it, in
position ready to be worked on the machine.
2. Do operation (doing the work) in which the change is made in the
shape such as turning, and
3. Put away or clear up, such as removing the finished piece from the
machine.
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7.10
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Most work is done with the two hands and all manual work consists of a
relatively few fundamental motions that are performed repeatedly. Frank
B. Gilbreth, the founder of motion study, developed 17 elementary
subdivisions of a cycle of motion which he called therblig (Gilbreth
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spelled backwards) and concluded that any and all operations are made up
of a series of these 17 basic divisions. Therbligs comprise a system for
analyzing the motions involved in performing a task. The identification of
individual motions, as well as moments of delay in the process, was
designed to find unnecessary or inefficient motions and to utilize or
eliminate even split-seconds of wasted time. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth
invented and refined this system, roughly between 1908 and 1924.
The 17 fundamental motion or hand motions as they are sometimes
called, modified somewhat from Gilbreths summary and their symbols
and colour designations are shown in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1 Therblig-symbol and colour
THERBLIG Name
Symbol
Search
Select
S
SE
Colour
Designation
Black
Gray, Light
Grasp
Lake red
Reach
Move
Hold
RE
M
H
Olive green
Green
Gold ocher
Release
Position
RL
P
Carmine red
Blue
Preposition
PP
Sky Blue
Inspect
Assemble
Disassemble
Use
I
A
DA
U
Burnt Ocher
Violet, Heavy
Violet Light
Purple
Unavoidable delay
UD
Purple
Avoidable delay
Plan
Rest to over come
fatigue
AD
PL
R
Lemon Yellow
Brown
Orange
Symbol
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
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SEARCH. The Search motion starts when the eyes and/or hand start
to seek the object needed and ends just as the object is located. The
Gilbreths stated that in a search, "....the time and attention
required...varies with the number of dimensions in which the search
is performed." A one-dimensional search might be locating a piece of
paper on a desktop. A two dimensional search might be finding a
light switch on a wall and the three dimensional search would be
locating a hanging pull-chain for a light or fan. The Gilbreths also
recognized that contrasting colors, shapes or embossed symbols
could reduce the search function. This science has been expanded by
the modern study of Human Factors Engineering. However, the
classic example of the Gilbreths reducing Search was by arranging
tools and parts in a physical sequence of use through the Packet
Principle.
Example : Trying to find or pick a part from a pile. The original list
of Gilbreth motions contained the therblig find. Since it is a mental
reaction rather than a physical movement, it is seldom used in micro
motion analysis work.
SELECT. It occurs when one object is being picked from among
several.
Example : Locating a particular bolt from among several.
GRASP. It consists of taking hold on an object.
Example : Closing the fingers around a pencil.
HOLD. It refers to the retention of an object in a fixed location.
Example: Retaining a fountain pen barrel in one hand while
assembling the cap to it with the other.
TRANSPORT LOADED. It refers to moving an object from one place
to another.
Example : Carrying a desk pen from the holder to the paper.
POSITION. It consists of aligning or orienting an object preparatory
to fitting it into some location.
Example : Aligning a plug preparatory to inserting it into an electrical
outlet.
ASSEMBLE. It consists of combining one object with another.
Example : Assembling a nut on a bolt.
USE. It consists of causing a device for the purpose for which it is
intended.
Example : Tightening a bolt with a slide wrench.
DISASSEMBLE. It consists of separating two objects which were
combined.
Example : Removing a nut from a bolt.
INSPECT. It refers to examination of an object to determine some
quality such as size, shape or colour.
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A. Effective.
1. Physical basic divisions.
1
B.
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(a) Reach
(b) Move
(c) Grasp
(d) Release
(e) Pre-position
2. Objective basic division
(a) Use
(b) Assemble
(c) Disassemble
Ineffective.
1. Mental or semi mental basic divisions
(a) Search
(b) Select
(c) Position
(d) Inspect
(e) Plan
2. Delay
(a) Unavoidable delay
(b) Avoidable delay
(c) Rest to overcome fatigue
(d) Hold
7.11
PRINCIPLES OF MOTION ECONOMY
Through the pioneering work of Gilbreth and other investigators, notably
Ralph M. Barnes, certain rules for motion economy have been
developed. These principles apply to visual motion study as well as
to the micromotion study and broken into three basic sub divisions:
(A) The use of the human body,
(B) The arrangement and conditions of the workplace, and
(C) The design of the tools and equipment.
The inefficiencies in the methods may be detected by careful
observation of the workplace and the operations. These basic principles
under their respective divisions are as follows2 :
A.
Barnes R.M., Motion and Time Study, Wiley & Sons, New York
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2.
3.
4.
5.
Finger motions
Finger and wrist motion
Finger, wrist, and lower arm motions.
Finger, wrist, lower arm, and upper arm motions.
Finger, wrist, lower arm, upper arm, body motions.
6.
4.
5.
6.
7.
C.
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3.
4.
7.12
MICROMOTION STUDY
The micromotion study is used to make a detailed motion study employing
either videotapes or motion pictures operating at a constant and known
speed. Here each space occupied by a single picture, known as a frame, is
projected and studied independently, and then collectively with successive
frames :
Micromotion study may now be used for the following purposes :
1.
2.
3.
4.
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129
130
131
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path of flow. The essential difference between the flow diagram and flow
process chart
lies in the fact
that
the
distance moved
in between the
operations can
be
measured
and direction
ascertained
easily in a flow
diagram.
A
typical example
of
flow
it
illustrated
in
fig. 7.8 .
7.15.2 String
Diagrams
The
string
diagram is a
special form of
flow diagram in
which a string
or thread is
used in place
Figure 7.8 Flow diagram
lines
to
measure
distance. Like the flow diagram, it is most often used to supplement a flow
process chart the two together giving the clearest picture of what is
actually being done.
Most string diagrams consist of a scale plan mounted on a soft board,
with pins stuck in the relevant work stations. The path of movement of
workers, materials or equipment during a specified sequence of events is
represented by continuous coloured thread stretched between the pins.
Other pins guide the thread over the path it has to take. Threads of
different colours can represent the various factors of production being
moved.
7.15.3 Cyclegraphs
A Cyclegraph is a record of path of movement, usually traced by a
continuous source of light on a photograph. It is produced by attaching a
small pea bulb to the workers wrists or whatever member it is desired to
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observe and making a time exposure on a small lens stop while a single
cycle or portion of a cycle is performed. The camera shutter is then closed
after which a normal instantaneous exposure is made on the same film.
The technique was originated by Gilbreth to enable comparatively
short-motion pattern or movements (that is too fast for the eye to follow)
to be recorded on a photograph of the workplace itself.
One of the defects of the cyclegraph is that it does not indicate speed
or direction of movements. To remedy, Gilbreth arranged to flash at a
convenient rate per second by a flash bulb instead of a pea bulb.
7.15.4 Chronocyclegraphs
The chronocyclegraph is a special form of cyclegraph in which the light
source is suitably interrupted so that the path appears as a series of pearshaped dots. The pointed end of the dots indicates the direction of
movement and space between them indicates the speed of movement. This
is achieved in the following way :
1. The interruption of the light source is arranged to take place at
carefully controlled regular intervals, usually 10,20, or 30 times per
second.
2. The method of interruption is such that when the light is being
recorded on the film, the movement of the subject results in a pearshaped dot being produced, distinctly tapering off at one end.
When the frequency of the interruptions is known, the speed and
direction of movement at any point along the path can be easily calculated
from the number and shape of dots recorded.
In comparison with other techniques or methods outlined in this
chapter, the cyclegraph and chronocylegraph are of limited applications,
but there are occasions on which photographic traces of this sort can be
useful.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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8.
9.
State and explain principles of motion economy as related to the use of the
human body. How these are used in job design.
(a) What sort of analytical tool might be used to show working relationship
between a worker and machine he is using. What information is necessary for
the development of such a tool ? (b) Under what conditions would micro
motion analysis be justified?.