11 21 .

?
, --
G J .................................................................................... 3
J2 : J-M67 (Y-DNA)............................................................................................................................. 9
mtDNA ................................................................................................................. 11
.............................................................................................................................................. 12
....................................................................................................................... 18
............................................................................. 19
G2a 8-3 ............................................................................ 20
Parallel Evolution of Genes and Languages in the Caucasus Region...................................................................... 24
Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup
Groups descended from Haplogroup F (G, H & IJK)
Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup
: , ( ,
) . , ,
20-30% , ,
. -- .

Haplogroup G- ... -:

-- - (, ) J

-- - -- R

-- -- E

G J

G => 17,000 years ago (between India and the Caucasus)

R1b1b2 => 10,000 years ago (north or south of the Caucasus)

 G (M201) (G2a1 P16+) (G2a P15+) (Y-DNA)

Haplogroup- (Y-DNA) G (M201) (G2a1 P16+) (G2a P15+)
( , ) !..
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_G_(Y-DNA)
: http://www.genebase.com/tutorial/item.php?tuId=15

Haplogroup G (Y-DNA)

Haplogroup G (Y-DNA)

Haplogroup G (Y-DNA)

Haplogroup G (Y-DNA)

Haplogroup G (Y-DNA)
G has its roots in around the Caucasus. It is found mostly in mountainous regions between the Near East and India
(Caucasus, Iran, Afghanistan, Kashmir), but also in Central Asia (Kazakhstan), Europe and North Africa.
Most Europeans belong to the G2a subclade, and most northern and western Europeans more specifically to G2a3b (or to a
lower extend G2a3a). About all G2c Europeans are Ashkenazi Jews. The discovery of G2c subclades around Afghanistan
indicates that it could have originated in that part of the world. G1 is found predominantly in Iran, but is also found in Central
Asia (Kazakhstan). A famous members of haplogroup G was Joseph Stalin (G2a1), who was of Georgian origin.
G2a makes up 5 to 10% of the population of Mediterranean Europe, but is fairly rare in Northern Europe. The only places
where haplogroup G2 exceeds 10% of the population in Europe are Cantabria, Switzerland, the Tyrol, south-central Italy
(Molise, Central and Southern Apennine), Sardinia, northern Greece (Thessaly) and Crete - all mountainous and relatively
isolated regions.
There are several theories regarding the origin of G2a in Europe. There are doubtlessly cumulative rather than exclusive.

Neolithic mountain herders

Chronologically, the first hypothesis is the advance of Neolithic farmers and herders from Anatolia to Europe between 9,000
and 6,000 years ago. In this scenario the Caucasian migrants would have brought with them sheep and goats, which were
domesticated south of the Caucasus arbout 12,000 years ago. This would explain why haplogroup G is more common in
mountainous areas, be it in Europe or in Asia.
The geographic continuity of G2a from Anatolia to Thessaly to the Italian peninsula, Sardinia, south-central France and Iberia
suggests that G2a could be connected to the Printed-Cardium Pottery culture (5000-1500 BCE).

Metalsmiths of the Indo-Europeans

Haplogroup G2a has also been linked to the spread of metalworking from the Caucasus or Anatolia to places like Sardinia or
the Alps. If the Indo-European homeland of R1b1b was indeed in northern Anatolia and/or the North Caucasus, some
Caucasian G2a could well have travelled to Europe alongside R1b1b2. The Caucasus being one of the very first places in the
world where metallurgy developed, the expertise of Caucasian copper and tin workers could have been valuable to IndoEuropean warlords.
Early central and western European bronze age societies did develop around metal-rich regions, such as Ireland, Wales,
Cornwall, Brittany, northern Spain, Portugal, and of course the Alps. Many of these regions have surprisingly high levels of
G2a - for instance North Portugal (12%), Cantabria (over 10%), Asturias and Galicia (5%) in northern Spain, Switzerland
(10%), Austria (8%) and the mountains of Bohemia (5 to 10%), and Wales (4%). This is much more than can be expected
from the distance from its source in the Caucasus. The average for Anatolia is only of 11%. Furthermore, the Balkans and
Carpathians standing in between Anatolia and the Alps have a remarkably low percentage of G2a (0 to 2%). G2a is the only
haplogroup from the Middle-East or Eurasian steppe that does not have a substantial presence anywhere in Eastern Europe.
G2a migrants must therefore have moved directly from Anatolia or the Caucasus to central and western Europe, in all
likelihood invited by Indo-European rulers. G2a may also have come to Greece and Italy only after the Indo-Europeans took
control of these regions.

A Neolithic or Bronze-Age introduction of G to Europe would undeniably correspond to G2a3 and its most common subclade
G2a3b1, by far the most common forms of G in Europe. G2a3b1 is also found in India, at low frequencies like R1b1b, proving
the Indo-European beyond reasonable doubt. The age of G2a3b has been estimated to be about 4,500 years old, which is far
too young for a Neolithic spread, but just right for the Bronze Age.
G (M201) (Clades):
G*
G1 (M285, M342)

G1*

G2* -

G2a3a (M406)

G1a (P20)

G1b (P76)
G2 (P287)
G2a (P15)
o G2a* o G2a1 (P16) -- - ( . -- , ) --
G2a1*
G2a1a (P17, P18) -- . 3000
. 2000
G2a2 (M286)
G2a3 (L30/S126, L32/S148)
G2a3b (P303)
G2b (M287)
G2c (M377)

Haplogroup G2a1 (P16) is a Y-chromosome haplogroup. It is a branch of haplogroup G (Y-DNA) (M201), and more
specifically of haplogroup G2 (P287) and most specifically of haplogroup G2a (P15). Haplogroup G2a1 has an
extremely low frequency in almost all populations except in the area of the Caucasus Mountains.

Turkey
Among 523 samples from Turkey, 9.2% were G. The G1/G1a samples were found only among the
northeastern Turkey samples. !
Georgia
Among 61 samples taken in Georgia (2001), 30% were G. Among 77 samples taken in Georgia (2003),
31% were G. Georgia has the highest percentage of G among the general population recorded in any
country. Among 66 samples taken in Georgia (2009), 31.6% were G2a (P15+). Of this 31.6% figure, 1.5%
were G2a3a (M406+), and the remainder were unspecified other types of G2a.
Among 25 Kurmanji-speaking Kurds in Georgia, 0% were found to be G.
In Abkhazia 55% of 60 samples were found to be G as listed in a 2009 presentation by Khadizhat Dibirova.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_G_(Y-DNA)_Country_by_Country
G (M201)- F ( ) -- (
) ( ).

 J2 : J-M67 (Y-DNA)
Haplogroup- J2 (Y-DNA) (J-M67),
HG9 or Eu9/Eu10 ()
( , ) !..
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_J2_(Y-DNA)
: http://www.genebase.com/tutorial/item.php?tuId=8

Haplogroup J2 : J-M67 (Y-DNA)

M67 ( ) -- M172 M267

Haplogroup J2 (Y-DNA)
J2 ( ): ( 40 %) , ( 31 %), (30-35 %), (32 %),
(25-30 %), (23-25 %), (20-25 %), ( 20 %), (20-25 %), ( 20 %),
(10-15 %), (8 %), (5 %), (3 %), (3 %) .
Semino et al. J2a2 (13.3 %), (9.6 %), (6.3 %), (4.3
%), (3.4 %), (3 %) (3.6 %). J2a2a*, ,
. (6.3 %), (3.3 %),
(4.4 %), (3-7 %) (4.5 %). >>>
J-M67 includes J-M67* lineages, which are most frequent in the Caucasus, and J-M92, which indicates affinity
between Anatolia and southern Italy.
J2a2. M67 This subclade is abundant in the Caucasus (Georgia 13%, Azerbaijan 4%) and is ancient group TMRCA
estimates at 12kya. It has also been found at appreciable levels (1-8%) in Anatolia, with preponderance in the
Northwest as well as in Italy (~5%) and the Iberian Peninsula (2-3%). This has led to proposals for migration over land
from Anatolia via the Bosphorus Isthmus or over the Mediterranean Sea. Notably, 10% of the Y-chromosomes on
Crete are of this variety.

 mtDNA
mtDNA- Haplogroup mtDNA U3:

mtDNA J => 45,000 years ago (in the Near East or Caucasus)
Haplogroup mtDNA U3 is centered around the Black Sea, with a particularly strong concentration in the north-eastern
part. It could be related to the ancient Indo-Europeans, and probably more to R1b than R1a.
Haplogroup mtDNA H13 is most common in Sardinia and around the Caucasus. Its distribution is reminiscent of YDNA haplogroup G2a. The same is true of mtDNA H2 to a lower extent. This would suggest a Caucasian or Anatolian
origin.
The strong presence of mtDNA X2 around the Caucasus, progressively fading towards the Near East and
Mediterranean , hints that it could be related to the spread of Y-DNA haplogroup G2a. R1b1b and G2a both having
origins around the Caucasus it is unsurprising to find X2 alongside these two Y-DNA haplogroups.
, mtDNA mtDNA: U3, H13, H2, X2

 ...

(M201) (J-M67) ...
, --
-, -- 10-15 (
- )
-- , , - -- , 1500
-- , , ...
--
... -- , -- ...
G2 J2 ,
.

 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

...
:
) Haplogroup J2-, 40-50
, - (J-M67) -- ,
...
) J2 -- ,
, -- ... -- --
-- ...
-- G* J* -- 30-40
... --
, ... -- !..
J*- ...

J --

 , ( ) 20
J-M172... -- -...
, 12 -- (
), J-M172- J-M67!..
* 7-8 ,
...
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_deluge_theory

-- J-M67 -
8 -- J-M92 (
)...
1628 BC
, .
, :
* 8-5 ...
* ,
-- 5-10
( --
)
* ...
* --
()...
* , ()
( -- , )...

:

M201 J-M67...
:
, R, K, U
... -- ..

 G2a 8-3

European Prehistory, Anthropology & Genetics

History of European Haplogroups :

origins, geographic spread and relation
to ethnic groups

Haplogroups Timeline :
comparative chronological tree of
European Y-DNA and mtDNA
haplogroups

Royal DNA :
haplogroups of European kings and
queens

Migration Maps :
chronological maps of the Neolithic and
Bronze Age expansion in relation with YDNA haplogroups

Y-DNA Frequencies :
distribution of European haplogroups by
country or region

Ancient DNA :
Y-DNA haplogroups of ancient
civilizations

MtDNA haplogroup frequencies by country , Defining mutations of European mtDNA haplogroups

Parallel Evolution of Genes and Languages in the Caucasus Region

Oleg Balanovsky1,2,*, Khadizhat Dibirova1,*, Anna Dybo3, Oleg Mudrak4, Svetlana Frolova1, Elvira Pocheshkhova 5, Marc
Haber6, Daniel Platt7, Theodore Schurr8, Wolfgang Haak9, Marina Kuznetsova1, Magomed Radzhabov1, Olga
Balaganskaya1,2, Alexey Romanov1, Tatiana Zakharova1, David F. Soria Hernanz 10,11, Pierre Zalloua6, Sergey Koshel12,
Merritt Ruhlen13, Colin Renfrew14, R. Spencer Wells10, Chris Tyler-Smith15, Elena Balanovska1 and The Genographic
Consortium16

: Genetic

variation in the Caucasus

 23 1,525
14 . : ()
, -.
G*, J*.
J2a4b*-M67(xM92) J1* - M267(xp587).
.
, -,
. G*
.