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IMMANUELKANTAnAnswertotheQuestion:"WhatisEnlightenment?"
KonigsberginPrussia,30thSeptember,1784.

Enlightenmentisman'semergencefromhisselfincurredimmaturity.
Immaturityistheinabilitytouseone'sownunderstandingwithoutthe
guidanceofanother.Thisimmaturityisselfincurredifitscauseis
notlackofunderstanding,butlackofresolutionandcouragetouseit
withouttheguidanceofanother.Themottoofenlightenmentis
therefore:Sapereaude!Havecouragetouseyourownunderstanding!
Lazinessandcowardicearethereasonswhysuchalargeproportionof
men,evenwhennaturehaslongemancipatedthemfromalienguidance
(naturalitermaiorennes),neverthelessgladlyremainimmatureforlife.
Forthesamereasons,itisalltooeasyforotherstosetthemselvesup
astheirguardians.Itissoconvenienttobeimmature!IfIhaveabook
tohaveunderstandinginplaceofme,aspiritualadvisertohavea
conscienceforme,adoctortojudgemydietforme,andsoon,Ineed
notmakeanyeffortsatall.Ineednotthink,solongasIcanpay;
otherswillsoonenoughtakethetiresomejoboverforme.Theguardians
whohavekindlytakenuponthemselvestheworkofsupervisionwillsoon
seetoitthatbyfarthelargestpartofmankind(includingtheentire
fairsex)shouldconsiderthestepforwardtomaturitynotonlyas
difficultbutalsoashighlydangerous.Havingfirstinfatuatedtheir
domesticatedanimals,andcarefullypreventedthedocilecreaturesfrom
daringtotakeasinglestepwithouttheleadingstringstowhichthey
aretied,theynextshowthemthedangerwhichthreatensthemifthey
trytowalkunaided.Nowthisdangerisnotinfactsoverygreat,for
theywouldcertainlylearntowalkeventuallyafterafewfalls.Butan
exampleofthiskindisintimidating,andusuallyfrightensthemoff
fromfurtherattempts.Thusitisdifficultforeachseparate
individualtoworkhiswayoutoftheimmaturitywhichhasbecomealmost
secondnaturetohim.Hehasevengrownfondofitandisreally
incapableforthetimebeingofusinghisownunderstanding,becausehe
wasneverallowedtomaketheattempt.Dogmasandformulas,those
mechanicalinstrumentsforrationaluse(orrathermisuse)ofhis
naturalendowments,aretheballandchainofhispermanentimmaturity.

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Andifanyonedidthrowthemoff,hewouldstillbeuncertainabout
jumpingovereventhenarrowestoftrenches,forhewouldbe
unaccustomedtofreemovementofthiskind.Thusonlyafew,by
cultivatingthe;rownminds,havesucceededinfreeingthemselvesfrom
immaturityandincontinuingboldlyontheirway.Thereismorechance
ofanentirepublicenlighteningitself.Thisisindeedalmost
inevitable,ifonlythepublicconcernedisleftinfreedom.Forthere
willalwaysbeafewwhothinkforthemselves,evenamongthose
appointedasguardiansofthecommonmass.Suchguardians,oncethey
havethemselvesthrownofftheyokeofimmaturity,willdisseminatethe
spiritofrationalrespectforpersonalvalueandforthedutyofall
mentothinkforthemselves.Theremarkablethingaboutthisisthatif
thepublic,whichwaspreviouslyputunderthisyokebytheguardians,
issuitablystirredupbysomeofthelatterwhoareincapableof
enlightenment,itmaysubsequentlycompeltheguardiansthemselvesto
remainundertheyoke.Foritisveryharmfultopropagateprejudices,
becausetheyfinallyavengethemselvesontheverypeoplewhofirst
encouragedthem(orwhosepredecessorsdidso).Thusapubliccanonly
achieveenlightenmentslowly.Arevolutionmaywellputanendto
autocraticdespotismandtorapaciousorpowerseekingoppression,but
itwillneverproduceatruereforminwaysofthinking.Instead,new
prejudices,liketheonestheyreplaced,willserveasaleashto
controlthegreatunthinkingmass.Forenlightenmentofthiskind,all
thatisneededisfreedom.Andthefreedominquestionisthemost
innocuousformofallfreedomtomakepublicuseofone'sreasoninall
matters.ButIhearonallsidesthecry:Don'targue!Theofficersays:
Don'targue,getonparade!Thetaxofficial:Don'targue,pay!The
clergyman:Don'targue,believe!(Onlyonerulerintheworldsays:
Argueasmuchasyoulikeandaboutwhateveryoulike,butobey!)..All
thismeansrestrictionsonfreedomeverywhere.Butwhichsortof
restrictionpreventsenlightenment,andwhich,insteadofhinderingit,
canactuallypromoteit?Ireply:Thepublicuseofman'sreasonmust
alwaysbefree,anditalonecanbringaboutenlightenmentamongmen;
theprivateuseofreasonmayquiteoftenbeverynarrowlyrestricted,
however,withoutunduehindrancetotheprogressofenlightenment.But
bythepublicuseofone'sownreasonImeanthatusewhichanyonemay

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makeofitasamanoflearningaddressingtheentirereadingpublic.
WhatItermtheprivateuseofreasonisthatwhichapersonmaymakeof
itinaparticularcivilpostorofficewithwhichheisentrusted.Now
insomeaffairswhichaffecttheinterestsofthecommonwealth,we
requireacertainmechanismwherebysomemembersofthecommonwealth
mustbehavepurelypassively,sothattheymay,byanartificialcommon
agreement,beemployedbythegovernmentforpublicends(oratleast
deterredfromvitiatingthem).Itis,ofcourse,impermissibletoargue
insuchcases;obedienceisimperative.Butinsofarasthisorthat
individualwhoactsaspartofthemachinealsoconsidershimselfasa
memberofacompletecommonwealthorevenofcosmopolitansociety,and
thenceasamanoflearningwhomaythroughhiswritingsaddressa
publicinthetruestsenseoftheword,hemay'indeedarguewithout
harmingtheaffairsinwhichheisemployedforsomeofthetimeina
passivecapacity.Thusitwouldbeveryharmfulifanofficerreceiving
anorderfromhissuperiorsweretoquibbleopenly,whileonduty,about
theappropriatenessorusefulnessoftheorderinquestion.Hemust
simplyobey.Buthecannotreasonablybebannedfrommakingobservations
asamanoflearningontheerrorsinthemilitaryservice,andfrom
submittingthesetohispublicforjudgement.Thecitizencannotrefuse
topaythetaxesimposeduponhim;presumptuouscriticismsofsuch
taxes,wheresomeoneiscalledupontopaythem,maybepunishedasan
outragewhichcouldleadtogeneralinsubordination.Nonetheless,the
samecitizendoesnotcontravenehiscivilobligationsif,asalearned
individual,hepubliclyvoiceshisthoughtsontheimproprietyoreven
injusticeofsuchfiscalmeasures.Inthesameway,aclergymanisbound
toinstructhispupilsandhiscongregationinaccordancewiththe
doctrinesofthechurchheserves,forhewasemployedbyitonthat
condition.Butasascholar,heiscompletelyfreeaswellasobligedto
imparttothepublicallhiscarefullyconsidered,wellintentioned
thoughtsonthemistakenaspectsofthosedoctrines,andtooffer
suggestionsforabetterarrangementofreligiousandecclesiastical
affairs.Andthereisnothinginthiswhichneedtroubletheconscience.
I;orwhatheteachesinpursuitofhisdutiesasanactiveservantof
thechurchispresentedbyhimassomethingwhichheisnotempoweredto
teachathisowndiscretion,butwhichheisemployedtoexpoundina

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prescribedmannerandinsomeoneelse'sname.Hewillsay:Ourchurch
teachesthisorthat,andthesearetheargumentsituses.Hethen
extractsasmuchpracticalvalueaspossibleforhiscongregationfrom
preceptstowhichhewouldnothimselfsubscribewithfullconviction,
butwhichhecanneverthelessundertaketoexpound,sinceitisnotin
factwhollyimpossiblethattheymaycontaintruth.Atallevents,
nothingopposedtotheessenceofreligionispresentinsuchdoctrines.
Foriftheclergymanthoughthecouldfindanythingofthissortin
them,hewouldnotbeabletocarryouthisofficialdutiesingood
conscience,andwouldhavetoresign.Thustheusewhichsomeone
employedasateachermakesofhisreasoninthepresenceofhis
congregationispurelyprivate,sinceacongregation,howeverlargeit
is,isneveranymorethanadomesticgathering.Inviewofthis,heis
notandcannotbefreeasapriest,sinceheisactingonacommission
imposedfromoutside.Conversely,asascholaraddressingthereal
public(i.e.theworldatlarge)throughhiswritings,theclergyman
makingpublicuseofhisreasonenjoysunlimitedfreedomtousehisown
reasonandtospeakinhisownperson.Fortomaintainthatthe
guardiansofthepeopleinspiritualmattersshouldthemselvesbe
immature,isanabsurditywhichamountstomakingabsurditiespermanent.
Butshouldnotasocietyofclergymen,forexampleanecclesiastical
synodoravenerablepresbytery(astheDutchcallit),beentitledto
commititselfbyoathtoacertainunalterablesetofdoctrines,in
ordertosecureforalltimeaconstantguardianshipovereachofits
members,andthroughthemoverthepeople?Ireplythatthisisquite
impossible.Acontractofthiskind,concludedwithaviewtopreventing
allfurtherenlightenmentofmankindforever,isabsolutelynulland
void,evenifitisratifiedbythesupremepower,byImperialDietsand
themostsolemnpeacetreaties.Oneagecannotenterintoanallianceon
oathtoputthenextageinapositionwhereitwouldbeimpossiblefor
ittoextendandcorrectitsknowledge,particularlyonsuchimportant
matters,ortomakeanyprogresswhatsoeverinenlightenment.Thiswould
beacrimeagainsthumannature,whoseoriginaldestinyliesprecisely
insuchprogress.Latergenerationsarethusperfectlyentitledto
dismisstheseagreementsasunauthorisedandcriminal.Totestwhether
anyparticularmeasurecanbeagreeduponasalawforapeople,weneed

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onlyaskwhetherapeoplecouldwellimposesuchalawuponitself.This
mightwellbepossibleforaspecifiedshortperiodasameansof
introducingacertainorder,pending,asitwere,abettersolution.
Thiswouldalsomeanthateachcitizen,particularlytheclergyman,
wouldbegivenafreehandasascholartocommentpublicly,i.e.inhis
writings,ontheinadequaciesofcurrentinstitutions.Meanwhile,the
newlyestablishedorderwouldcontinuetoexist,untilpublicinsight
intothenatureofsuchmattershadprogressedandproveditselftothe
pointwhere,bygeneralconsent(ifnotunanimously),aproposalcould
besubmittedtothecrown.Thiswouldseektoprotectthecongregations
whohad,forinstance,agreedtoaltertheirreligiousestablishmentin
accordancewiththeirownnotionsofwhathigherinsightis,butit
wouldnottrytoobstructthosewhowantedtoletthingsremainas
before.Butitisabsolutelyimpermissibletoagree,evenforasingle
lifetime,toapermanentreligiousconstitutionwhichnoonemight
publiclyquestion.Forthiswouldvirtuallynullifyaphaseinman's
upwardprogress,thusmakingitfruitlessandevendetrimentalto
subsequentgenerations.Amanmayforhisownperson,andeventhenonly
foralimitedperiod,postponeenlighteninghimselfinmattersheought
toknowabout.Buttorenouncesuchenlightenmentcompletely,whether
forhisownpersonorevenmoresoforlatergenerations,means
violatingandtramplingunderfootthesacredrightsofmankind.But
somethingwhichapeoplemaynotevenimposeuponitselfcanstillless
beimposeduponitbyamonarch;forhislegislativeauthoritydepends
preciselyuponhisunitingthecollectivewillofthepeopleinhisown.
Solongasheseestoitthatalltrueorimaginedimprovementsare
compatiblewiththecivilorder,hecanotherwiseleavehissubjectsto
dowhatevertheyfindnecessaryfortheirsalvation,whichisnoneof
hisbusiness.Butitishisbusinesstostopanyoneforciblyhindering
othersfromworkingasbesttheycantodefineandpromotetheir
salvation.Itindeeddetractsfromhismajestyifheinterferesinthese
affairsbysubjectingthewritingsinwhichhissubjectsattemptto
clarifytheirreligiousideastogovernmentalsupervision.Thisapplies
ifhedoessoactinguponhisownexaltedopinionsinwhichcasehe
exposeshimselftothereproach:CaesarnonestsupraGrammaticosbut
muchmoresoifhedemeanshishighauthoritysofarastosupportthe

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spiritualdespotismofafewtyrantswithinhisstateagainsttherest
ofhissubjects.Ifitisnowaskedwhetherweatpresentliveinan
enlightenedage,theansweris:No,butwedoliveinanageof
enlightenment.Asthingsareatpresent,westillhavealongwaytogo
beforemenasawholecanbeinaposition(orcaneverbeputintoa
position)ofusingtheirownunderstandingconfidentlyandwellin
religiousmatters,withoutoutsideguidance.Butwedohavedistinct
indicationsthatthewayisnowbeingclearedforthemtoworkfreelyin
thisdirection,andthattheobstaclestouniversalenlightenment,to
man'semergencefromhisselfincurredimmaturity,aregradually
becomingfewer.Inthisrespectourageistheageofenlightenment,the
centuryofFrederick.Aprincewhodoesnotregarditasbeneathhimto
saythatheconsidersithisduty,inreligiousmatters,notto
prescribeanythingtohispeople,buttoallowthemcompletefreedom,a
princewhothusevendeclinestoacceptthepresumptuoustitleof
tolerant,ishimselfenlightened.Hedeservestobepraisedbya
gratefulpresentandposterityasthemanwhofirstliberatedmankind
fromimmaturity(asfarasgovernmentisconcerned),andwholeftall
menfreetousetheirownreasoninallmattersofconscience.Underhis
rule,ecclesiasticaldignitaries,notwithstandingtheirofficialduties,
mayintheircapacityasscholarsfreelyandpubliclysubmittothe
judgementoftheworldtheirverdictsandopinions,evenifthese
deviatehereIndtherefromorthodoxdoctrine.Thisappliesevenmoreto
allotherswhoarenotrestrictedbyanyofficialduties.Thisspiritof
freedomisalsospreadingabroad,evenwhereithastostrugglewith
outwardobstaclesimposedbygovernmentswhichmisunderstandtheirown
function.Forsuchgovernmentsannowwitnessashiningexampleofhow
freedommayexistwithoutintheleastjeopardisingpublicconcordand
theunityofthecommonwealth.Menwilloftheirownaccordgradually
worktheirwayoutofbarbarismsolongasartificialmeasuresarenot
deliberatelyadoptedtokeeptheminit.Ihaveportrayedmattersof
religionasthefocalpointofenlightenment,i.e.ofman'semergence
fromhisselfincurredimmaturity.Thisisfirstlybecauseourrulers
havenointerestinassumingtheroleofguardiansovertheirsubjects
sofirastheartsandsciencesareconcerned,andsecondly,because
religiousimmaturityisthemostperniciousanddishonourablevarietyof

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all.Buttheattitudeofmindofaheadofstatewhofavoursfreedomin
theartsandsciencesextendsevenfurther,forherealisesthatthere
isnodangereventohislegislationifheallowshissubjectstomake
publicuseoftheirownreasonandtoputbeforethepublictheir
thoughtsonbetterwaysofdrawinguplaws,evenifthisentails
forthrightcriticismofthecurrentlegislation.Wehavebeforeusa
brilliantexampleofthiskind,inwhichnomonarchhasyetsurpassed
theonetowhomwenowpaytribute.Butonlyarulerwhoishimself
enlightenedandhasnofarofphantoms,yetwholikewisehasathanda
welldisciplinedandnumerousarmytoguaranteepublicsecurity,maysay
whatnorepublicwoulddaretosay:Argueasmuchasyoulikeandabout
whateveryoulike,butobey!Thisrevealstousastrangeandunexpected
patterninhumanaffairs(suchasweshallalwaysfindifweconsider
theminthewidestsense,inwhichnearlyeverythingisparadoxical).A
highdegreeofcivilfreedomseemsadvantageoustoapeople's
intellectualfreedom,yetitalsosetsupinsuperablebarrierstoit.
Conversely,alesserdegreeofcivilfreedomgivesintellectualfreedom
enoughroomtoexpandtoitsfullestextent.Thusoncethegermonwhich
naturehaslavishedmostcareman'sinclinationandvocationtothink
freelyhasdevelopedwithinthishardshell,itgraduallyreactsupon
thementalityofthepeople,whothusgraduallybecomeincreasinglyable
toactfreelyEventually,iteveninfluencestheprinciplesof
governments,whichfindthattheycanthemselvesprofitbytreatingman,
whoismorethanamachine,inamannerappropriatetohisdignity.