ALLOY STEELS

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ALLOY STEELS

TECHNICAL GUIDE N 2

Metalrgica Madrilea, S.A.

ALLOY STEELS

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ALLOY STEELS
By David Valle; Metalrgica Madrilea, S. A.

Steel is the alloy of iron with a content of carbon between 0.2% and 1.8% by weight,
depending on the grade. Carbon is the most common alloying material for iron, but
various other alloying elements are used, such as manganese, chromium, nickel and
others, to improve the properties of the steel. Steels are among the most commonly
used alloys, offering designers an excellent combination of good properties and
competitive price.
Alloy steel is steel alloyed with a variety of elements in total amounts of between
1.0% and 50% by weight. Alloy
steels are divided into two groups:

Alloying additions are commonly added to steels to:

low-alloy steels, with content in

increase hardenability,

alloy elements below 4%, and

improve strength,

high-alloy steels, with content

improve mechanical properties (at operating

higher that 4%.

Varying the amount of alloying

temperature),

elements, how they are present in

improve toughness for a given strength or

hardness,

the steel (solute elements,

increase wear resitance,

precipitated phase) and the heat

improve magnetic properties

treatment given to the alloy steel,

different properties such as strength, hardness, corrosion resistance, wear
resistance and high temperature behavior could be improved compared to carbon
steels.
The improvement of the properties thanks to the alloyants allows the use of steel in
many different applications, such as transport equipment, building construction,
machinery, jet engines, nuclear reactors and even spaceship.

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Common alloy elements used in steel are manganese, silicon, chromium, nickel,
molybdenum and vanadium. In certain occasions other elements could be used,
such as boron, aluminum, copper, titanium, tungsten, zirconium, selenium, lead,
bismuth and others.

Effects of Elements on Steel

Hereafter a list of the most

Axle housings. Cr-Ni-Mo low allowed steel

important alloy elements and

their most significant effects is presented, but not all effects are included, and heat
treatment and also interactions among the elements should be considered. Previous
to the selection of a type of steel for any application, all the factors should be
considered, and the support of an expert is recommended.

Carbon: It is the basis alloy element in steels. It is the primary hardening element in
steel. Increase carbon content increases hardness and tensile strength up to about
0.85% C. Ductility and weldability decrease with increasing carbon.

Manganese: Manganese contributes to increase strength, toughness and

hardenability, but less than carbon. It also helps to improve hot working properties.
The increase in strength is dependent upon the carbon
content. Increasing the manganese content decreases
ductility and weldability, but less than carbon.
Manganese combines with sulphur and with phosphorus to
Rotor. Manganese steel

reduce the brittleness. Also helps to remove excess oxygen

from molten steel.

Silicon is used as deoxidising in steelmaking, so most of the steels contain small

percentages of silicon. In low-carbon steels, silicon is generally detrimental to

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surface quality. With a content of 0.2 to 0.7 the silicon increases strength. Higher
percentages improve magnetic properties.

Chromium is added to steel to increase resistance to oxidation and corrosion, to

increase hardenability and to improve high-temperature strength.
To get a stainless behaviour, the steel should have a minimum of approximately
11% of Chromium content, usually being between 12 to 20%. Higher values get
better resistance to corrosion. For high temperature resistance, chromium content
goes from 20 to 28%.
With a content between 0.5% to 2%, as a hardening element, Chromium is
frequently used with a toughening element such as nickel to get better mechanical
properties.

Nickel is added to high chromium stainless steel

in large amounts, over about 8% to 20%, to form

Grate. Heat resistant. High chromium

and nickel steel.

the austenitic stainless steels, that is most

important class of corrosion and heat resistant steels. The nickel promotes the
stability of the austenite at room temperature that is responsible for a great
toughness and high strength of the steel at both high and low temperatures. Nickel
also improves resistance to oxidation and corrosion. The most widely used stainless
steel is the 18-8, 18% of chromium and 8% of nickel content.
Nickel increases the toughness and impact strength of steels when added in smaller
amounts, 25%, to alloy steels.

Molybdenum when added to low alloy steels, increases the toughness and
improves high temperature strength. Molybdenum may produce secondary
hardening during the tempering of quenched steels. It enhances the creep strength
of low-alloy steels at elevated temperatures.

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Molybdenum, when added to chromium-nickel austenitic steels, improves resistance

to pitting corrosion, especially by chlorides and sulphur chemicals.
A small addition of molybdenum (0.2 0.3%) avoid the fragility Krupp type in high
resistance steels, like steels alloyed with chromium and nickel.
Molybdenum content usually varies between 0.15 to 0.4%, but for some applications
it can reach up to 5%.

Phosphorus is usually considered detrimental to steel, so its level is normally

controlled to be as low as possible. It increases strength and hardness and
decreases ductility and resilience of steel, mainly in quenched and tempered highercarbon steels. Also increase the tendency to cracking during welding. Higher
phosphorus content is specified in low-carbon steels to improve machinability.

Sulphur causes hot shortness and decreases ductility and resilience, especially in
the transverse direction. Sulphur content also decrease weldability. Sulphur is found
primarily in the form of sulphide inclusions. Hot shortness is reduced by the addition
of manganese, which combines with the sulphur to form manganese sulphide.
Sulphur levels are normally controlled to low levels.
When added in small amounts sulphur improves machinability but does not cause
hot shortness.

Titanium is used to retard grain growth and for carbide stabilisation, and thus
improve toughness. Titanium causes sulfide inclusions to be globular rather than
elongated, thus improving toughness and ductility in transverse bending.
It combines with carbon to form titanium carbides, which are quite stable and hard to
dissolve in steel, this tends to minimise the occurrence of inter-granular corrosion,
Reduces martensitic hardness in chromium steels

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Copper is beneficial to atmospheric corrosion resistance when present in amounts

exceeding 0.20%. Weathering steels usually have more than 0.20% copper. Copper
is added to a few alloys to produce precipitation hardening properties. Copper can
be detrimental to surface quality.

Boron is a powerful hardenability agent. Boron is added in very small quantities,

from 0.0010.003%, being more effective in lower carbon steels.

Aluminum is widely used as a deoxidizer. Aluminum can control austenite grain

growth, but high aluminium levels cause fragility.

Zirconium promotes sulphide inclusions to be globular rather than elongated, thus

improving toughness and ductility in transverse bending, so it can be added to highstrength low-alloy steels.

Niobium increases the yield strength and, to a lesser degree, the tensile strength of
carbon steel, even when it is added in small amounts. Niobium can also have a
moderate precipitation strengthening effect. Niobium promotes a fine-grain
microstructure that improves strength and toughness. Niobium also has the effect of
strengthening steels and alloys for high temperature service.

Vanadium promotes fine grain structure and, in consequence, increases the yield
strength and the tensile strength of carbon steel while retaining ductility, even when
it is added in small amounts. Vanadium increases the toughness at high
temperatures. Usually vanadium content is around 0.15%.
Vanadium stables carbides and is one of the primary contributors to precipitation
strengthening in microalloyed steels.

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Vanadium together with other carbide and nitride forming elements, such as niobium
and titanium, combine with carbon and/or nitrogen to form a fine dispersion of
precipitated particles in the steel matrix.

Nitrogen increases the austenitic stability in stainless steels and is an austenite

forming element. In austenitic stainless steels, nitrogen improves yield strength.

Other elements like Selenium, Lead or Bismuth could be added to improve

machinability.

For more information:

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BIBLIOGRAFA

Apraiz Barreiro, Jos; ACEROS ESPECIALES Y OTRAS ALEACIONES; 5 ed.

Edt. DOSSAT, S.A.; Madrid 1982

Pero-Sanz Elorz, Jos Antonio; ACEROS; 1 ed. CIE-DOSSAT 2000, S.L.; Madrid
2004.

Steel castings handbook; Sixth edition; Steel Founders' Society of America; December 1995

Rollason E.C.; METALLURGY

FOR

Heinemann Ltd; London 1987

Metalrgica Madrilea, S.A., 2012

ENGINEERS;

4Rev

edition;

Butterworth