CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Optical fiber
Fiber optics (optical fibers) are long, thin strands of very pure glass about the diameter of a
human hair. They are arranged in bundles called optical cables and used to transmit light
signals over long distances. Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting
information from one place to another by sending pulses of light through an optical fiber. The
light forms an electromagnetic carrier wave that is modulated to carry information. First
developed in the 1970s, fiber-optic communication systems have revolutionized
the telecommunications industry and have played a major role in the advent of the
Information Age. Because of its advantages over electrical transmission, optical fibers have
largely replaced copper wire communications in core networks in the developed world.
Optical fiber is used by many telecommunications companies to transmit telephone signals,
Internet communication, and cable television signals. Researchers at Bell Labs have reached
internet speeds of over 100 petabits per second using fiber-optic communication.
The process of communicating using fiber-optics involves the following basic steps: Creating
the optical signal involving the use of a transmitter, relaying the signal along the fiber,
ensuring that the signal does not become too distorted or weak, receiving the optical signal,
and converting it into an electrical signal.

Fig.1.1.Optical fiber

1.2 History of optical fiber

Prior to the introduction of optical fiber the information was transmitted through
electromagnetic waves
Fiber optics really developed in 1950s with the work of Hopkins and Narendra Singh
Kapany in UK and Van Heel in Holland
Actual invention took place in 1960 after the development of semiconductor laser and LED.
In 1880 Alexander Graham Bell and his assistant Charles Sumner Tainter created a very early
precursor to fiber-optic communications, the Photophone, at Bell's newly established Volta
Laboratory in Washington, D.C. Bell considered it his most important invention. The device
allowed for the transmission of sound on a beam of light. On June 3, 1880, Bell conducted
the world's first wireless telephone transmission between two buildings, some 213 meters
apart.[2][3] Due to its use of an atmospheric transmission medium, the Photophone would not
prove practical until advances in laser and optical fiber technologies permitted the secure
transport of light. The Photophone's first practical use came in military communication
systems many decades later.
In 1966 Charles K. Kao and George Hockham proposed optical fibers at STC Laboratories
(STL) at Harlow, England, when they showed that the losses of 1000 dB/km in existing glass
(compared to 5-10 dB/km in coaxial cable) was due to contaminants, which could potentially
be removed.
Optical fiber was successfully developed in 1970 by Corning Glass Works, with attenuation
low enough for communication purposes (about 20dB/km), and at the same time
GaAssemiconductor lasers were developed that were compact and therefore suitable for
transmitting light through fiber optic cables for long distances.
After a period of research starting from 1975, the first commercial fiber-optic
communications system was developed, which operated at a wavelength around 0.8 m and
used GaAs semiconductor lasers. This first-generation system operated at a bit rate of
45 Mbps with repeater spacing of up to 10 km. Soon on 22 April 1977, General Telephone
and Electronics sent the first live telephone traffic through fiber optics at a 6 Mbit/s
throughput in Long Beach, California.
The first wide area network fibre optic cable system in the world seems to have been installed
by Rediffusion in Hastings, East Sussex, UK in 1978. The cables were placed in ducting
throughout the town, and had over 1000 subscribers. They were used at that time for the
transmission of television channels,not available because of local reception problems. The
system is still in place, but disused.
The second generation of fiber-optic communication was developed for commercial use in
the early 1980s, operated at 1.3 m, and used InGaAsP semiconductor lasers. These early
systems were initially limited by multimode fiber dispersion, and in 1981 the single-mode
fiber was revealed to greatly improve system performance, however practical connectors

capable of working with single mode fiber proved difficult to develop. By 1987, these
systems were operating at bit rates of up to 1.7 Gb/s with repeater spacing up to 50 km.
The first transatlantic telephone cable to use optical fiber was TAT-8, based on Desurvire
optimized laser amplification technology. It went into operation in 1988.
Third-generation fiber-optic systems operated at 1.55 m and had losses of about 0.2 dB/km.
This development was spurred by the discovery of Indium gallium arsenide and the
development of the Indium Gallium Arsenide photodiode by Pearsall. Engineers overcame
earlier difficulties with pulse-spreading at that wavelength using conventional InGaAsP
semiconductor lasers. Scientists overcame this difficulty by using dispersion-shifted
fibers designed to have minimal dispersion at 1.55 m or by limiting the laser spectrum to a
single longitudinal mode. These developments eventually allowed third-generation systems to
operate commercially at 2.5 Gbit/s with repeater spacing in excess of 100 km.
The fourth generation of fiber-optic communication systems used optical amplification to
reduce the need for repeaters and wavelength-division multiplexing to increase data capacity.
These two improvements caused a revolution that resulted in the doubling of system capacity
every 6 months starting in 1992 until a bit rate of 10 Tb/s was reached by 2001. In 2006 a bitrate of 14 Tbit/s was reached over a single 160 km line using optical amplifiers.[4]
The focus of development for the fifth generation of fiber-optic communications is on
extending the wavelength range over which a WDM system can operate. The conventional
wavelength window, known as the C band, covers the wavelength range 1.53-1.57 m,
and dry fiber has a low-loss window promising an extension of that range to 1.30-1.65 m.
Other developments include the concept of "optical solitons, " pulses that preserve their shape
by counteracting the effects of dispersion with the nonlinear effects of the fiber by using
pulses of a specific shape.
In the late 1990s through 2000, industry promoters, and research companies such as KMI,
and RHK predicted massive increases in demand for communications bandwidth due to
increased use of the Internet, and commercialization of various bandwidth-intensive
consumer services, such as video on demand. Internet protocol data traffic was increasing
exponentially, at a faster rate than integrated circuit complexity had increased under Moore's
Law. From the bust of the dot-com bubble through 2006, however, the main trend in the
industry has been consolidation of firms and offshoring of manufacturing to reduce costs.
Companies such as Verizon and AT&T have taken advantage of fiber-optic communications
to deliver a variety of high-throughput data and broadband services to consumers' homes.

1.3

Parts of Optical Fiber

 Core
Cladding
Buffer Coating

Fig.1.2.Parts of optical fiber

CHAPTER 2
How Does an Optical Fiber Transmit Light?

Fig.2.1 Transmission of light in O.F.C.

2.1 Physics of total internal reflection

The angle of the light is always greater than the critical angle
Cladding does not absorb any light from the core
The extent that the signal degrades depends upon the purity of the glass and the
wavelength of the transmitted light

Fig.2.2 Total internal reflection in OFC

2.2 Fiber Optics Data Links

Fig.2.3 Fiber Optic Link

CHAPTER 3
SPLICING
3.1 Introduction to Splicing
Splices are permanent connection between two fibres. The splicing involves cutting of the
edges of the two fibres to be spliced. This cut has to be carefully made to have a smooth
surface and is generally achieved by a special cutting tool. The two ends, thus, prepared are
then brought together and made to butt against each other. The fibres are then fixed
permanently and reinforced. The fixing process can be achieved in a number of ways. It could
be mechanically fixed permanently through uses of epoxies or through fusion.
There are two types of fiber splicing
Mechanical splicing and
Fusion splicing.
Mechanical splicing doesnt physically fuse two optical fibers together, rather two fibers are
held butt-to-butt inside a sleeve with some mechanical mechanism. You will get worse
insertion loss and back reflection in mechanical splices than in fusion splices (the second type
we are introducing below).Mechanical splicing is mostly used for emergency repairs and
fiber testing. You can check out some mechanical splice products here.

Figure 3.1: Mechanical splice

The second type splicing is called fusion splicing. In fusion splicing, two fibers are literally
welded (fused) together by an electric arc. Fusion splicing is the most widely used method of
splicing as it provides for the lowest insertion loss and virtually no back reflection.
Fusion splicing provides the most reliable joint between two fibers. Fusion splicing is done
by an automatic machine called fusion splicer (fusion splicing machines).

Figure 3.2: Fusion splice

3.2 Splice Losses

Splice losses can be divided into two categories as shown in Table.
Extrinsic and
intrinsic splice loss factors

3.3 Splicing Methods

The following three types are widely used:
1. Adhesive bonding or Glue splicing.
2. Mechanical splicing.
3. Fusion splicing.
1. Adhesive Bonding or Glue Splicing
This is the oldest splicing technique used in fibre splicing. After fibre end preparation, it is
axially aligned in a precision Vgroove. Cylindrical rods or other kind of reference surfaces
are used for alignment. During the alignment of fibre end, a small amount of adhesive or glue
of same refractive index as the core material is set between and around the fibre ends. A two
component epoxy or an UV curable adhesive is used as the bonding agent.
The splice loss of this type of joint is same or less than fusion splices. But fusion splicing
technique is more reliable, so at present this technique is very rarely used.
2. Mechanical Splicing
This splicing is mainly used for temporary splicing in case of emergency repairing. This
method is also convenient to connect measuring instruments to bare fibres for taking various
measurements.
The mechanical splices consists of 4 basic components :
(i) An alignment surface for mating fibre ends.
(ii) A retainer.
(iii) An index matching material.
(i) A protective housing.
A very good mechanical splice for M.M. fibres can have an optical performance good as
fusion spliced fibre or glue spliced. But in case of single mode fibre, this type of splice
cannot have stability of loss.
3. Fusion Splicing
The fusion splicing technique is the most popular technique used for achieving low splice
losses. The fusion can be achieved either through electrical arc or through gas flame. The
process involves cutting of the fibres and fixing them in micropositioners the fusion splicing
machine. The fibres are then aligned either manually or automatically core aligning (in case
of S.M. fibre) process. Afterwards, the operation that takes place involve withdrawal of the
fibres to a specified distance, preheating the fibre ends through electric arc and bringing
together of the fibre ends in a position and splicing through high temperature fusion. If proper
care is taken and splicing is done strictly as per schedule, then the splicing loss can be

minimized as low as 0.01 dB/joint. After fusion splicing, the splicing joint should be provided
with a proper protector to have following protections:
(a) Mechanical protection
(b) Protection from moisture.
Sometimes the two types of protection are combined. Coating with Epoxy resins protects
against moisture and also provides mechanical strength at the joint. Nowadays the heat
shrinkable tubes are most widely used, which are fixed on the joints by the fusion tools.

3.4 Principle of fusion splice technique :

It is most widely used method for splicing optical fiber. There are a number of fusion welding
machines manufactured by different companies, some of them are fully automatic and
controlled by a microprocessor and some are partly automatic and manually controlled. In
some cases, the fiber ends & the fusion process can be seen on a TV-monitor screen.
The process can be sub-divided into the following three steps :
(a) Axial alignment.
(b) Perfusion &
(c) Actual fusion welding.
In case of the old machines the axial alignment is done manually by manipulating a number
of knobs and is observed with the help of a high power microscope. This is normally
followed in case of multimode fiber. In case of modern machines, pre-aligned, V-grooves are
provided a finer adjustment is done, if necessary. For single mode fiber, other techniques are
followed. The best one is fully automatic core alignment method which is now days used.
After alignment is done, the ends of the fiber are fire polished by an electric arc and this
method is called pre-fusion. During this process, the fiber ends are kept separated at a
distance, after this they are brought closer and the process is called as fiber end feedings. This
feeding process is continued during actual fusion by electric arc to prevent a reduced section
at the point of welding.
The process of perfusion, fiber ends feed and actual fusion are critical to a good weld and are
frequently automatically controlled by the fusion machine. The fusion time of single mode
fiber is less than that the multimode fiber. The Introduction of single mode fiber for use in
long haul network, brought with it different fiber construction and cable design, from that of
multimode cables. The design of the cable, the brittleness of the fiber and the requirement of
accurately aligning the single mode fiber cores, required splicing techniques different to those
used for multimode fiber, where aligning of the cladding is done. Due to this sophisticated
splicing machines were developed.
The main functions of the above are:
(1) Auto active alignment of the core.
(2) Auto arc fusion.
(3) Video display of the entire process.
(4) Indication of the estimated loss at the slice.
In this core profile alignment system (CPA), the two fiber ends to be spliced are cleaved and
then clamped in accurately machined V- grooves. A video image proceeding technique is used
to detect the boundary between the core and cladding glasses in the fibers on each side of the
splice point. The core boundaries in the fibers and aligned in the horizontal and vertical plane

by microprocessor controlled micropositioners. When the optimum alignment is achieved, the

fibers are automatically fused under the micro-processor control. The machine then measures
the radial and angular offsets of the fibers and uses these figures to calculate a splice loss
estimated, which is used only as a guidance. The operator of the machine observes the
alignment and fusion processes on a video screen showing horizontal and vertical projection
of the fibres and then decides the quality of the splice.

3.5 Requirement of a good splice

Following are the requirements of a good splice.
(i) Low loss.
(ii) Stability of loss
(iii) Reliability.
(iv) Ease of reopening.
(v) Low cost.
Considering all the above facts, suitable methods of splicing should be selected.
The Following are the common steps in every splicing method.
(A) Fibre and preparation:
(I) Fibre stripping.
(II) Fibre cleaning.
(III) Fibre cutting
(B) Axial alignment.
(C) Actual splicing of two fibre ends.

Figure 3.3: Arc Method in Fusion Splice

10

3.6 FIBER OPTIC CABLE SPLICING PROCEDURE (HOW TO

SPLICE FIBER OPTIC
CABLE)
1. Strip fiber cable jacket. Strip back about 1 meters of fiber cable jacket to expose the fiber
loose tubes or tight buffered fibers. Use cable rip cord to cut through the fiber jacket. Then
carefully peel back the jacket and expose the insides. Cut off the excess jacket. Clean off all
cable gel with cable gel remover. Separate the fiber loose tubes and buffers by carefully
cutting away any yarn or sheath. Leave enough of the strength member to properly secure the
cable in the splice enclose.
2. Strip fiber tubes. For a loose tube fiber cable, strip away about 0.9 meters of fiber tube
using a buffer tube stripper and expose the individual fibers.
3. Clean cable gel. Carefully clean all fibers in the loose tube of any filling gel with cable gel
remover.
4. Secure cable tubes. Secure the end of the loose tube to the splice tray and lay out cleaned
and separated fibers on the table. Strip and clean the other cable tubes fiber that is to be
spliced, and secure to the splice tray.
5. Strip first splicing fiber. Hold the first splicing fiber and remove the 250um fiber coating
to expose 5cm of 125um bare fiber cladding with fiber coating stripper tool. For tight
buffered fibers, remove 5cm of 900um tight buffer first with a buffer stripping tool, and then
remove the 5cm of 250um coating.
6. Place the fusion splice protection sleeve. Put a fusion splice protection sleeve onto the
fiber being spliced.
7. Clean the bare fiber. Carefully clean the stripped bare fiber with lint-free wipes soaked in
isopropyl alcohol. After cleaning, prevent the fiber from touching anything.
8. Fiber cleaving. With a high precision fiber cleaver, cleave the fiber to a specified length
according to your fusion splicers manual.
9. Prepare second fiber being spliced. Strip, clean and cleave the other fiber to be spliced.
10. Fusion splicing. Place both fibers in the fusion splicer and do the fusion splice according
to its manual.
11. Heat shrinks the fusion splice protection sleeve. Slide the fusion splice protection
sleeve on the joint and put it into the heat shrink oven, and press the heat button.
12. Place splice into splice tray. Carefully place the finished splice into the splice tray and
loop excess fiber around its guides. Ensure that the fibers minimum bending radius is not
compromised.
13. Perform OTDR test. Perform a OTDR test of the splice and redo the splice if necessary.
14. Close the splice tray. After all fibers have been spliced, carefully close the splice tray
and place it into the splice enclosure.
15. Bidirectional OTDR test (or power meter test). Test the splices with an OTDR or
power meter from both directions.
16. Mount the splice enclosure. Close and mount the splice enclosure if all splices meet the
specifications.

11

CAUTION
Avoid places with too much dust or dirt. Dirt or dust that can accumulate in the fusion splicer
causing short circuits or insufficient cooling, which may lead to splicer malfunction or
deterioration, resulting in fire or electric shock.
To reduce the risk of electric shock, do not plug/unplug the power cord or remove the
battery with wet hands.
Disconnect the power cord by grasping the plug, not the cord.
The battery's optimum charging temperature range is 0 to 45C. Whenever possible, place the
charger in a location that is within this temperature range. Do not charge the battery at extremely
low temperature (below 0C). Doing so may lead to deterioration in performance and battery
leakage.
If you are not going to use the splicer for a while, remove the battery before storing it. Not
doing so will shorten a battery life.
Only use 99% pure alcohol to clean the splicer. To prevent malfunction and damage, do not
use any other kind of chemicals.
The heating plate of the heat shrink oven may be hot during and after heating. Do not touch it
directly.
Do not operate the splicer in rain. Doing so may cause the battery or AC power supply to be
short-circuited.

12

CHAPTER 4
Fiber-Optic Applications
The use and demand for optical fiber has grown tremendously and optical-fiber applications
are numerous. Telecommunication applications are widespread, ranging from global networks
to desktop computers. These involve the transmission of voice, data, or video over distances
of less than a meter to hundreds of kilometers, using one of a few standard fiber designs in
one of several cable designs.
Fiber Optic Interconnects
Interconnections are one of the largest and most widely used areas for fiber optic cables and
assemblies. An interconnect is defined as the physical connection of two or more fixtures
through which communication is possible. Interconnects range from simple, simplex patch
cords to multi-channel distribution and backbone cables and virtually everything in between.
Most interconnects are used for smaller, localized network or system structures, linking
similar machines, complimentary devices, and/or data communications from one system to
another.
Fiber Optic Networking
With the increasing bandwidth requirements associated with broadband services, service
providers and network operators are expanding and extending fiber optics further down line
to accommodate present and future requirements. This network extension and expansion
requires multiple fiber optic connectivity products in a myriad of forms. Trunk cables,
distribution cables, high-density interconnect cables, and standard patch cords are just a few
of the many types of products.
Gigabit Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet solutions have become a necessity with the accelerating growth of LAN
traffic, pushing network administrators to look for higher speed network technologies to meet
the demand for more bandwidth.
While most copper systems will support Gigabit Ethernet, fiber optics provide a much higher
degree of flexibly and future bandwidth/speed expansion as opposed to its copper
counterparts. Generally, copper will support Gigabit and multi-gig transmission rates, but
only for very short distances. Copper is affected by EMI (electromagnetic interference) and
RFI (radio frequency interference). Fiber opics will support Gigabit and multi-gig
transmission for both short and long distances, with immunity to EMI and RFI, making fiber
a more suitable solution for a number of applications.
Gigabit Ethernet applications supported by fiber optics are now transmitting signal reliably at
10Gbps, up to 10,000 meters using single mode systems, and well over that for Gigabit and
multi-gig transmission rates. With multimode systems, fiber optics will push 10Gbps
transmission between 26 and 300 meters, depending on the fiber type and core size.
Data Transfer Tests
For testing applications, optical or electrical loopbacks are used to verify the operational
reliability of the device under test. With both optical and electrical loopbacks, the signal
generated by the device under test is looped from the transmit (Tx) side of an active
component back to the receive (Rx) port of the same component.
Fiber Optics for Data Storage Equipment
Fiber optic connectivity offers very high bandwidth over extended distances making optical
communication an ideal conduit for device-to-device connections, enabling faster,
simultaneous information access from across the room or across the country.

13

While some data storage devices use copper connections and cabling for device-to-device
connections, more data storage administrators are replacing copper ports with optical ports to
improve performance and ensure these devices can support ever increasing bandwidth
requirements now and in the future.
Premise Networks
Premise network is defined as the transmission network (LAN) inside the users' building or
group of buildings that connects the various types of voice and data communications devices
to each other and to the outside world.
Carrier Networks
Carrier networks are defined as a network, or series of networks, providing connectivity to
cities, towns, or other entities on a large scale. Communications service providers utilize
these networks to distribute very large amounts of bandwidth over long distances, providing
the communication necessary to support premise networks and central office, and all other
communications and broadband services offered at the end.
Outside Plant
Outside plant is defined as all the cables, conduits, ducts, poles, towers, repeaters, repeater
huts, and other equipment located between a demarcation point in a switching facility and a
demarcation point in another switching facility or customer premises. Simply put, this is the
portion of your network that resides outside your facilities, connecting you with the outside
world.
Most outside plant applications require cabling, enclosures, optical nodes, or distribution
points to withstand any number of adverse circumstances directly related to its surroundings.
Outside plant products are designed to perform the same functionality as their industry
standard counterparts, with additional protection or ruggedization, greatly reducing the
opportunity for failure while in service.
Typically these products are designed using specialized jacketing, cases, and/or distribution
methods to ensure durability. Generally, companies use these products for direct burial
cabling and enclosures, aerial cabling, water and chemical proof environmental connections,
and crush-resistant/proof connectivity requirements.
Broadcast Fiber Optics
The broadcast fiber optics are designed to provide multiple channel, high-bandwidth links
and, in some cases, power (electrical) connections to and from cameras, trucks, and satellite
links.
With the increasing demand for HDTV programming, broadcasters are implementing more
fiber to support HDTV signal capture and transport at live sports, music, and entertainment
events. Fiber is also rapidly becoming the data transmission method of choice for stadiums,
arenas, and venues allowing these facilities to supply high-definition content for HDTV,
video-on-demand, and broadband networks.
Automotive Fiber Optics
Fiber optic technology is becoming the medium of choice for a variety of automotive
applications. With its unique characteristics, fiber optics are a naturally ideal choice for
lighting, communications, and sensing requirements.
Automobile manufacturers are using fiber for lighting applications for several reasons. First
and foremost, fiber transmits cold light, making it a safe alternative to traditional sealed
beam or halogen lighting. Apart from the safety advantage, the light source is easily
accessible and offers much more in creative freedom of design. Fiber also allows for light
source and output location separation, creating high performance lighting options with
reduced physical space requirements for difficult and restricted access locations.

14

 Fiber Optics for Sensing

Fiber optics for sensing applications are used to communicate with a sensor device, or use a
fiber as the sensor itself, to conduct continuous monitoring of physical, chemical, and
biological changes in the subject or object of study.
Fiber optic sensing is a key component to improving industrial processes, quality control
systems, medical diagnostics, and preventing and controlling general process abnormalities.
Fiber optics used for these applications provide very acute sensitivity and data collection
versatility, while allowing for a wide range of specialized application uses.
Fiber Optics for Oil & Gas
Fiber optics are used for a number of applications in the oil and gas markets. These markets
require very specific cabling and connectivity requirements to ensure the utmost in safety,
productivity, and harsh environment durability.
As producers of one of the most widely used consumables, oil and gas companies are rapidly
expanding operations to support the increasing global demand for petroleum products. As
part of this deployment, these companies are installing fiber optics to leverage the advantages
offered by fiber, improving the overall performance and accuracy of their operations.
HDTV
HDTV (high definition television) is the broadcasting of a higher resolution format than
possible with traditional analog television broadcasting. A form of digital television, HDTV is
a very bandwidth intensive application requiring maximum allowable speed and data volume
transfer.
Originating with HD camera and video capture/processing equipment, television networks,
service providers, and production companies are utilizing fiber optics as the support and
distribution structure all the way to the subscriber premises.
Data Transmission Fiber Optics
Data transmission fiber optics, simply put, is the sending and receiving of data from point-topoint via a network, thus the fundamental function of all fiber systems from small to large.
Data transmission requirements range from very simple cables connecting servers or storage
arrays inside a network or telecommunications system, to large multi-fiber distribution cables
supporting intra-building connectivity and beyond.
Fiber Optic Imaging
Imaging applications require individual fibers to be aligned, fused, and bundled to function
correctly as an image guide. Bundling is necessary as a single fiber optic cable is only
capable of reproducing a single color of varying intensity, based on what it received from the
source or subject area. By bundling several, in some cases thousands of identical individual
fibers, an image guide or coherent bundle relies on each fiber to focus on reproducing a
single color, but collectively the bundle reproduces the target subject exactly.

4.1 ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

Fiber Optics has the following advantages:
Wider bandwidth:
The information carrying capacity of a transmission system is directly proportional to the
carrier frequency of the transmitted signals. The optical carrier frequency is in the range 1013
to 1015 Hz while the radio wave frequency is about 106 Hz
and the microwave frequency is about 1010 Hz. Thus the optical fiber yields greater
transmission bandwidth than the conventional communication systems and the data rate or
number of bits per second is increased to a greater extent in the optical fiber communication
system

15

 Low transmission loss:

Due to the usage of the ultra low loss fibers and the erbium doped silica fibers as optical
amplifiers, one can achieve almost lossless transmission. In the modern optical fiber
telecommunication systems, the fibers having a transmission loss of 0.002dB/km are used.
Further, using erbium doped silica fibers over a short length in the transmission path at
selective points; appropriate optical amplification can be achieved. Thus the repeater spacing
is more than 100 km. Since the amplification is done in the optical domain itself, the
distortion produced during the strengthening of the signal is almost negligible.
Dielectric waveguide:
Optical fibers are made from silica which is an electrical insulator. Therefore they do not
pickup any electromagnetic wave or any high current lightning. It is also suitable in explosive
environments. Further the optical fibers are not affected by any interference originating from
power cables, railway power lines and radio waves. There is no cross talk between the fibers
even though there are so many fibers in a cable because of the absence of optical interference
between the fibers.
Signal security:
The transmitted signal through the fibers does not radiate. Further the signal cannot be
tapped from a fiber in an easy manner. Therefore optical fiber communication provides
hundred per cent signal security.
Small size and weight:
Fiber optic cables are developed with small radii, and they are flexible, compact and
lightweight. The fiber cables can be bent or twisted without damage. Further, the optical fiber
cables are superior to the copper cables in terms of storage, handling, installation and
transportation, maintaining comparable strength and durability.
4.2 Disadvantages
Optical Fibre cables are expensive to install.
The termination of a fiber optics cable is complex and requires special tools.
They are more fragile than coaxial cable.

16

Some manufacturers of optical fibers

Furukawa
Fujikura
LG Cables
Corning
Philips-Fitel
Pirelli
TTL
Sterlite Cables

Fig 4.1 Some Manufacturers of optical Fiber cables

17

Chapter 5
Innovations in Optical Fiber
Communication
5.1 Fiber Optics in Data Transmission
Innovations in optical fiber technology are revolutionizing world Communications. Newly
developed fiber amplifiers allow for direct transmission of high-speed signals over
transcontinental distances without the need for electronic regeneration. Optical fibers find
new applications in data processing.
The impact of fiber materials, devices, and systems on communications in the coming
decades will create an abundance of primary literature and the need for up-to-date reviews.
5.2 Fiber Optic Innovation Could Hold Key To Bandwidth Breakthrough
A new design for fiber-optic cables puts a literal twist on data transmissions, an innovation
that could lead to Internet connections with dramatically bigger bandwidth capacity.
Cables might seem invisible in the age of Wi-Fi, but theyre still essential to communication.
Even though your smartphone or laptop connects to the Internet wirelessly, it still relies on
fiber optics to transmit your tweets and texts long distances. These fibers are, essentially,
light pipes.
Since the 1990s, weve increased our bandwidth capacity by encoding data in different colors
of light, but now that strategy by itself is starting to reach the limit of its usefulness.
What happened is that we ran out of colors to add, Boston University engineer Siddharth
Ramachandran explained in a phone interview.
Ramachandran, along with colleagues from the University of Southern California, describe a
new dimension for fiber-optic transmission in a paper appearing in the journal Science this
week. Their new design can transmit data through a 1 kilometer (.62 mile) long cable at a
rate of 1.6 terabits per second -- the equivalent of eight Blu-Ray DVDs every second.

Figure 5.1: High Data Transfer through OFC

18

5.3 Fiber optics for high data transfer

Researches has been done to create a fiber super cable that had the capacity to transmit seven
separate light pulses at once.
In March, Dayou Qian, of NEC, reported a run in which he was able to transmit data at an
unprecedented rate of 101.7 terabits per second across a distance of 165 kilometers.
This was achieved by sending the information along as 370 separate lasers that was received
as one light pulse at the other end.
While in Japan, Jun Sakaguchi of the National Institute of Information and Communications
Technology in Tokyo one-upped that mark when his research team delivered data at 109
terabits per second.

5.4 Conclusion
The need for fast method of data transfer has become very important in this
modern world. Innovations in optical fiber technology are revolutionizing world
Communications. The impact of fiber materials, devices, and systems on communications
in the coming decades will create an abundance of primary literature and the need for up-todate reviews.Through increased bandwidth we can transfer large amount of data in less
time.Data clarity is another important aspect which is obtained in optical fibre cables.

19

APPENDICES:
Fiber optic Connectors

Fig .a.1 D4 Connector

Connectors are vital elements in the Fiber Optics Technology. Connectors can be defined as a
remittable means of arranging transfer of optical energy from one fiber optic component to
another in an optical fiber system.
SC Connector

Fig.a.2 A SC Connector
Although the mechanical design varies a lot among different connector types, the most
common elements in a fiber connector can be summarized in the following picture. The
example shown is a SC connector which was developed by NTT (Nippon Telegraph and
Telephone) of Japan.
Optical Time Domain Reflectometer
An OTDR sends short pulses of light into a fiber. Light scattering occurs in the fiber due to
discontinuities such as connectors, splices, bends, and faults. An OTDR then detects and
analyzes the backscattered signals. The signal strength is measured for specific intervals of
time and is used to characterize events.

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REFERENCES
1] www.learntelecom.bsnl.co.in
2] www.wikipedia.org/wiki/opticalfibre
3] Optical Fibre communication by Keiser
4] Website of ITU-T
5] An introduction to fiber optics - Ajoy K. Ghatak, K. Thyagarajan
6] http://www.fiber-optics.info
7] www.arcelect.com
8] http://www.flukenetworks.com/expertise/learn-about/otdr
9] www.fiberoptics4sale.com/Merchant2/fiber-optic-splicing-tutorial.php
10] www.advantra.net/sample1.pdf

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