Chapter 6 - Plantae

8/4/2015
CHAPTER 6
Reproduction
Protists can reproduce asexually or sexually, or by
the sexual processes of meiosis and syngamy
Plantae
Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences
PROTISTS
Reproduction
Protists are eukaryotes and thus have organelles

and are more complex than prokaryotes.
Most protists are unicellular, but there are some
colonial and multicellular species
Protists can reproduce asexually or sexually, or by

the sexual processes of meiosis and syngamy
Nutrition
Protozoans
Protists, the most nutritionally diverse of all

eukaryotes, include:
Protozoans include
Photoautotrophs, which contain chloroplasts

Heterotrophs, which absorb organic molecules or
ingest larger food particles
Mixotrophs, which combine photosynthesis and
heterotrophic nutrition
Flagellates, with flagella

Amoebas, with pseudopodia
Forams
Apicomplexans
Ciliates, with cilia
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Trypanosomes (flagellates)
An apicomplexan: Plasmodium
An amoeba ingesting food
Paramecium
A foram
Slime Molds
Slime molds
Resemble fungi in appearance and lifestyle
8/4/2015
4 cm
Plasmodial slime molds

can be large
are brightly pigmented, usually yellow or orange
FERTILIZATION
Feeding
plasmodium
Zygote
(2n)
Mature
plasmodium
(preparing to fruit)
Flagellated
cells
(n)
Young
sporangium
Amoeboid cells
(n)
Mature
sporangium
Germinating
spore
Spores
(n)
MEIOSIS
1 mm
Stalk
Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
4 cm
Cellular slime molds

Cellular slime molds form multicellular
aggregates in which cells are separated by their
membranes
Cells feed individually, but can aggregate to form
a fruiting body
Dictyostelium discoideum is an experimental
model for studying the evolution of
multicellularity
Feeding
plasmodium
Mature
plasmodium
Young
sporangium
Mature
sporangium
1 mm
Stalk
Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
4 cm
Spores
(n)
Emerging
amoeba
(n)
Feeding
plasmodium
Flagellated
cells
(n)
Solitary amoebas
(feeding stage)
(n)
600 m
Mature
plasmodium
Fruiting
bodies
(n)
Young
sporangium
Amoeboid cells
(n)
ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
Aggregated
amoebas
Mature
sporangium
Germinating
spore
Migrating
aggregate
Spores
(n)
MEIOSIS
1 mm
Stalk
Key
Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
200 m
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Spores
(n)
FERTILIZATION
Dinoflagellates
Emerging
amoeba
(n)
Zygote
(2n)
SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
Solitary amoebas
(feeding stage)
(n)
600 m
Fruiting
bodies
(n)
MEIOSIS
ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
Amoebas
(n)
Aggregated
amoebas
Dinoflagellates are a diverse group of aquatic

mixotrophs and heterotrophs
They are abundant components of both marine
and freshwater phytoplankton.
Dinoflagellate blooms are the cause of toxic red
tides
Migrating
aggregate
Key
200 m
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Unicellular Algae
Pfiesteria shumwayae, a dinoflagellate
Algae
Are photosynthetic protists
Flagella
3 m
Are found in plankton
Unicellular algae
include
Dinoflagellates, components of phytoplankton
Diatoms, which have glassy walls
Green algae, unicellular and colonial
Red tides
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Diatoms
Diatoms are unicellular algae with a unique twopart, glass-like wall of hydrated silica
Diatoms usually reproduce asexually, and
occasionally sexually
50 m
3 m
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Green Algae
Seaweeds
Green algae are named for their grass-green

chloroplasts
Plants are descended from the green algae
Green algae include unicellular, colonial, and
multicellular forms
Seaweeds
Chlamidomonas
Are large, multicellular marine algae

Grow on rocky shores and just offshore
Are often edible
Seaweeds
The three major groups of seaweeds
Brown algae
Red algae
Green algae
Volvox
Brown Algae
Brown algae are the largest and most complex
algae
All are multicellular, and most are marine
Brown algae have the most complex multicellular
anatomy of all algae
8/4/2015
Blade
Stipe
Holdfast
Fucus
Bui Tan sp
Anh College of Natural Sciences
Red Algae
Red algae are reddish in color due to an
accessory pigment call phycoerythrin, which
masks the green of chlorophyll
The color varies from greenish-red in shallow
water to dark red or almost black in deep water
Red algae are usually multicellular; the largest are
seaweeds
Red algae are the most abundant large algae in
coastal waters of the tropics
Sargassum
Bui Tan Anh Collegefluitans
of Natural Sciences
Laminaria digitata
Bonnemaisonia
hamifera
8 mm
8/4/2015
Nori. The red alga Porphyra is the

source of a traditional Japanese food.
20 cm
The seaweed is
grown on nets in
shallow coastal
waters.
The harvested
seaweed is spread
on bamboo screens
to dry.
Paper-thin, glossy sheets of nori

make a mineral-rich wrap for rice,
seafood, and vegetables in sushi.
Palmaria palmata
Green algae
Ulva
(sea lettuce)
Antithamnion plumula
Gracilaria coronopifolia
2 cm
Caulerpa, an intertidal chlorophyte

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Gametophyte
(n)
Derived Traits of Plants

Mitosis
Four key traits appear in nearly all land plants:

Alternation of generations (with multicellular,
dependent embryos)
Walled spores produced in sporangia
Multicellular gametangia
Apical meristems
n
n
Spore
Gamete from
another plant
Mitosis
n
n
Gamete
MEIOSIS
FERTILIZATION
Zygote
2n
Mitosis
Sporophyte
(2n)
Alternation of generations
Walled Spores Produced in Sporangia

Additional derived traits such as a cuticle and
secondary compounds evolved in many plant
species
Symbiotic associations between fungi and the
first land plants may have helped plants
without true roots to obtain nutrients
The sporophyte produces spores in organs

called sporangia
Diploid cells called sporocytes undergo
meiosis to generate haploid spores
Spore walls contain sporopollenin, which
makes them resistant to harsh environments
Alternation of Generations
Plants alternate between two multicellular
stages, a reproductive cycle called alternation
of generations
The gametophyte is haploid and produces
haploid gametes by mitosis
Fusion of the gametes gives rise to the diploid
sporophyte, which produces haploid spores
by meiosis
Spores
Sporangium
Longitudinal section of
Sphagnum sporangium (LM)
Sporophyte
Gametophyte
Sporophytes and sporangia of Sphagnum (a moss)

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Multicellular Gametangia
Gametes are produced within organs called
gametangia
Female gametangia, called archegonia, produce
eggs and are the site of fertilization
Male gametangia, called antheridia, are the site
of sperm production and release
Apical
meristem
of shoot
Shoot
Developing
leaves
100 m
Apical meristems
Apical meristem
of root
Root
100 m
Female gametophyte
Archegonium
with egg
Antheridium
with sperm
The Origin and Diversification of Plants

Fossil evidence indicates that plants were on
land at least 475 million years ago
Fossilized spores and tissues have been
extracted from 475-million-year-old rocks
Male
gametophyte
Archegonia and antheridia of Marchantia (a liverwort)
(a) Fossilized spores
Apical Meristems
Plants sustain continual growth in their apical
meristems
Cells from the apical meristems differentiate
into various tissues
(b) Fossilized
sporophyte tissue
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Those ancestral species gave rise to a vast

diversity of modern plants
Land plants can be informally grouped based
on the presence or absence of vascular tissue
Most plants have vascular tissue; these
constitute the vascular plants
Nonvascular plants are commonly called
bryophytes
1 Origin of land plants (about 475 mya)
Seedless vascular plants can be divided into

clades
3 Origin of extant seed plants (about 305 mya)
Hornworts
Mosses
Pterophytes (ferns,
horsetails, whisk ferns)
Angiosperms
450
400
350
300
Millions of years ago (mya)
50
Seed plants
Gymnosperms
3
Vascular plants
Seedless
vascular
plants
Lycophytes (club mosses,

spike mosses, quillworts)
500
Land plants
Liverworts
ANCESTRAL
GREEN
ALGA
Nonvascular
plants
(bryophytes)
Lycophytes (club mosses and their relatives)

Pterophytes (ferns and their relatives)
2 Origin of vascular plants (about 420 mya)
Bryophytes
A seed is an embryo and nutrients surrounded
by a protective coat
Seed plants form a clade and can be divided
into further clades:
Gymnosperms, the naked seed plants, including
the conifers
Angiosperms, the flowering plants
Bryophytes are represented today by three phyla

of small herbaceous (nonwoody) plants:
Liverworts, phylum Hepatophyta
Hornworts, phylum Anthocerophyta
Mosses, phylum Bryophyta
Mosses are most closely related to vascular

plants
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8/4/2015
Raindrop
Bryophyte Gametophytes
Sperm
In all three bryophyte phyla, gametophytes are

larger and longer-living than sporophytes
Sporophytes are typically present only part of
the time
Bud
Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Protonemata
(n)
Antheridia
Male
gametophyte
(n)
Bud
Egg
Gametophore
Spores
Female Archegonia
gametophyte (n)
Spore
dispersal
Rhizoid
Peristome
FERTILIZATION
Sporangium
MEIOSIS
Mature
sporophytes
Seta
Capsule
(sporangium)
Foot
(within archegonium)
Zygote
(2n)
Embryo
2 mm
Archegonium
Capsule with
peristome (SEM)
A spore germinates into a gametophyte

composed of a protonema and gameteproducing gametophore
Rhizoids anchor gametophytes to substrate
The height of gametophytes is constrained by
lack of vascular tissues
Mature gametophytes produce flagellated sperm
in antheridia and an egg in each archegonium
Sperm swim through a film of water to reach
and fertilize the egg
Bud
Male
gametophyte
(n)
Protonemata
(n)
Bud
Gametophore
Spores
Female
gametophyte (n)
Spore
dispersal
Rhizoid
Peristome
Sporangium
MEIOSIS
Seta
Capsule
(sporangium)
Foot
2 mm
Mature
sporophytes
Capsule with
peristome (SEM)
Female
gametophytes
Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Young
sporophyte
(2n)
Female
gametophytes
Raindrop
Bryophyte Sporophytes
Sperm
Bud
Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Protonemata
(n)
Antheridia
Male
gametophyte
(n)
Bud
Egg
Gametophore
Spores
Female Archegonia
gametophyte (n)
Spore
dispersal
Rhizoid
Peristome
FERTILIZATION
Sporangium
MEIOSIS
Seta
Capsule
(sporangium)
Foot
(within archegonium)
2 mm
Mature
sporophytes
Bryophyte sporophytes grow out of

archegonia, and are the smallest and simplest
sporophytes of all extant plant groups
A sporophyte consists of a foot, a seta (stalk),
and a sporangium, also called a capsule, which
discharges spores through a peristome
Hornwort and moss sporophytes have stomata
for gas exchange
Capsule with
peristome (SEM)
Female
gametophytes
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Thallus
Polytrichum commune,
hairy-cap moss
Gametophore of
female gametophyte
Sporophyte
Capsule
Seta
Foot
Sporophyte
(a sturdy
plant that
takes months
to grow)
Seta
Marchantia sporophyte (LM)
Capsule
(sporangium)
Gametophyte
500 m
Marchantia polymorpha,
a thalloid liverwort
Plagiochila eltoidea, leafy liverwort
Seedless vascular plants

Bryophytes and bryophyte-like plants were the
prevalent vegetation during the first 100
million years of plant evolution
Vascular plants began to diversify during the
Devonian and Carboniferous periods
Vascular tissue allowed these plants to grow
tall
Seedless vascular plants have flagellated
sperm and are usually restricted to moist
environments
An Anthoceros
hornwort species
Origins and Traits of Vascular Plants
Sporophyte
Fossils of the forerunners of vascular plants

date back about 420 million years
These early tiny plants had independent,
branching sporophytes
Living vascular plants are characterized by:
Life cycles with dominant sporophytes
Vascular tissues called xylem and phloem
Well-developed roots and leaves
Gametophyte
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Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
MEIOSIS
Spore
dispersal
Spore
(n)
Sporangium
Sporangium
Antheridium
Young
gametophyte
Mature
gametophyte
(n)
Archegonium
Egg
Mature
sporophyte
(2n)
Sperm
FERTILIZATION
Sorus
Fiddlehead
Sporophytes of Aglaophyton major

Life Cycles with Dominant Sporophytes

Key
In contrast with bryophytes, sporophytes of

seedless vascular plants are the larger
generation, as in the familiar leafy fern
The gametophytes are tiny plants that grow on
or below the soil surface
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
MEIOSIS
Spore
dispersal
Spore
(n)
Sporangium
Sporangium
Antheridium
Young
gametophyte
Mature
gametophyte
(n)
Archegonium
Egg
Mature
sporophyte
(2n)
New
sporophyte
Zygote
(2n)
Sperm
FERTILIZATION
Sorus
Gametophyte
Fiddlehead
Classification of Seedless Vascular Plants

Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
MEIOSIS
Spore
dispersal
Sporangium
Sporangium
Mature
sporophyte
(2n)
There are two phyla of seedless vascular

plants:
Phylum Lycophyta includes club mosses, spike
mosses, and quillworts
Phylum Pterophyta includes ferns, horsetails, and
whisk ferns and their relatives
Sorus
Fiddlehead
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8/4/2015
Diphasiastrum tristachyum, a club moss
Athyrium filix-femina, lady fern
Strobili
(clusters of
sporophylls)
Selaginella apoda, a spike moss
Equisetum arvense, field horsetail
Vegetative stem
1 cm
1.5 cm
Strobilus on
fertile stem
Isoetes gunnii, a quillwort
Psilotum nudum, a whisk fern
2.5 cm
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The Evolutionary Advantage of Seeds

A seed develops from the whole ovule
A seed is a sporophyte embryo, along with its
food supply, packaged in a protective coat
Seeds provide some evolutionary advantages
over spores:
They may remain dormant for days to years, until
conditions are favorable for germination
They may be transported long distances by wind or
animals
Archaeopteris, a progymnosperm
Gymnosperms
The gymnosperms have naked seeds not
enclosed by ovaries and consist of four phyla:
Cycadophyta (cycads)
Gingkophyta (one living species: Ginkgo biloba)
Gnetophyta (three genera: Gnetum, Ephedra,
Welwitschia)
Coniferophyta (conifers, such as pine, fir, and
redwood)
Living seed plants can be divided into two

clades: gymnosperms and angiosperms
Gymnosperms appear early in the fossil record
and dominated the Mesozoic terrestrial
ecosystems
Gymnosperms were better suited than
nonvascular plants to drier conditions
Today, cone-bearing gymnosperms called
conifers dominate in the northern latitudes
Gymnosperm Evolution
Phylum Cycadophyta
Fossil evidence reveals that by the late

Devonian period some plants, called
progymnosperms, had begun to acquire some
adaptations that characterize seed plants
Individuals have large cones and palmlike

leaves
These thrived during the Mesozoic, but
relatively few species exist today
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8/4/2015
Ginkgo biloba leaves and fleshy seeds
Cycas revoluta
Phylum Ginkgophyta
Phylum Gnetophyta
This phylum consists of a single living species,

Ginkgo biloba
It has a high tolerance to air pollution and is a
popular ornamental tree
This phylum comprises three genera

Species vary in appearance, and some are
tropical whereas others live in deserts
Ginkgo biloba (Bch qu)
Gnetum (Dy gm)
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8/4/2015
Ephedra (Ma hong)
Phylum Coniferophyta
This phylum is by far the largest of the
gymnosperm phyla
Most conifers are evergreens and can carry out
photosynthesis year round
Douglas fir (Linh sam)
Welwitschia (hai l)
Ovulate cones
European larch (Thng rng l)
Welwitschia
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8/4/2015
Bristlecone pine
The Life Cycle of a Pine

Three key features of the gymnosperm life
cycle are:
Dominance of the sporophyte generation
Development of seeds from fertilized ovules
The transfer of sperm to ovules by pollen
The life cycle of a pine provides an example
Sequoia
The pine tree is the sporophyte and produces
sporangia in male and female cones
Small cones produce microspores called pollen
grains, each of which contains a male
gametophyte
The familiar larger cones contain ovules,
which produce megaspores that develop into
female gametophytes
It takes nearly three years from cone
production to mature seed
Common juniper (Bch x)
Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Ovulate
cone
Pollen
cone
Microsporocytes
(2n)
Mature
sporophyte
(2n)
Pollen
grains (n)
MEIOSIS
Microsporangia
Microsporangium (2n)
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8/4/2015
Angiosperms
Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Ovule
Ovulate
cone
Pollen
cone
Megasporocyte (2n)
Integument
Microsporocytes
(2n)
Megasporangium
Pollen (2n)
Pollen grain
grains (n) MEIOSIS
MEIOSIS
Mature
sporophyte
(2n)
Angiosperms are seed plants with reproductive

structures called flowers and fruits
They are the most widespread and diverse of all
plants
Microsporangia
Surviving
megaspore (n)
Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Angiosperm Diversity
Ovule
Ovulate
cone
Pollen
cone
Megasporocyte (2n)
Integument
Microsporocytes
(2n)
Megasporangium
Pollen (2n)
Pollen grain
grains (n) MEIOSIS
MEIOSIS
Mature
sporophyte
(2n)
Microsporangia
Surviving
megaspore (n)
The two main groups of angiosperms are

monocots (one cotyledon) and eudicots
(true dicots)
The clade eudicot includes some groups
formerly assigned to the paraphyletic dicot
(two cotyledons) group
Archegonium
Female
gametophyte
Sperm
nucleus (n)
Pollen
tube
FERTILIZATION
Egg nucleus (n)
Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Monocot
Characteristics
Ovule
Ovulate
cone
Pollen
cone
Embryos
Megasporocyte (2n)
Integument
Microsporocytes
(2n)
Megasporangium
Pollen (2n)
Pollen grain
grains (n) MEIOSIS
MEIOSIS
Mature
sporophyte
(2n)
Eudicot
Characteristics
Two cotyledons
One cotyledon
Leaf
venation
Microsporangia
Seedling
Archegonium
Seeds
Embryo
(2n)
Veins usually
parallel
Veins usually
netlike
Female
gametophyte
Food
Sperm
reserves
nucleus (n)
(n)
Seed coat
(2n)
Pollen
tube
Surviving
megaspore (n)
FERTILIZATION
Egg nucleus (n)
Stems
Vascular tissue
scattered
Vascular tissue
usually arranged
in ring
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Monocot
Characteristics
Eudicot
Characteristics
Roots
Taproot (main root)

usually present
Root system
usually fibrous
(no main root)
Pollen
Pollen grain with

one opening
Pollen grain with

three openings
Flowers
Floral organs
usually in
multiples of three
Floral organs usually

in multiples of
four or five
21

Chapter 6 - Plantae

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8/4/2015

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Protists are eukaryotes and thus have organelles

Protists can reproduce asexually or sexually, or by

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Protists, the most nutritionally diverse of all

Photoautotrophs, which contain chloroplasts

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Flagellates, with flagella

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

An amoeba ingesting food

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Plasmodial slime molds

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Cellular slime molds

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Dinoflagellates are a diverse group of aquatic

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Pfiesteria shumwayae, a dinoflagellate

Are found in plankton

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Green algae are named for their grass-green

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Are large, multicellular marine algae

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Nori. The red alga Porphyra is the

Paper-thin, glossy sheets of nori

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Caulerpa, an intertidal chlorophyte

Derived Traits of Plants

Four key traits appear in nearly all land plants:

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Walled Spores Produced in Sporangia

The sporophyte produces spores in organs

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Sporophytes and sporangia of Sphagnum (a moss)

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences

Bui Tan Anh College of Natural Sciences