arXiv:astro-ph/0206381v1 21 Jun 2002

REPORT TO ANAXIMANDER:
A DIALOGUE ON
THE ORIGIN OF THE COSMOS
IN THE CRADLE OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION
Rien van de Weygaert
Kapteyn Institute, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
weygaert@astro.rug.nl
1

The Apeiron, from which the elements [are formed],

is something that is different
Anaximander of Miletus (610-546 B.C.)

SCHOOL OF ATHENS ...

Pentelic mountain, solid rock in the city of the goddess Athena, patron
of wisdom. In search of the foundations of our world there is hardly a
more symbolic site. It welcomed us for a two-day expedition to the outer
reaches and first instances of our cosmos, a symposion on the origin,
evolution and future of the world.
To Athens Pentelic mountain fulfils a similar role as the city itself
does to the human quest for the very origins and workings of humanity, the world, the cosmos. Its quarries provided the elements for the
eternal, solemn and awe-inspiring monuments that still stand as testimony for an epoch in which humanity reached out for unprecedented,
thrilling and almost divine heights of intellectual endeavour, creativity,
and inspiration !
The city, obedient to her patron of wisdom, likewise passed on the
elements and foundation for scientific inquiry. Perhaps unsurpassed in
beauty and profoundness, it is Raffaellos Scuola di Atene which embodies the most proper expression of gratitude and respect owed by the
whole world to ancient Greek society. Gratitude for leading the way and
1 Conference

summary 2nd Hellenic Cosmology workshop, April 19-20, 2001

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bestowing upon us the duty to explore and further our understanding of
the Universe, for showing that one cannot imagine a duty more sacred
than this intellectual and artistic quest for truth.
It is therefore with proper modesty that I set out to enumerate some
of the highlights of these very enjoyable days in April 2001 ... days
which to us cosmologists stood for a profound and thought-provoking
experience at the birthplace of science itself ...

Figure 1.
Euclides and the geometry of the world. Detail from Scuola di Atene
in the Stanza della Segnature, Raffaello Sanzio (1483-1520). photo: Rien van de
Weygaert 2001

THE NOTION OF A POINT IS POINTLESS ...

As if not yet sufficient, I soon realized that it is futile to strive for a
summary that evokes the spirit of a meeting to its full and proper extent.
As was stressed by Spiros Cotsakis, discussing the relativity of matters,
the notion of a point is pointless ....
Yet, it were lines dominating the meeting. Wordlines first and
foremost, as cosmologies principal item. Yet, also the combination of all
pursued lines of cosmological research whose assembly gave this meeting
such an tantalizing flair and scope. So varied, nicely complementary and
intertwining were these lines that the comparison with the construction
of a temple of Pentelic marble occurred to me as a suitable analogy.

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CONSTRUCTING THE COSMOS ON PENTELIC MARBLE

The collection of presentations provided the attendants with a nicely
balanced and properly representative overview of the beautiful and rich
edifice into which physical cosmology has matured over the past decades.
As it were, we were presented with a full plenary gathering of the three
branches of cosmological architecture. First, there were the sessions
of the Architects. Sessions discussing fundamental cosmology, focussing on the topology and geometry of our Universe and the fundamental physical laws and processes at work in those first decisive moments
of the (Very) Early Universe. Having been provided with these cosmic
blueprints, the Constructors set out to present their investigation
into the ultimate realization of the cosmic framework. In line with the
Classics of cosmology, they discussed the best available estimates of the
parameters characterizing the Friedmann-Robertson-Walker metric, by
an impressive body of evidence the architectural plan for the cosmos of
which we have found ourselves to be tenants. To them the verdict on the
ultimate fate of our world ! Finally, the Interior Decorators taking
care of the cosmic Infrastructure. It is the realm for the cosmological artisans studying the tantalizing and beautiful patterns and objects
which render our Universe such an awe-inspiring realm of beauty and
wealth. Part of them kept it clean, concentrating on the works of the
prime agent responsible for Megaparsec cosmic structure, forming structure through gravitational instability. Others were to be seen as the
new heroes of cosmology, the ones whose dirty works combine gravitational, hydrodynamic, radiative, stellar and a variety of other dissipative
processes into a courageous attempt towards understanding the lights in
the cosmos. In presentations of a variety of state-of-the-art projects into
astrophysical cosmology we got granted some intriguing pages from
the chronicles reporting on the formation of galaxies and stars in the
Universe, as the lights went on and we got around for admiring them ...

THE ARCHITECTURE
During the late seventies and eighties the image of the cosmic snake
emerged as a symbol for a profound link between the physics of the
very smallest and the physics of the very largest. Cosmology became
a forum where an exciting mix of views on the workings of our world
came to meet. Following shortly after overwhelming feats such as the
corroboration of Big Bang predictions of cosmological light element nucleosynthesis and the discovery of the Microwave Background Radiation
by Penzias & Wilson, the realization had grown that the early Universe
provides a unique testbed for fundamental physicists and astrophysicists

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alike. It spawned the rise of astroparticle physics. The astrophysicists
yearned for physics providing a compelling set of physical laws. Such
cosmological theory and framework would allow them to interpret the
rising tide of observations and understanding of the large-scale cosmos.
On the other hand, physicists hoped to reduce the dirty Universe of
astrophysics into the bare and useful pieces of information on the fundamental workings of nature. In the view of some (Veltman 2001) this has
succeeded in only one instant, astrophysical cosmology having taught
particle physicists that there are no more than 3 neutrino species, constrained by the measured abundances of light elements produced in the
very first minutes of the Big Bang.

Figure 2.
Albert Einstein and Willem de Sitter discussing the cosmological equations for describing the Universe. Copyright: Wide World Photos, New York. From:
exhibit Albert Einstein, Center for History of Physics, American Institute of Physics.

In this context it is good to realize that one of the most fundamental

and best understood tenets of cosmology is that General Relativity is
the proper encryption of the cosmologically dominant force of gravity.
That while solid thorough experimental evidence i.e. other than circumstancial for GR fully describing gravitational intereactions is still
merely confined to the puny region of our own Solar System (at least in

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the view of an orthodox and sceptical physicists view). The Solar System may hardly be considered a representative cosmological realm given
the fifteen orders of magnitude it is removed from the global Hubble
radius.
As much of fundamental importance may be the meaning of a vacuum energy density cosmological constant . With some justification we may see the evidence accumulated over the past years for a
non-zero value of as the currently most significant and fundamental
development in the field of cosmology. It may provide us with a key
for unlocking the workings of gravity at the very first instances. The
quest for the origin of the cosmological constant and its possible significance as a fundamental trace of quantum cosmological processes is, in
my view, one of the most exciting and illustrious scientific endeavours
in early 21st century physics. It brings us to the very first moments of
our Cosmos, an epoch at which it resided in a still largely mysterious
era of quantum gravity. It may be here that we can expect to run into
the very secrets of the ultimate creation of the Universe. In the light of
such considerations there is some urge in investigating the foundations
and assumptions upon which our standard cosmological framework
stands. A more lucid understanding of the specific position of the standard Friedmann-Robertson-Walker within a wider context of cosmological theories is necessary. Various contributions involved attempts to
adress the issue of this special role and position of FRW Universes. The
string of presentations on fundamental cosmological issues in a general
relativistic context constituted a fruitful and useful forum for further
contemplations along this line, triggering many stimulating thoughts.
For natural sciences, it is ultimately compelling to turn to the mathematical framework in which the science is enabled to mature. Only then
the full richness of links and parallels can be discerned which are so necessary for uncovering the fundamental issues and laws. Therefore, it was
the contribution by S. Cotsakis which functioned as a beautiful frame for
the works on the issues of fundamental cosmology. To see cosmological
world models treated as mathematical objects is particularly usuful to
the astrophysical community, making them to realize into which narrow
lanes they tend to channel their results and observations, ad well as for
grasping the wider significance of their work. Outlining the 3 basic ingredients which constitute a complete theory the corresponding theory
of gravity, the spacetime structure and geometry, and the matter fields
which form its content it paved the way for contributions on specific
elaborations on various specific topics.
Directly tangible is the ingredient of matter and energy content of
our Universe. Still puzzling are the nature of dark matter, so tangi-

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ble present in its gravitational influence, as well as the elusive vacuum
energy which is responsible for the cosmological constant , which in
recent years seems to have surfaced as an inescapable presence. As for
the nature of dark matter, its properties can best be determined from
its presence on galactic scales, in particular its immediate influence on
the rotation curves of large galaxies. Justifiable a discussion on this issue was a necessary ingredient within this meeting, taken care of in the
contribution by Spyrou. Also with respect to the untangible component
of vacuum density, the current popularity and high interest in the cosmological constant did not leave the capital of Attica untouched. It was
entertaining to notice how the symbol of its traditional rival in Laconia,
, still managed to incite hot discussion and contention ... for sure still
a sensitivity that does not seem to have subsided ...
The second ingredient, that of spacetime geometry, got further elaborated on by Christodoulakis and G. Papadopoulos. They discussed the
specific spacetime structure of a few classes of spatially homogeneous
Bianchi cosmologies. Centering more specifically on the widely accepted
Friedman-Robertson-Walker Universes, Tsamparlis tried to answer the
question whether or not these models do also form the worldmodel in
situations where symmetry assumptions are less strong. Intentionally
focussing on the issue of time, Kehagias traced and investigated its extreme ramifications in the context of time machines.
Combining all three basic ingredients, including those of the gravitational force, Cotsakis extensively discussed the stability considerations
of such mathematical world models. Particularly stressed was the fundamental fundamental significance of singularities (functions, just like
living beings, are characterized by their singularieis). Drawing particular to the global FRW Universes, Cotsakis finished this issue with a
discussion of the important question of the stability of the global FRW
Universes. Whether it is indeed a stable solution along the lines of
cosmological attractor theory is highly relevant for simple perturbation
considerations in conventional structure formation considerations, which
tend to neglect the fact that these are less well-posed in a full relativistic
setting than often presumed.
Given the statement that nearly all viable cosmological solutions are
likely to form singularities in a finite time, we quickly arrive at the overriding question whether quantum gravity is really necessary to resolve
these singularities. If so, implying the need for a bigger encompassing
theory of cosmology, we may indeed get to the inescapable conclusion
that the notion of a point is rendered obsolete, for sure in those very first
decisive instances. Elaborating on this issue of a fundamental connection
between the quantum world and gravity, it may be found through the

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elusive term. Elizalde focussed on this connection by discussing the

Casimir effect, which should help us in understanding the gravitational
action of the vacuum energy density.
Extrapolating the discussion on the cosmological constant to the
very first moments of the Universe, its present value may be a mere
small remnant of the overriding power it unfolded during early phases of
inflationary expansion. This provided the backdrop for the discussions
by Papantonopoulos, Miritzis and Dimopoulos. Embedding inflation
within a multi-dimensional brane cosmology is one of the currently investigated attempts to develop a proper understanding of why we ended
up in a FRW Universe (Papantonopoulos). Very interesting would be the
possibility of inflation leaving an observational and measurable imprint
in the form of primordial magnetic fields, the seeds for the currently not
yet understood relatively strong galactic magnetic fields. The origin of
these galactic fields is still an as yet unsolved riddle in the astrophysical
realm. The suggestion that they may have been a remnant of cosmic inflation provides an intriguing and relevant connection between the world
of the very early Universe and that of our observable Universe. Tsagas
subsequently discussed the possibility of such cosmic magnetic fields so
strongly coupling to the spacetime geometry that they would not leave
the universal expansion untouched.

THE CONSTRUCTION
The architects finally agreed on handing over a world model scheme
to the constructors, in the form of the homogeneous, isotropic and uniformly expanding Friedmann-Robertson-Walker model Universe. This
agreed upon, discussions opened on the precise parameter values which
characterize its realization in the case of the world we live in. While
great strides forward have been made with respect to setting the values
the crucial cosmological parameters the curvature of spacetime, the
mass-energy density in terms of the critical density and the expansion
rate in terms of the Hubble parameter H not all have been determined
with comparable accuracy.
An extensive and very informative presentation by Gazta
naga centered on the large scale distribution of matter and galaxies and the
microwave background radiation as seemingly inexhaustible sources of
information on the fundamental cosmological parameters. It set the
scene for the contributions on the first day of the meeting, providing
the background for all ensuing presentations on structure and galaxy
formation. During many decades of cosmological observations, the overall construction plan in terms of the FRW blueprint has accumulated

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an impressive record of observational evidence. Of decisive influence
has been the discovery of the perfectly thermal microwave background
radiation field. The thermal spectrum of the microwave background,
outlining the surface of last scattering at the epoch of recombination,
has been measured by COBEs FIRAS instrument to a degree of precision inconceivable to the vast majority of astronomical observations. Its
tight Planckian blackbody behaviour is the most convincing evidence for
the reality of the early hot and highly dense epoch (the Hot of the Big
Bang) out of which the present Universe emerged
Despite such solid and practically irrefutable evidence, the basic specification of the FRW Universe description in terms of its curvature, the
expansion rate, and the content in matter and energy is still not settled
to any desirable and needed precision. However, we have witnessed great

Figure 3.
The Cosmic Blueprint (?): Boomerang map of the Microwave Background, image obtained from the maiden voyage of the balloon-borne instrument
around the Antarctic (2000). The BOOMERANG image covers approximately 2.5revealing hundreds of complex structures that are visible as tiny variations typically
only 100 K in the temperature of the CMB. The patterns visible in the image are
consistent with those that would result from sound waves racing through the early
universe, creating the structures that by now have evolved into giant clusters and
super-clusters of galaxies. Courtesy: Boomerang Collaboration.

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progress during the past two decades, and cosmology has managed to
break away from a bare search for two numbers and develop into one of
sciences most prospering activities, encompassing and combining a rich
and sumptuous palet of relevant areas of interest. Even more impressive,
possibly conclusive, advances are shortly to be expected. It therefore
does not anymore seem an exaggeration to claim that the fundamental
cosmic parameters will get fully fixed within the near future. Within a
decade we may have fully determined the past, history and fate of our
Universe. Nonetheless, if blessed with some feeling for historic awareness
we should be rather weary of such firm statements and claims. After all,
with a Universe whose energy content is seemingly dominated by a dark
matter component and an additionally even more enigmatic dark energy
contribution responsible for the cosmological constant it may not be
entirely unwarranted to suspect that we are missing out on some fundamental and systematic aspect of our worldview. After all, the physical
nature of the dark matter is currently still as puzzling as it was more
than a decade ago. Even more humbling we should be with respect to
, the essence of the corresponding vacuum energy density even being
further beyond our grasp (see discussion above, and Weinberg, S., 1989,
Revs. Mod. Phys. 61, 1).
The value of the curvature parameter k has been converging strongly
towards that of a flat k = 0 value. The work involved with the highredshift Supernovae SNI has been yielding substantial support towards
this geometry. Almost inescapable evidence has been provided by the
Cosmic Microwave Background balloonborne experiments. The MWB
balloon experiments currently most prominently represented by the
Boomerang and Maxima project(s) have provided us with an unprecedented, detailed and tantalizing view of the pristine Universe (Fig. 3).
Their measurements so strongly suggest a flat k = 0 Universe that to
escape this value would almost imply a flaw in our understanding of
MWB physics. With only a few years since the detection of the first
Sachs-Wolfe fluctuations on an angular scale of 7 by the COBE
satellite in 1992, one cannot help but being impressed by the achievements of the balloon measurements at a vastly more detailed resolution
of 10 20 arcmin. With the newest results having an effective resolution
allowing the detection of even a second and third Doppler peak in its
angular fluctuation power spectrum, it is hard to escape the conclusion
that the Universe is indeed a flat one, k = 0.
More problems still seem to be involved with the value of the current
expansion rate of the Universe, encapsulated in terms of the Hubble
parameter H . Progress has been substantially hampered by the lack
of really significant advances in the quality of distance estimators, with

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which we mean improvements by an order of magnitude. Yet, in comparison to 2 decades ago, an enormous investment of effort has been yielding
a gradually convergence of estimates of H onto a tighter and tigher region of acceptable values. Indeed, the main HST Hubble project has
been succesfull in the sense of having produced convincing constraints
on a value of H 70 km/s/Mpc.
Leaves us the issue of whether we are really closing in on settling
the cosmological energy density content. The radiation contribution
radiation is known to high precision, ever since COBE demonstrated
the precision of the Planck spectrum and nailed its temperature to
T = 2.728 0.004K we may consider this issue to be set. Once we
have established the value of the Hubble parameter we then have a firm
estimate for b , the contribution by plain baryons to the cosmic density.
Its value of b 0.043 0.03h2
65 is tightly fixed by the light element
abundances produced during the cosmological nucleosynthesis processes
in the very first minutes of the Big Bang. Telling for the rapid progress
in this field is the fact that at the meeting the seemingly low amplitude of the Doppler peak in the first round of Boomerang results were
still discussed in the sense of being problematic for the value of the cosmic baryonic matter density. In the meantime new Boomerang results
have branded this problem as a non-existent one. Leaves us to mention the estimated contributions of matter in total and the contribution
involved with . The currently favorite value for the total matter density is matter 0.3, including the enigmatic dark matter contribution.
However, one cannot help but sensing that a clear view of matters still
seems to be removed beyond our immediate grasp. Interestingly, the
stated matter value and the estimate for the vacuum energy density,
0.7, have acquired a status of standard model. However, one
cannot be completely unjustified in feeling rather uneasy about the wide
agreement on values whose inherent uncertainty should suggest one to
expect a large spread in measured values. Purely because of arguments
based on simple freshmen statistics !
Despite some side remarks on present-day affairs we may go along
with the optimism of Gazta
nagas contribution on the final settling of the
Universes parameters. It will be the MWB experiments that will fully
settle the values of some 15-18 fundamental cosmological parameters at
presently unimaginable levels of accuracy at sub-percent level. It will be
up to the recently launched MAP satellite and ultimately the superior
performance of the European Planck satellite to settle the record.
It is therefore not entirely unreasonable to be delighted with respect
to upcoming events, enthusiasm which possibly may be tempered when
considering your subsequent job prospects as cosmologist. To some ex-

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tent these experiments may signify the end of cosmology as the science
involved with measuring the parameters specifying the structure of the
global Universe. Roads of cosmologists may split into two different directions. One road will lead back into time, towards the very first instances
in which the many truely fundamental riddles await us for further elucidation. Others may be inclined to follow the Universes direction of time,
and pursue their study forward from the post-recombination Universe
onward.
Naturally, the global cosmological parameters are not only affecting
the evolution of the Universe on the very largest scales of the Hubble
radius. Gazt
naga assessed the way in which the cosmological parameters
will be reflected in the kinematic and structural evolution on more local
cosmic scales. The morphology, kinematics and dynamics of the Megaparsec cosmic foam, of clusters, and even of galaxies will be influenced to
a considerable extent by the properties of the global Universe in which
they emerge. In turn, understanding these influences provides us with
additional means of determining the cosmological parameters from local
measurements. This is currently also one of the most pursued strategies, profiting from the large amount of available and well understood
observational information.
In the end local measurements may yield cleaner signals than feasible
on the basis of the Supernovae SNI results. The latter still pose us with
questions concerning the intricate, complex and only partially understood physical processes in the supernovae. Equally interesting will be
to compare these local measurements with those yielded by global determinations, it may inform us of systematic problems with our world models. One example of such situation would be a cosmological evolution of
fundamental physical constants, as some have claimed the fine structure
constant is doing. In line with such considerations, Perivolaropoulos
dicussed the possibility of identifying the effect of a finite cosmological constant on the dynamics of clusters, groups of galaxies as well as
those of galaxies. His conclusion that clusters of galaxes may indeed evidence of detectable dynamical effects of a cosmological constant (while
the available technology will not be able to find any comparable clear
signature on the scales of galaxies) again stresses the significance of the
dynamically young yet outstanding clusters of galaxies as important cosmological laboratories.

THE INFRASTRUCTURE
Gazta
naga henceforth laid out the context of the subsequent contributions by describing how from the parameter specification of the cosmic

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blueprint we can set out to study the development of its internal organization. Once the global cosmic parameters have been fixed and set, we
may establish a proper and clean basis of initial cosmological conditions.
One of the major developments in our cosmological worldview over
the past quarter of the century involved our radically changed view of
the spatial organization of matter in the Universe. Not only does it
involve an interesting issue in its own right, and does it involve the issue
of how the galaxies and stars have finally emerged. It may indeed be
claimed to hold the key towards solving the very riddle of the Universe
itself. Its origin can be traced back to the linear embryonic structure
at the epoch of recombination. Its properties, via the specifying power
spectrum, holds the most direct observable link to the physical processes

Figure 4. The X-ray cosmic background exposed ! X-ray image of the moon in the
0.1-2 kEV. Note the decrease in the XRB in the dark side of the moon (from Schmitt
et al., 1991, Nature 349, 5583). Courtesy: MPE, Garching, Germany.

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operating at the very first stages of our universe. Ultimately, we may

therefore even hope to use the accumulated understanding of the cosmic
structure formation process towards solving the thrilling riddles of the
very nature and origin of the Cosmos itself.
To study the emergence and evolution of structure within the Universe we need to identify those structures and natural processes and
phenomena that still have retained a memory of earlier cosmological
conditions. Within our cosmos the Microwave Background (Gazta
naga),
Megaparsec scale cosmic structures (Basilakos, Georgantopoulos, Plionis, van de Weygaert) and even the rotation of galaxies (Voglis) are
examples of such precious COSMIC FOSSILS. These cosmic fossils
will enable us to reconstruct the history of the Universe. The cosmic
history from the Recombination Epoch onward, and perhaps even that
of the preceding eons !!!
The Holy Grail of many structure formation studies is the recovery of
the fluctuation power spectrum. Once we have a situation in which the
primordial density and velocity perturbations are of a basic Gaussian
nature and in which the gravitational instability mechanism functions
as the prime mover of the migration currents of matter through their
cosmic volume the power spectrum fully specifies the evolution of the
internal matter distribution. As for the two conditions, it has yet again
been the COBE satellite which produced the most substantial and solid
evidence for the reality of these circumstances. Apart from a few recent
claims for minor (measured) deviations, the basic Gaussian nature of the
patterns on the surface of last scattering is irrefutable. As for the gravitational instability mechanims, COBE was not only an overwhelming
success for discovering the reality of the fluctuations in the pristine Universe. Equally important almost was its finding that the amplitude of
the fluctuations was almost fully in accordance with the expected values
implied by the density contrast of structures in the local, present-day,
Universe. It may indeed be considered as one of the most impressive
triumphs of cosmology that it managed to tie together structures over a
vast range of spatial scales and predict on the basis of the structures on
Megaparsec scale how large the Sachs-Wolfe fluctuations in the MWB
would approximately be (except for some minor modifications).
Once we have mapped out the primordial field of density and velocity
perturbations on the surface of last scattering (given the global cosmic
context and the relative contributions of baryonic matter, dark matter
and radiation to the energy density of the Universe) we have at our
disposal all necessary information to set out a detailed track for the evolution and emergence of structure in the Universe. We may then finally
hope to develop a properly detailed understanding of the formation of

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the cosmic matter distribution into its salient Megaparsec patterns, and
even obtain a reasonably detailed view of the way in which galaxies have
formed and the stars started to shine. When indeed we have reached
this stage, astrophysical cosmology will be able to focus exclusively on
the purely astrophysical phenomena and processes that shaped the infrastructure of the Universe.
For the determination of the form and amplitude of the primordial
power spectrum which underlies the formation of all structures and objects in our Universe, we need to combine information from a large variety of sources, structures and physical processes. With each structure,
process and object corresponds a characteristics spatial range at which
they are optimally sensitive to the original power spectrum.
The MWB experiments provide the most direct and cleanest power
spectrum signal available. In principle the CMB yields information on
fluctuations ranging from the very largest scales (the COBE resolution
of 7 corresponds to structures in the order of a Gpc) down to
scales comparable to supercluster and cluster scales. The clustering of
conspicuous and outstandin objects like AGNs and quasars can provide
useful information on intermediate scale fluctuations. However, we still
do not really understand their role in the cosmic scheme of structure
formation (see contribution Basilakos). In the end, this is a necessary
condition if we wish to relate their clustering to the underlying matter
distribution.
On scales of a hundred to a few hundred Megaparsec we may hope
to infer some useful information from the peculiar motions of galaxies.
However, uncertainties in distance estimates still poses overriding problems for such estimates to improve in quality in the foreseeable future.
Supreme signatures are already being inferred on the basis the weak
lensing signatures by large scale structures on similar scales. These
measurements are indiscriminately sensitive to the full matter content
and hence dark matter proof. This makes them a source of tremendous future potential and promise, a promise that materialize soon now
sensitive wide-field instruments are rapidly being commissioned into operation. The cosmic shear in deformed background galaxy images has
already been translated into a beautiful set of measurements of P (k)
over a range of quasi-linear and linear multi-Megaparsec scales.
At the small scale end, down to a scale in the order of a Megaparsec,
we are confined to the distribution of galaxies in the cosmic web (see
contributions van de Weygaert and Plionis). It is here that careful statistical analysis of uniform galaxy samples have played an instrumental
role. Gazta
naga sketched his work on the APM catalogue of galaxies, as
yet still the largest sample of (projected sky) galaxy locations available.

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We may hope that with the completion of the SDSS redshift survey, as
well as from the accompanying deep five-colour photometric sky survey,
we will be able to extract statistically equally clear results on the full
3-D galaxy distribution. There have been some tantalizing indications
from the recently completed 2dF survey for an interesting feature at
the interesting scale of around 100h1 Mpc, a feature that has also been
claimed to be observable in the APM power spectrum and as well in the
new CMB Boomerang and Maxima data at k 0.06 0.6. It would
indeed be a thrilling and highly meaningful result, suggested by some
to be the result from a phase transition associated with spontaneous
symmetry breaking in the early Universe. Nonetheless, the reality of
the signal is still contrived, and it may have surfaced as it occurs on the
fringe of what is technically feasible.
At much smaller scales direct measurements of the primordial power
spectrum will become increasingly difficult to obtain and to isolate from
other effects. The formation and shaping of structure gets increasingly
influenced by the full arsenal of dissipative hydrodynamic, radiative and
stellar processes. Therefore, it would be unjustifiably optimistic to claim
that sufficiently unaffected information on the (primordial) power spectrum P (k) can be extracted on these subgalactic scales. Nonetheless,
theoretical and numerical work has helped to show that even on such
nonlinear scales we may find direct traces to primordial circumstances.
In fact, some of the most conspicuous and telling traces in our astronomical world (see Voglis).

Infrastructure:

Gravity and the Web

Over the past two decades we have witnessed a paradigm shift in our
perception of the Megaparsec scale structure in the Universe. As increasingly elaborate galaxy redshift surveys charted ever larger regions
in the nearby cosmos, an intriguingly complex and salient foamlike network in the cosmic matter and galaxy distribution got to unfold itself.
This distinctive foamy pattern is characterizied by galaxies accumulating
in walls, filaments and dense compact clusters surrounding large nearempty void regions (see contribution van de Weygaert). As borne out by
a large sequence of computer experiments, such weblike patterns in the
overall cosmic matter distribution do represent a universal but possibly
transient phase in the gravitationally propelled emergence and evolution
of cosmic structure.
The gravitational dominance in the shaping of cosmic structure is
mostly confined to that of the global Universe down to scales of a few
Megaparsec. The cosmic large scale structure and the various elements

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of the cosmic foam have been such a prominent item of scientific interest over the past few decades because of this direct relation to the
circumstances in the Early Universe, the ideal cosmic fossil.
On galaxy scale, however, there is at least one prominent aspect which
relates straightly to the gravitational formation process itself. In hierarchical scenarios of structure formation the rotation of galaxies is induced
by the gravitational torqueing of the collapsing density peaks. The tidal
torque generation of galaxy angular momentum was the subject of the
presentation by Voglis. An interesting observation has been the finding
of galaxy cores that counterrotate with respect to the main body of the
galaxy. Voglis discussed the possibilities of explaining and working out
such a phenomenon within scenarios where a core would result from a
massive merger event or where it would result from a successive infall
from many small clumps. It resulted into a solid, mathematically wellfounded, expose on important dynamical aspects. Indeed, it opened
insights into seeing how the existence of such cores may be linked to
the cosmological conditions, which makes it into a welcome small-scale
cosmic fossil.
Moving up in scale, we know that the Megaparsec cosmic web is
most characteristically outlined by its filamentary features. These filaments result from the anisotropic gravitational collapse of overdense
matter regions. With this in mind Plionis set out to describe how one
can exploit their properties to understand the dynamical development
of clusters and filaments in hierarchical structure formation scenarios.
Filamentary patterns correspond to intermediate evolutionary phases,
having established a pronounced appearance and contrast with respect
to the surrounding Universe but not yet having fully contracted onto
self-gravitating and virialized entities. Within the context of the cosmic foam in which they are embedded, these anisotropic structures form
connecting bridges between its most compact elements, the clusters of
galaxies. The evolution of cosmic structure involves a systematic migration of matter towards the high-density regions, in which filaments
function as channels along which matter gets gradually transported towards clusters. Given their dynamical youth within the cosmic sheme,
clusters being the youngest fully collapsed components and filaments
still in an intermediate yet pronounced stage, they should form one of
the most dynamically active sites in cosmic Megaparsec scale structure.
These Megaparsec scale structures are the present-day equivalents of the
similarly active but much smaller regions at earlier cosmic epochs, at an
epoch at which the cosmic matter distribution resided in a dynamically
younger phase. A closer assessment of the processes involved with these
filament and cluster junctions is compelling in that it will inform us

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17

about the very buildup of the cosmic web structure itself. Plionis therefore focussed specifically on the ramifications of the implied anisotropic
inflow of material along filamanets onto clusters. On the basis of a sample of 952 APM clusters he presented convincing evidence for alignments
between neighbouring clusters. Moreover, the dynamical youth of the
clusters is underlined by the presence of significant substructure in some
30 40% of the clusters. Most strongly and telling was the finding of
the alignment of these substructures with the surroundings, highly suggestive of their inflow along the anisotropically outlined channels formed
by the filaments.
While Plionis focussed on the aspect of the filamentary elements of
the cosmic foam, using the presence of relevant and readily exploitable
observational material to study its properties in the real universe, Van de
Weygaert choose to emphasize the geometric nature of the cosmic foam
in an attempt to provide a universal theoretical frame for its distinct
nontrivial morphology. He described the intrinsically mathematical concept from the field of stochastic geometry, the Voronoi model. The
geometric Voronoi model seeks to exploit the distinct geometric nature
of the patterns in the cosmic matter distribution. It attempts to combine two crucial and salient properties of the cosmic foam. Firstly, the
stochastic (yet, not Poissonian !!!!) spatial setting of distinct geometrical
elements, walls, filaments and high density nodes (clusters). Secondly,
the distinct cellular morphology which forces the elements of walls, filaments and vertices in a definite and tight mutual relationship to each
other. Clusters are found at specific locations (vertices) within such
geometric networks, at the interstices where filaments and walls connect. In turn, the filaments and walls surround and thus avoid the large
voids, which take up most of the spatial volume in the Universe. On
the basis of these properties, which are indeed prevalent in the real Universe as well as in N-body computer models of gravitationally induced
structure formation, Van de Weygaert showed the presence of a definite
geometric bias in the superclustering of clusters. The most massive
clusters will, as a consequence of their distinct spatial locations, form
massive supercomplexes, whose sizes may supersede the basic voidsize
by an order of magnitude. Geometric simulations revealed the presence
of seemingly flattened superclusters over enormous spatial scales of hundreds of Megaparsec. Mathematically, it seems to indicate a beautiful,
hitherto unknown, pattern of similarity. Cosmologically, it may form
an indication for the presence of a purely geometric biasing effect, a
ramification of the observed foamlike galaxy distribution.
Indeed, the clustering of different populations of special astrophysical objects may be easier understood within the context of taking into

18
account the context of the cellular geometry of the matter and galaxy
distribution in the Universe. An important aspect of this was touched
upon in the contribution of Basilakos. Over the years, there have been
various attempts to measure clustering in the Universe on the largest
scales, far exceeding the clustering of normal galaxies on scales of a few
up to a few tens of Megaparsec. Both clusters of galaxies as well as
classes of Active Galaxies, quasars and radio galaxies are noteworthy
examples. The high luminosity of AGNs makes them ideal to probe
cosmic structure over vast reaches of the observable Universe. As they
form a sparsely sampled reflection of the underlying patterns and appear
to be located in or near the highest density regions within the cosmic
network, they are a valuable complementary population for tracing cosmic structure on the largest (> 100h1 Mpc). Conventional approaches
were often hampered by the ill-defined selection criteria of the AGN
samples. Proper selection is of utmost importance, even more so as the
physical nature and therefore location of these sources within the cosmic
matter distribution still evades full understanding. Basilakos managed
to get rid of a few of such considerations, by studying cleanly defined
samples on the basis of uniform X-ray selected samples of AGNs. This
allowed him to adress in a clearly defined fashion the question of the
particular bias of such source populations with respect to the large
scale structure outlined by normal galaxies. Within a set of structure
formation scenarios (mainly CDM and CDM ), three different bias
descriptions were tested. These ranged from bias-free to the population
evolving merging bias prescription of Mo & White. While it allowed to
put constraints on the validity of the scenarios, and corresponding bias
descriptions, the main theme was the wider scenario-independent conclusion that indeed AGNs can offer us a valuable tracing of structure on
the very largest scales otherwise unreachable by normal galaxy samples.
With Basilakos having stressed the importance of AGNS for studying large scale structure, and having argued how their X-ray emission
can be exploited as an optimal selection criterion, it is a natural step
to extrapolate this to the high redshift Universe. We know that at high
redshift the volume density of such X-ray emitting AGNs and quasars is
far higher than locally (peaking at around z 12.5), and it may therefore not be a surprise that the first X-ray satellite, before the discovery
of the MWB background, discovered an almost isotropic background of
X-ray radiation (to within a few percent), except for a dipole component completely in accordance with that in the MWB. Still, I consider
the wonderful ROSAT picture of the obscured moon as one of astronomys richest symbolic images (Fig. 4). Georgantopoulos described
the exciting recent developments in unravelling the secrets of this dif-

Report to Anaximander

19

fuse X-ray background. Since the operation of ROSAT and in particular

since the superb spatial and spectral resolution of the new Chandra and
XMM X-ray satellite observatories have been put into operation, the
essential significance of the X-ray background may be regarded as settled. For many years, it was not clear whether the origin of the X-ray
background had to be found in a diffuse hot IGM or in an unresolved
population of discrete high-redshift sources. Since COBE, which did not
find any trace of spectral distortions due to a hot IGM, the point source
interpretation has quickly shown to be the proper one. ROSAT resolved
70% of the soft XRB into point sources, many of which belong to a
QSO population at z 1.5, while others are probably obscured AGNs.
The recent Chandra deep field results showing that more than 80% of
the XRB in the 2 10keV is due to resolved sources nearly appear as
famous last words on the matter. On the other hand, the fact that
only 8 X-ray sources could be identified in the Hubble Deep Field of
3000 optical galaxies should be seen as the start of a new era, in which
the X-ray observations will help us to gain extremely important insight
into the formation of galaxies. Georgantopoulos described the Herschel
Deep Field project which forms an attempt to get a better idea of the
nature of the various X-ray emitting sources. QSOs and AGNs are obvious candidates, but also early-type galaxies may be avid X-ray emitting
sources. Problematic identifications may concern X-ray emitting QSOs,
whose redshift z > 5 prevents them to be visible in optical images. In
my view, such studies are extremely important in unravelling the nature
of QSOs and AGNs, to find their differences as well as their similarities
to normal galaxies. Still, we seem to have no understanding whatsoever
of why such cosmic beasts get formed at all, that while we know that
their formation will hold tremendous repercussions for their environment
and for cosmic evolution in general. After all, their role in lifting the
epoch of the Dark Ages may have been all-decisive and overriding !

Infrastructure:

Gas, Stars and (G)Astrophysics

The jewels in the Crown of Creation (Jefferson Airplane 1968). This

obviously subjective description of the function of galaxies in the global
context of the Cosmos is certainly not an entirely unjustifiable opinion. Galaxies certainly are amongst the most beautiful, complex and
awe-inspiring creations in the Universe. They are largely self-organizing
entities, cosmic cities harbouring a rich variety of ingredients, such as
gas clouds in highly diverse physical states, stars and planets. All these
aspects are elements of a highly complex state of organization, connected
through an ingeneous and intricate life cycle of mutually influencing

20

Figure 5.
The gastrophysical Universe: dramatic events in the core of the galaxy
NGC 3079, where a hot bubble of gas is rising from a cauldron of glowing matter.
NGC 3079 may semble to a reasonable extent the dramatic phenomena taking place in
young galaxies in the high-redshift Universe. Huge bursts of star formation, triggering
violently driven winds, will be but one of the many diverse manifestations marking
the Universes youthful years. Credit: NASA, STScI, G. Cecil, S. Veilleux, J. BlandHawthorn, A. Filippenko.

physical processes, phenomena and manifestations. Given the almost

perfectly homogeneous Universe at recombination, it may be clear that
the rise and growth of such complex entities in the Universe poses a
daunting challenge for science. As clean gravitational studies have
cleaned large parts of the road, succesfully breaching many hurdles, astrophysics is gradually preparing itself for the considerably more daunting world of gastrophysics.

Report to Anaximander

21

In marked contrast to the situation with respect to studying the Megaparsec scale structure, where observational and theoretical advances
went hand-in-hand, the complexities involved with galaxy formation processes are so enormous that the field is practically exclusively driven by
observations. This may be no surprise, given the fact that the astrophysical processes involved with shaping the galaxies are so complex and
of such wide variety. Gravity is no longer alone in beating the drum.
Gas dynamical processes, radiative generation and transfer processes,
the still even in our own Galactic circumstances largely ununderstood
stellar formation processes, feedback by phenomenon such as supernovae
and stellar winds, the chemical enrichment going along with the evolving
stellar populations, its transport throughout a galaxy, the influence of
magnetic fields are but a few of the examples of important contributors
to the shaping of a galaxy.
In a nice sequel of related contributions Van der Werf, Ivinson and
Papadopoulos presented a broad and profound overview of the presentday status of our insight into the cosmic star formation history (Van der
Werf), the kinematic evolution of galaxies (Van der Werf), the nature
and identification of high redshift galaxies (Ivinson), and the ultimate
source of cosmic beauty and shining (galaxies and stars alike), the nature
and constitution of gas in the Early Universe (P. Papadopoulos).
Concerning the basic constituents of the cosmic star formation history, the state of the gaseous component may arguably be seen as the
most fundamental one. In particular the molecular phase is tightly coupled with the fueling of the subsequent star formation. P. Papadopoulos
presented his instrumental work on the presence of molecules at high
redshifts. From the nearby Galactic circumstances we know that gas
has to get congregate into giant molecular clouds, which fragment
into a whole range of compact subclumps. In such dense, optically
thick, circumstances become favorable for the ultimate collapse into a
gaseous object that manages to generate its own energy by thermonuclear reactions: a star is born. However, we have but a superficial view
of the situation in the outer reaches of the Universe. The basic molecular
component of molecular clouds are evidently the simplest ones around,
H2 . However, these suffer from notorious symmetry, so that we cannot
exploit the radiation involved with dipole transitions. Luckily, CO
may operate as a tracer molecule. The calibration of the tracer may
still involve considerable uncertainties. Yet the detection of CO emission in 4C60.07 at z = 3.79, probably involving a primeval merger, may
certainly be considered a major achievement ! It has established observations of molecules as a fantastic way of studying the star formation
circumstances in the high redshift Universe, out to redshifts of at least

22
z 4 ! With ALMA getting into operation over the coming decade, a
whole new era for the diagnostics of the physical conditions over a wide
span of the cosmological timeline seems to have been opened up !
Turning to the very history of cosmological star formation itself, Van
der Werf first pointed out that we do not even have a proper definition
of what we mean by the formation of a galaxy. A good working
hypothesis may be to consider the onset of star formation in galaxies as
such. It remains to be seen whether this is always a useful definition in
case we have very early star formation in small clumps that only later
fall into the larger peers that ultimately will start resembling the objects
we nowadays describe as galaxy. Given the working definition, we may
turn to the issue of star formation throughout the Universe. Van der
Werf discussed the list of possibilities to trace such processes. These are
based upon well-known symptoms of star formation in our immediate
cosmic neighbourhood. Such tracers concern the emission of the newly
formed stars themselves, the reprocessed radiation by the surrounding
dust (SCUBA submm observations, COBE/DIRBE observations of the
IR background) or the emission by surrounding gas excited or ionized
by the newly formed star (H, L). With the help of corresponding
observations at different redshifts one may (boldly) attempt to draw
up a global cosmic star formation history. The pioneers investigations
by Madau and Lilly have in the meantime been followed up by many
related studies, incorporating the full arsenal of available observational
information.
Van der Werf described to some extent his own work on emissionline studies of cosmic star formation out to z 2.2. This involved
the first untargeted H survey at z = 2.2. Overall, his conclusion was
that the Madau diagram is largely corroborated by most later work.
Nonetheless, an important pitfall remains the fact that we do not really
have an understanding of the physical circumstances surrounding star
formation processes at high z. Theoretical understanding will certainly
have to play a crucial in converting the available circumstantial evidence
into inescapable conclusions. The fact that we do not even seems to
understand star formation locally remains a factor of suspicion.
Extremely interesting was the evidence presented on the formation
and (dynamical) evolution of galaxy disks (Van der Werf). The question
of the origin of galactic disks is evidently one of the most pressing within
the whole of the galaxy formation process. Interestingly, we have learned
that the large disks like that of our own Galaxy are certainly fully in
place at rather moderate (cosmological) redshifts, z 0.5 1.0. The
intriguing work by N. Vogt, who managed to measure rotation curve
of disk galaxies at z 1.00, has indicated that even the Tully-Fisher

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relation seems to have settled by that epoch. Van der Werf described
how one can follow up on these results by extending the study of the
growth of disks to the higher redshifts at which it apparently must occur.
He argued for H as a perfect means of seeing the disk buildup at around
z 2.. Indeed a most thrilling prospect !
Ivinson subsequently gave a clear review of the various ways in which
we can find galaxies at the even higher redshifts, beyond z > 2. Being
enabled to trace galaxies the hope is to infer at which epoch the galaxies
formed their stars. Evidently, following the star formation history itself
is an obvious first way. In the meantime, a variety of strategies have
emerged as additional and complementary possibilities. Several colour
and spectrum based techniques have materialized as effective selection
methods for luminous galaxies. At radio wavelengths, one may for example look for sources with an ultra-steep spectrum. Over the past
years the highly succesfull colour dropout techniques have evolved into
a major industry for selecting out galaxies that are not only confined to
the class of the very brightest galaxies.
Particular emphasis was put on submm waveband observations. This
benefits greatly from a welcome virtue of high-z dust emission, its negative k-correction. As a consequence the flux of such emission remains
the same over a wide frequency range. The SCUBA instrument formed
a major step in utilizing this possibility. A remaining problem is still
the identification of sources in SCUBA observations with counterparts
at other wavelengths. The identification with optical galaxies remains
a cumbersome affair, as evidenced by the scarce overlap with the HDF
image evidences. More promising appears to be the correspondence with
radiogalaxies, leading to a prudent identification of SCUBA sources with
highly clustered ellipticals at very high redshifts. They may therefore be
the way of probing the formation of galaxies in the very highest density
regions, and hence of the formation of elliptical galaxies.
Having arrived at the outer reaches of the observable yet familiar
Universe, we had been offered a gastrophysical taste of the thrilling
developments that are awaiting us on what must be one of the most
challenging cosmic Odysseys in the history of astronomy. Also, we got
to appreciate that the treasures which we may encounter on this voyage
of discovery will be beautiful, rich, opulent. We may be justified in
characterizing this as the search for the Holy Grail of cosmology and
astrophysics. Perhaps, with some more nuance, the Holy Grail of PostPlanck Cosmology ... As yet we only obtained a very first impression of
the first islands of the cosmic archipelago. Evidently, nothing has firmly
settled yet, and this renders these explorations all the more exciting for
the coming generations ...

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What a deception therefore to note the audacity with which P. Papadopoulos described it all as Astro in a coffeecup ... This, with Greek
gastronomy in mind shattered the high expectations of a mere barbarian from the north. A barbarian who for years had been indoctrinated
with excessive laudations on the Greek cuisine ... yet, how fine it is then
to have family who save the day and manage to repair such misunderstandings in preparing opulent tables filled with the most wonderful and
delicious Epicurean delights ...

CONCLUSION
Having arrived at the end of this wonderful and memorable cosmic
Odyssey along the Cosmos, having been offered beautiful vistas along
such richly varied directions, we maybe should properly finish with a
return to the ancient masters who set us onto this never-ending voyage
across space and time. A proper admonition to all scientists with
pretensions too audacious, an advice to remain modest in the light of
eternity,

Acknowledgments
Looking back over the past months, the wonderful and enjoyable experience to which the organizers and these spring days of April 2002
treated us has grown into a happy and vivid memory of the best science
has to offer. I feel truely priviliged to have attended a sparkling forum
and symposion.
On behalf of all participants I would therefore like to express warm
gratitude to the organizers, Manolis Plionis, Spiros Cotsakis and Ioannis
Georgantopoulos. A gratitude which naturally extends to Koumentakou
Ourania, whose support guaranteed the smooth and perfect organization. In this workshop, they provided all of us with a great example of
how scientific curiosity and discussion can benefit from an environment
of legendary Greek hospitality ...

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Figure 6. The Academia of Plato, anno 2001. The world of Becoming; everything
in this world comes to be and passes away, but never really is (Plato, Timeaus).
Yet, his world of ideas remained ever-Existent ! Notice how even nowadays the basic
forms do show around the Academia ! photo: Rien van de Weygaert 2001

As for the world

call it that or cosmos or any other name acceptable to it
we must ask about it the question one is bound to ask
to begin with about anything:
whether it has always existed and has not beginning,
or whether it has come into existence and started from some beginning.
The answer is that it has come into being;
for it is visible, tangible and corporeal,
and therefore perceptible to the senses,
and, as we saw,
sensible things are objects of opinion and sensation
[...]
Dont therefore be surprised, Socrates,
if on matters concerning the gods and the whole world of change
we are unable in every respect and on every occasion
to render consistent and accurate account.
Plato (427-347 B.C.), Timaeus

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Figure 7.
In Athens, Plato and Aristoteles conversing on the Universe. Detail
from Scuola di Atene in the Stanza della Segnature, Raffaello Sanzio (1483-1520).
Courtesy: Christus Rex, Inc. and Michael Olteanu, MS.