c nservation

Water distribution systems can experience large volumes of leakage that result in major
financial, supply, and pressure losses. The authors describe a simple and efficient
approach that combines flow step-testing and network modeling and solves the leakage
detection problem using a direct application of hydraulic analysis and field-testing. The
leak in a pipe segment is explicitly determined by analyzing the rate of change in
the discrepancy between field-measured and modeled flow
values. The method is well suited to bracket high
leakage areas in the distribution system and is
applicable to any pipe material. It was applied to
an actual water distribution system, and results
were validated by a leak detection survey using
acoustic devices. The proposed method should
prove useful to water utilities attempting to locate
excessive pipe leaks in their distribution
systems and thus conserve a precious
natural resource while simultaneously
reducing their energy consumption and
carbon footprint.

Managing leaks using flow

step-testing, network modeling,
and field measurement

O
PAUL F. BOULOS
AND ADEL S. ABOUJAOUDE

ne of the major contributors to water loss is underground leakage in water distribution systems. Other contributors to water
loss include unauthorized use; unavoidable leaks; inaccurate
master, industrial, commercial, and domestic meters; and unusual causes (AWWA, 2009; Leauber, 1997; Johnson, 1996). For
some distribution systems, water loss may be in excess of 50% but typically
ranges from 10 to 20% of production (AwwaRF, 1999; AWWA, 1987). Loss can
be explicitly calculated by starting with total water produced, subtracting authorized uses, and then dividing the difference by total water produced.
Leakage occurs in different components of the system, including transmission and distribution mains, service connection lines, valves, joints, and fire
hydrants. It can originate from many sources, including deterioration of aging
pipes and fittings, material defects, poor installation practices, changes in water
pressure (water hammer) and demand pattern, high population density, heavy
traffic volumes, movement of aboveground pipelines, aggressive soil conditions, and corrosion (AWWA, 1999).
Large volumes of leakage can result in major financial, supply, and pressure
losses as well as excessive energy consumption (pumping) and the associated
carbon footprint. Excessive leakage can also cause contaminant intrusion

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 extended useful life of existing facilities and ability

under low- or negative-pressure conditions within the
to increase service to new developments;
pipe, which can lead to detrimental or even fatal water
improved knowledge of the distribution system; and
quality episodes. The US Environmental Protection
delayed expansion of treatment plant capacity and
Agency estimates that water utilities in the United States
construction of new sources of water supply.
will need to spend at least $6 billion per year over the
Water audit and leak detection programs. System audits
next 20 years to rehabilitate failing water distribution
and leak detection programs can help utilities reduce
pipes (Boulos et al, 2006; Lansey & Boulos, 2005). More
water losses (AWWA, 1999). Water audits involve
recently, the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
detailed accounting of the distribution system inflows
gave the nations drinking water infrastructure a grade
and outflows to provide an overall picture of distribution
of D in its 2009 report card and estimated that leaking
system efficiency and curpipes result in a loss of 7
rent water losses to deterbgd of quality drinking
mine the specific areas in
water (ASCE, 2009). ASCE
Large volumes of leakage can result
the system experiencing
further concluded that US
in major financial, supply, and pressure
excessive leakage. The
drinking water systems face
overall goal is to identify,
an annual shortfall of at
losses as well as excessive energy
quantify, and verify water
least $11 billion to replace
consumption (pumping) and the associated
and revenue losses. These
aging facilities that are near
audits do not provide inforthe end of their useful life
carbon footprint.
mation about the precise
and to comply with existing
location of the leaks themand future federal water
selves. Leak detection proregulations. This estimate
grams usually identify and prioritize the areas of high
does not include important provisions for improvements
leakage using flow step-testing. The principal objective
needed to meet growth in the demand for drinking water
of flow step-testing is to continuously isolate portions of
over the next 20 years.
the distribution system where leakage is measured quantitatively (WHO, 2001). Locating leaks can also be carCURRENT STATE OF LEAK DETECTION
ried out using acoustic equipment (leak detection survey).
AND MANAGEMENT
The exact locations of leaks can then be determined using
Pressure reduction. Leakage normally varies exponenleak noise correlators.
tially with pressure and is reduced with a decrease in sysLeak noise correlation. Acoustic loggers are normally
tem pressure; therefore, managing leaks can be achieved
installed on pipe fittings and are used to identify susby managing pressure in the distribution system while
pected leakage areas by listening for leak characteristics.
maintaining adequate minimum service levels (NRC,
By recording and analyzing the intensity and consistency
2006). The most common methods of pressure reduction
of noise, the loggers are able to determine the likelihood
include zonal boundaries, pump and pressure control,
of the presence of a leak. Noise is created by the leak as
fixed outlet control valves, flow-modulated control valves,
it escapes from the pressurized pipe. Similar to traditional
and remote node control (Thornton et al, 2008). The
sonic equipment, the correlator relies on the noise generefficacy of each method is normally assessed using hydrauated by a leak. The main difference, however, is in how
lic network modeling. Although these methods are generthe leak noise is detected. A correlator works by detecting
ally effective at reducing the overall level of system leakthe sound from the leak when it arrives at two sensors
age, they do not provide information about the location
installed on pipe fittings or valve opening nuts on the
of the leaks (Al-Dowalia & Shammas, 1991).
pipe on either side of the suspected leak position. The
Benefits of leak reduction. Locating and repairing syslocation of the leak (X) is computed using a simple algetem leaks can significantly reduce the amount of water
braic relationship (based on the principle of correlation)
lost, the need to implement drastic conservation policies
between the difference in the arrival time of the leak noise
during droughts, the adverse risk of contamination, and
at each sensor (t), which is measured from the crosswater outages as well as lower costs for obtaining, treatcorrelation of the leak signals, the distance between sening, and pressurizing water supplies to meet current and
sors (L), and the propagation of sound waves in the pipe
future demands (AWWA, 2009). For water utilities, other
(V) as shown in Eq 1:
benefits accruing to leak detection and repair include
more efficient use of existing supplies;
reduced carbon footprint;
X = [L (Vt)]/2
(1)
improved water conservation measures, environmental quality, and public relations;
This approach is shown in Figure 1. Normally, acoustic
increased system operational efficiency, integrity,
equipment is effective for metal pipes because the leak
reliability, performance, and firefighting capability;
signals transmit for relatively long distances; however, it
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Flow step-testing. In flow step-testing, the step area is

could be problematic for plastic piping because the sigsubdivided by the systematic closing of valves during the
nals transmit for only short distances.
period of minimum nighttime flow, and the reduction in
An assessment of the effectiveness of the various
flow is recorded. Disproportionate drops in flow identify
commonly used methods for locating leaks in plastic
pipes with suspected leakage. The estimated leak flow
pipes was undertaken by the Water Research Foundacorresponds to the difference between the observed drop
tion, and improvements for equipment and field procein the measured flow versus
dures to increase their effecthe calculated drop in the
tiveness were proposed
modeled flow. The method
(AwwaRF, 1999). In genis particularly well suited
eral, leak noise correlators
The flow step-testing combined with network
for identification of high
are more efficient and more
leakage areas and for use
accurate than listening
modeling demonstrated excellent conformity
on plastic pipes, where leak
devices (Hunaidi, 2000).
with the noise correlation technique.
noise is absorbed and conLeaks can also be located
ventional acoustic methods
with nonacoustic technoloare less effective. It also
gies such as tracer gas, therminimizes the use of detecmography, and ground-pention required by sonic
etrating radar. However, use
equipment and correlators (leak detection surveys). Having
of these techniques is still limited, and their effectiveness
localized the leaks using flow step-testing, the correlators
has not been well established (Hunaidi, 2000).
can be used to pinpoint the precise locations of the leaks
In recent years, many powerful numerical optimizaalong the pipes, and repairs can then be carried out. The
tion models have been developed for estimating, locating,
sequence of step-testing, leak detection, and repair is conand minimizing leakage in water distribution systems,
tinued until an acceptable volume of leakage in each step
and these have been applied with varying levels of success
area is obtained.
(Nazif et al, 2010; Alvisi & Franchini, 2009; Magini et
The main drawbacks of the traditional flow stepal, 2007; Yang et al, 2007; Araujo et al, 2006; Kapelan
testing approach are the requirement of detailed maps of
et al, 2004; Vitkovsky et al, 2000). The most successful
the distribution system, showing all of the water facilities
of these applications use some form of genetic algorithms
(pipes, valves, pumps, tanks, and reservoirs), and the
or artificial intelligence. However, field work and verifineed to determine the proper sequences of valve closing
cation of these techniques with real-life systems, although
to cut off different pipe sections in succession. In addinot entirely absent, are for the most part still lacking
tion, the method requires consumption to be relatively
(Colombo et al, 2009).
stable, and its efficacy is usually limited by the lack of
Despite the availability of various optimization models,
database support and user-friendly interfaces for data
few are currently in practical use by water utilities. Water
manipulation, hard-copy reporting (i.e., detailed field
audit procedures and field-based leak detection methods
implementation manual), and graphical output display.
continue to be regularly used to help control water loss
These requirements suggest the need for an integrated
(Hunaidi, 2000). In particular, flow step-testing is one of
network modeling approach to flow step-testing.
the most effective and practical field-based tools for idenA new method. The simple and efficient approach pretifying and quantifying leakage within specific areas (step
sented here overcomes these limitations by combining field
areas) of the distribution system (WHO, 2001).
flow step-testing with hydraulic network modeling. Today,
many water utilities use hydraulic network models (e.g.,
EPANET) to plan improvements and optimize system
FIGURE 1 Principle of correlation for leak detection
operation (Boulos et al, 2006; NRC, 2006; AWWA, 2005;
Rossman, 2000). The network model contains all pertinent
water system facilities information and is used to delineate
Leak
Sensor
Sensor
the step area, provide the necessary flow and consumption
characteristics, and compute the optimal patterns of the
systematic closing of valves. In addition, the new method
is less sensitive to the structure of the network and the
variation in demands. These capabilities provide a consistent modeling environment to assist water utilities in
X
improving their effectiveness in locating areas with excesL
sive leaks and in planning, designing, and implementing
sound and cost-effective leakage management and system
Ldistance between sensors, Xlocation of the leak
operational strategies. The approach was applied to an
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actual water distribution system, and the results were validated with a leak detection survey using acoustic devices.

METHODOLOGY
The flow step-testing approach integrates network
modeling and field testing to narrow leak locations to
specific pipe segments of the water distribution system.
Network modeling determines how to define and subsequently subdivide the step area through the systematic
closing of valves and computes the total flow into the
specific step area associated with each distinct valve closing operation. Field-testing involves taking flow readings
while performing the required valve operations (see the
illustration on page 90). At each step, the flow reading
(at the flowmeter) is taken and compared with the modeled value, and the difference in flow rate is recorded.
Any leakage isolated in a particular pipe segment
sequence is shown as a drop and/or change in the difference in flow (flow discrepancy) between two successive
steps. The flow discrepancy also represents the suspected
leakage in the associated pipe segment sequence. The
flow variation between two steps represents the water
demand along the isolated pipe section.
In the proposed method, an area with excessive leakage
is bracketed into a tight zone (step area) with a flowmeter
installed on the input main to each zone to record flow
into the zone. The step area must be fed via only a single
source (e.g., storage tank, pipe interconnection) and must

not contain any loops (tree or branched network). It can

be directly constructed using a breadth-first search or
depth-first search spanning tree algorithm (Boulos et al,
2006). The step area thus becomes a treelike structure that
is supplied through a single meter and isolated from the
rest of the system by closing all boundary and circulation
valves. This can be accomplished by
(1) closing boundary valves to isolate the step area
from the system (only one source of supply),
(2) closing circulating valves to remove loops and
create a tree network, and
(3) placing a data logger on the flowmeter.
Steps 1 and 3 can be avoided if the operation is applied
over a district metered area (DMA), defined as an isolated area with a single metering point generally covering
500 to 3,000 properties.
Figure 2 shows the schematic of a sample step area.
Part A of the figure depicts the initial area, and part B
shows the final treelike step area, obtained after closing
boundary and circulating valves. An essential part of the
process is to identify all valves that can be used during
the test and all other valves that should be excluded from
the test, such as boundary valves and inoperable (e.g.,
broken) valves. Identification of the latter group of valves
is key in order to avoid mistakenly opening those valves
during the test itself.
The size of the zone is systematically reduced by working from the farthest valve from the meter and closing the

FIGURE 2 Schematic of a sample flow step-test area

Boundary valve
Step valve

Circulating valve
Flowmeter

Initial step-test area

Junction node

Final step-test area

Tank/reservoir
Tank/reservoir

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valves to cut off different pipe sections in succession (so

that less and less of the test area is supplied through the
meter); at the same time, any changes in flow rate at the
meter are recorded and compared with the modeled results.
This sequence can be directly determined using the spanning-tree algorithm. Each valve must be shut long enough
for workers to observe and measure the flow effect at the
meter. The sequence of closing valves is followed until the
flowmeter is reached (at which point the flow becomes
zero). A significant discrepancy in flow rate between two
successive steps indicates a leak in the section of pipe that
was last shut off. The sequence is repeated by opening
valves in reverse order. The opening and closing of valves
should be performed slowly to avoid unwanted surges and
breaks. To avoid hours of high demand such as in the
morning, flow step-testing is normally carried out at night
when the consumption is lowest and relatively unchanged
(static); scheduling the step-testing at this time also helps
to minimize supply interruption and inconvenience to
customers. To alleviate potential water quality problems
resulting from valve operation, some flushing may be
required before flow step-testing is conducted in a targeted
area of the distribution system (WHO, 2001). Pressure
monitoring can also be carried out to validate the assumption that pressure remains relatively stable during the
entire flow step-testing operation.
Flow step-testing can be summarized as follows:
Conduct the flow step-test at night during low and/
or slack demand.
Define a flow step area with suspected high leakage.
Close all boundary valves to establish a tight area.
Close all circulating valves to remove loops, and
create a tree network.
Attach data logger to the flowmeter installed on the
main supplying the flow step-test area.
Start at the pipe and/or valve that is the farthest
from the flowmeter.

Close step valves in succession so less and less of the

step area is supplied via the flowmeter, and record measured flow values.
Follow the sequence of closing valves (as determined
by the network model) back toward the meter until the
reading is zero.
Keep each step valve closed long enough to notice
a reading effect at the meter.
Reopen the step valves in reverse order.
Depending on the topologic structure of the step area,
more than one arrangement of step sequences may be
possible. For example, in the sample step area shown in
Figure 3, eight distinct valve sequences are feasible:
V8, V7, V6, V5, V4, V3, V2, V1
V8, V7, V3, V2, V6, V5, V4, V1
V8, V7, V6, V5, V3, V2, V4, V1
V3, V2, V8, V7, V6, V5, V4, V1
V3, V2, V6, V5, V8, V7, V4, V1
V6, V5, V8, V7, V4, V3, V2, V1
V6, V5, V8, V7, V3, V2, V4, V1
V6, V5, V3, V2, V8, V7, V4, V1
The network model should be able to identify all
possible step sequence arrangements and the desired
sequence selected by field personnel based on optimal
route. Care must be taken when conducting these tests
to ensure that water quality and fire protection capabilities are not compromised.

FLOW STEP-TEST EXAMPLE AND REAL-WORLD

APPLICATION
Illustrative example. An example is provided here to
illustrate the calculation steps of the network modeling
approach for leak detection. The flow step-test area of
the example network is shown in Figure 4. The test area
comprised six pipe sections and six demand nodes. Two
leaks (of 1 flow unit each) were assumed for pipes P2 and
P4, respectively.

FIGURE 3 Example of feasible step sequences

Step valve

Junction node

V8
V3
V7
V2

V4

V5

V1

V6

Flowmeter
Vvalve

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20 years old, with the majority installed in the past 10

Figure 5 provides flow results for each step sequence
years. A systemwide water balance (water audit) showed
back toward the flowmeter. Moving from right to left
a relatively acceptable percentage of nonrevenue water
(Figure 5), field crews sequentially shut off the valves. With
(NRW) nearing 21%. Given the high production cost of
each valve closure, the flow rate was reduced at the mondesalinated water, however, economic studies recomitoring point on the left side of the figure. The valvemended conducting a water loss reduction program to
closing operations at valves V2 and V4 resulted in two
further lower the rate of water loss.
distinct flow discrepancies, indicating the presence of a
A comprehensive leak detection program was carried out
leak in pipes P2 and P4.
for more than 33 DMAs using flow step-testing combined
Figure 6 shows flow results for the entire flow stepwith network modeling to narrow down the leakage areas
test. The symmetry along the x-axis (time axis) will be
to specific pipe sections in
valid only when the demand
each DMA. The pipe secloadings (and associated
tions identified with suspatterns) and operating
In the proposed method, an area with
pected leaks were successconditions over the period
fully validated, and the exact
of the flow step-test remain
excessive leakage is bracketed into a tight
positions of the leaks were
unchanged (static). Howzone (step area) with a flowmeter installed
then pinpointed by leak
ever, the step discrepancies
detection surveys using leak
will not change with variaon the input main to each zone to record
noise correlators. The flow
tions in the demand loadflow into the zone.
step-testing combined with
ing. This observation is key
network modeling demonfor this method, because
strated excellent conformity
the redundancy of measurewith the noise correlation technique. This significantly sped
ments provides a stable and efficient experimental
up the leak detection management process and reduced
design that can be reproduced under any demand condiassociated costs because site operation for leakage reduction
tions, provided the pressure does not change signifi(leak detection survey) was narrowed down to a few pipe
cantly. Flow calculations for the example network are
sections. As a result of the leakage management study and
summarized in Table 1.
subsequent repairs, the NRW rate in each of the analyzed
Application in an existing system. The efficacy of the
DMAs was reduced by 1025%.
method was tested on an actual water distribution system
in the Gulf Cooperation Council (United Arab Emirates,
Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Qatar, Kuwait). The sysCONCLUSION
tem serves a population of more than 1 million and
Todays water utilities can realize further benefits of
comprises approximately 3,000 km of pipes (1001,200
hydraulic network modeling and field flow step-testing in
mm in diameter), several desalination plants and major
managing leakage in their water distribution system infrapump stations, and approximately 100 DMAs. The idenstructures. The simple and efficient approach presented
tity of the corresponding water utility and the schematic
here combines field step-testing with network modeling to
of the distribution system are withheld for security reapinpoint pipes with suspected leaks for subsequent replacesons. Because of the rapid development of the project
ment or repair. The technique involves bracketing the test
area, most of the water distribution pipes are less than
area with excessive leakage into a tight, branched network
FIGURE 4 Example of flow step-test area
Valve closed at step interval
Closed boundary valve

Water main
External demand

Junction node
Leak:
1 unit

2 units

2 units

Leak:
1 unit

Flowmeter

2 units

V1

P1

P2

2 units

V2
2 units

P5

V4

P4

V3

P3
2 units

V5
V6

P6

Ppipe, Vvalve

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FIGURE 5 Flow step-test results toward the meter

for sample test area

FIGURE 6 Complete flow step-test results for sample

test area

Measured flow
Modeled flow
14

14
Disproportionate drop in flow
when V2 and V4 are closed
indicates suspected leaks
in P2 and P4.

V1
12

12

10

10
Flowunit

Flowunit

V2
8
V3
6
V4

4
V5

2
V6
0

0
12:00

12:10

12:20

12:30 12:40
Timea.m.

12:50

1:00

1:10

12:00

12:20

12:40

1:00
1:20
Timea.m.

1:40

2:00

2:20

Ppipe, Vvalve
The value of each step represents the water demand along the
pipe section.

with a flowmeter installed on its input main. Working from

the valve farthest from the flowmeter, the modeler systematically reduces the size of the area by closing the valves to
cut off different pipes in succession, at the same time
recording any changes in flow rate at the meter and comparing them with model results. A disproportionate change
in flow discrepancy between two successive steps indicates
a leak in the pipe that was last shut off. The method can
effectively narrow down leaks to specific pipe segments of
the system and is applicable to any pipe material. In order
for the approach to be effective, the calibrated network
model must include all mains, the asset data must be upto-date, and the diurnal demand profiles of key consumers

TABLE 1

and consumer types must be accurately reflected in the

model. As recently noted by other researchers (Cheung et
al, 2010), practicing engineers normally prefer using field
experimentation and simple hydraulic network analysis
rather than a complex mathematical optimization technique that is still an unattained reality for many water
companies, especially in developing countries.
The proposed approach can be further enhanced by
linking to a geographic information system (GIS) to store,
locate, manage, and display all pertinent water system
facilities and produce comprehensive maps of the step
areas. The data from the GIS environment are fed into
the network model that produces the optimal flow step-

Flow step-test calculations for sample test area

Step
Sequence

Time
a.m.

Valve
Operation

Flow
Measured

Flow
Modeled

Flow
Difference

12:10

NA

14 units

12 units

2 units

NA

12:20

V1

12 units

10 units

2 units

0 units

No leak

12:30

V2

9 units

8 units

1 units

1 units

1 unit leak

12:40

V3

7 units

6 units

1 units

0 units

No leak

12:50

V4

4 units

4 units

0 units

1 units

1 unit leak

1:00

V5

2 units

2 units

0 units

0 units

No leak

1:10

V6

0 units

0 units

0 units

0 units

No leak

NAnot applicable

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Step
Discrepancy

Comment

testing sequences, which in turn can be evaluated by the

GIS to provide utility personnel with a detailed field
implementation manual for flow step-testing, detailing
the proper sequences of valve operations. The resulting
geospatial approach to flow step-test modeling will help
to effectively communicate the schedule and/or progress
information to field personnel, because they will be able
to see in detail the temporal sequences of valve operations
alongside the modeling results.

tucky in Lexington and an MBA from Harvard University in Cambridge, Mass. Boulos has more than 24 years
of experience in both the academic and corporate world,
with extensive expertise in water resources engineering.
He is the author of nine textbooks and more than 100
technical articles on water and wastewater engineering.
Adel S. AbouJaoude is a manager and associate in the
Environmental Engineering Department of Khatib &
Alami in Beirut, Lebanon.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Date of submission: 06/03/10

Date of acceptance: 08/19/10

Paul F. Boulos (to whom correspondence should be addressed) is the president and chief operating officer of
MWH Soft, 380 Interlocken Crescent,
Ste. 200, Broomfield, CO 80021;
paul.boulos@mwhsoft.com. He holds
BS, MS, and PhD degrees in civil engineering from the University of Ken-

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2011 American Water Works Association

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