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Table of Contents
1 Thunderstorm, Windshear and Upset recovery Training ................................... 3
2 Thunderstorms & Windshear........................................................................................ 4
2.1 Downbursts ................................................................................................................................ 4
2.2 Frontal shear .............................................................................................................................. 4
2.3 Lee wave, rotor shear .............................................................................................................. 4
2.4 Temperature inversions ........................................................................................................ 4
2.5 Ground effects ............................................................................................................................ 4
2.6 BH Air Policy .............................................................................................................................. 4
2.7 General guidelines ................................................................................................................... 5
2.8 Takeoff and climbout ........................................................................................................... 5
2.9 Cruise Avoidance ...................................................................................................................... 6
2.10 Use of weather radar ............................................................................................................ 6
2.11 Preparation .............................................................................................................................. 6
2.12 Altitude ...................................................................................................................................... 6
2.13 Airspeed/power setting ...................................................................................................... 7
2.14 Attitude ...................................................................................................................................... 7
2.15 Recovery .................................................................................................................................... 7
2.16 Assessment after crossing adverse conditions ........................................................... 7
2.17 Approach and landing .......................................................................................................... 7
2.18 Reporting ATC ......................................................................................................................... 8
2.19 Company .................................................................................................................................... 8
3 Aircraft Upset Recovery .................................................................................................. 9
3.1 General ......................................................................................................................................... 9
3.2 Factors leading to an Upset situation ................................................................................ 9
3.3 Identification .............................................................................................................................. 9
3.4 Recovery technics .................................................................................................................. 10
3.5 Aerodynamics ......................................................................................................................... 11
3.5.1 SweptWing Airplane ................................................................................................................... 11
3.5.2 Flight Dynamics .............................................................................................................................. 11

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Thunderstorm, Windshear and Upset recovery Training

All flight crews must receive appropriate training, briefings and guidance material in
Thunderstorm/Windshear/Upset recovery procedures. This should cover the normal and
contingency procedures wherever practicable, standard training events (simulator checks /
proficiency checks).
As a minimum, the items listed in Table below should be addressed in the Training
Subject

Meteorology associated with Thunderstorm/Windshear/Upset

Aerodynamic Factors related with Thunderstorm/Windshear/Upset

Factors Leading to an Upset situation

Upset situation Identification

Upset Recovery technics

Escape Maneuver For Upset recovery - SImulator

Thunderstorm avoidance

Conditions Conductive to windshear

Effects on aircraft performance

Indication of windshear presence

Escape Maneuver for windshear - Simulator

Case studies and or scenarios

Initial, and recreant training, consists of the following:

program through BH Air web site www.crewterminal.airxonline.com which consist of :

o Study Guide in text format
o DVD or Video
o Test which consist of 10 questions with a minimum pass mark of 75%.

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Thunderstorms & Windshear

The flow of air beneath thunderstorm cells is rather complex. Strong downdraughts in the centre
of the cell transport cooled air downwards which then spreads outwards over the surface of the
terrain. Around there is flowing warm air up and into the cell at a direction opposite to that of the
cold air. The distance from cell to the leading edge of the shear may be up to 15 NM and there
the greatest shears can be found. Shears may also exist at all other sides of a thunderstorm cell.
2.1 Downbursts
The term downburst describes a severe downward rush of air and its outburst of damaging winds
on or near the ground. It has been classified into microburst and microburst.
Microburst/microburst are downbursts of different sizes with a radial outflow at the earths surface
lasting 3 to 20 min. Meteorological parameters of microburst are relatively complicated and
prediction based on upper air and surface observations has not yet been very promising.
Microburst, as downbursts of less than 4 km in diameter, originate and descend from the base of
parent clouds (AC,CU,CB). They sometimes occur under virga conditions, i.e. down flow
precipitation evaporating before reaching the ground. The air rushes down towards the earths
surface at high speed. High total pressure at the centre then accelerates the air outwards, in the
course of which the velocity reaches values up to 35 - 40 kt often confined to within 100 ft above
ground. At the outer boundary, air moves up again in a rotating movement and forms a vortex
ring. The period over which wind speeds exceed half the peak value may last from 1 to 8 min.
Depending on the movement and the height of the base of parent cloud, microburst may occur as
stationary or moving, surface or mid-air, wet or dry.
2.2 Frontal shear
Frontal wind shear is present in cold as well as in warm fronts, but exists in a different relative
location in each type of front. Because the cold front boundary slopes back behind the frontal
surface, the wind shear line also slopes back. However, with the warm front, the frontal boundary
slopes upward ahead of the surface front, so the wind shear does likewise. Significant wind shear
can be expected if a significant surface temperature difference (> 6C) exists across the front and
if the front is moving rapidly (> 30 kt).
2.3 Lee wave, rotor shear
This type of wind shear is associated with mountain wave systems which produce strong vertical
and horizontal wind shears. Frequently, a second rotor will form up to 100 NM from the lee side of
the mountain, producing original wave action. Depending on air moisture, lenticular (lensshaped) clouds may be present.
2.4 Temperature inversions
Strong inversions may be associated with wind shear near the ground. They occur most markedly
during wintertime around sunrise. The main negative performance factor is caused by the
decrease in engine power resulting from the rise in temperature.
2.5 Ground effects
Terrain irregularities or buildings which interrupt the wind flow can produce significant wind
shears close to ground.
2.6 BH Air Policy
Flights through areas with known or forecast thunderstorms, severe turbulence or wind shear
should be avoided whenever possible due to the various hazards involved, e.g. hail, lightning
strikes, gusts, up/downdraughts with subsequent altitude and/or attitude changes, high g-loads
etc. Deviate from the flight path (horizontally and/or vertically) if operationally feasible and
possible.
Do not take off during heavy thunderstorm activity over the departure aerodrome.
Delay the approach or divert to an alternate aerodrome rather than penetrate a severe
thunderstorm in the approach area.
Strong winds may reach a magnitude where ground handling operation, including taxiing, will
become unsafe or even impossible. If surface mean wind speeds of 60 kt or above are reported,
no take-off or landing is authorized and the aerodrome must be considered as closed.

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2.7 General guidelines

Mutual information on development and location of thunderstorms by pilots and ATC as well as
careful weather observation are of great importance for early and adequate avoidance of such
severe weather areas.
With thunderstorms in the vicinity of the aerodrome, request radar vectoring through
thunderstorm-free areas and arrange the climb-out to provide ample safety distance from active
CB clouds. Use all available information such as airborne weather radar, pilot reports etc. It
should be noted that ATC cannot always issue detours in congested areas due to other traffic and
technical limitations of ground radar. Turbulence and wind shear present a potential hazard
during takeoff/climb-out and approach/landing. With strong shears, aeroplanes can experience
large fluctuations of airspeed and lift in a very short time.
Pilots should be most cautious about possible wind shears. Immediate corrective actions to avoid
high sink rates close to the ground is of vital importance. Pilots are encouraged to improve their
own standards of judgment based on visual clues. They should also be aware of the extreme
limitations of weather radar in producing a reliable picture regarding existence, location and
intensity of wind shear. Radar can only paint weather, whereas wind shear may occur at some
considerable distance from weather.
At different aerodromes low-level wind shear alert systems attempt to warn in case of horizontal
changes in wind direction and velocity (which exceeds certain values within a certain time) and
rapid surface pressure changes, which help to detect cold front passages and thunderstorm gust
fronts. For wind shear existing along the glide path in approach, pilot reports still represent the
main source of information.
Doppler radar combined with a net of wind-measuring equipment around an aerodrome has been
developed for research purposes and shows promising results for detection of microburst-related
wind shear. Based on this it should be possible to develop an effective three-dimensional wind
shear warning system in the future.
2.8 Take-off and climb-out
Pilots should be alert to the possibility of wind shear during departure when studying weather
information.
Thunderstorm cells in the vicinity of the aerodrome at a distance of 15 NM or less, frontal speeds
exceeding 30 kt, presence of high-base convective clouds with high surface temperatures and
large dew point spread, strong temperature inversions; all these are indicators for the existence of
wind shear. If, based on this information or actual reports, wind shear must be expected after
take-off, the following precautions shall be considered:
o Selection of a more favorable runway considering length, obstacles and climb-out
direction;
o use of full take-off thrust;
o use of higher climb-out speed;
o delayed take-off.
If encountering wind shear/downburst after take-off, consider the following technique:
Avoid pitch-down when airspeed decreases unexpectedly and hold pitch until reaching V2. If
descent is unavoidable and there is a risk of ground contact, use full thrust by moving the throttles
to the mechanical limits if the rate of descent cannot be stopped otherwise.
DO NOT CHASE AIRSPEED

Instead increase pitch attitude smoothly and progressively until reaching stick-shaker actuation.
Release attitude slightly to stay just below stick-shaker actuation. Do not trim the aeroplane to
facilitate recovery.
Loss of lift is not only caused by loss of airspeed but also by a decrease of angle of attack, which
in turn reduces lift. This means that lowering of pitch attitude for gaining airspeed in a
tailwind/down flow wind shear could result in a loss of lift and a subsequent heavy sink rate.

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Release attitude as soon as positive rate of climb is evident. Watch for return of normal
conditions not to overcorrect when flying out of wind shear zone/downburst. Radio altimeter,
ground proximity warning system and flight path vector are the best indicators for climb and
descent in these conditions.
2.9 Cruise Avoidance
Thunderstorms shall be avoided:
o Visually by staying well clear of CB-clouds;
o by using the airborne weather radar to find the most suitable corridor;
o by requesting vectors from ATC radar.
Whenever possible avoid:
o
Flight in cirrus clouds if thunderstorm activity is reported along the route as they may be
hiding anvil tops and reduce the effectiveness of the airborne weather radar;
o
altitudes between 10,000 ft and 25,000 ft as they will provide the roughest ride even
outside active storm centers;
o
flying below the overhang of CB clouds; this is the area where heavy hail fall must be
expected.
2.10 Use of weather radar
Flight altitude (FL)

Distance to echoes

up to 250
10 NM
250 - 300
15 NM
above 300
20 NM

Avoid all echoes by

Avoid all echoes by
Avoid all echoes by

2.11 Preparation
If flying in a thunderstorm or turbulence area is anticipated or unavoidable, the following
preparations should be made:
o Monitor airborne weather radar closely;
o instruct the cabin crew about the presence of adverse weather conditions to secure
passengers and galleys and switch on the cabin sign. Service of food and drinks
should be minimised or even omitted, considering the estimated degree of
turbulence. To preclude injuries to passengers, no hot liquids shall be served in
moderate to severe turbulence. When severe turbulence is expected,cabin crew
members must also be advised to sit down and fasten their seat belts;
o secure all loose items on the flight deck;
o fasten shoulder harness;
o switch on flight deck lighting to high intensity to avoid dazzling by lightning in
thunderstorms;
o fly the procedure and the recommended turbulence speed defined
2.12 Altitude
At maximum cruise altitude, the margin between low speed and high speed buffet is rather small
and any increase of g-loads, whether caused by maneuvering or by turbulence, may lead to
serious difficulties.
This shall be considered when trying to top a turbulence region. Therefore do not select
maximum cruise altitude. Allow altitude to vary. Large altitude variations are possible in severe
turbulence. Sacrifice altitude in order to maintain the desired attitude and airspeed.
DO NOT CHASE ALTITUDE
Large and persistent altitude variations may smoothly be corrected by only small elevator inputs
and appropriate power corrections.

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2.13 Airspeed/power setting

Large speed fluctuations and difficulties in instrument reading are to be expected due to yawing
and ahead-on gusts, therefore
DO NOT CHASE AIRSPEED
Maintain the recommended turbulence speed as target speed. Set thrust as required and then do
not change it unless required by large and/or persistent airspeed or altitude variations. The
airplanes real airspeed will remain within reasonable limits as long as thrust is set properly, while
avoiding large and rapid throttle movements, and a reasonable constant attitude is maintained.
If caught unexpectedly by turbulence, do not slow down airplane in a hurry.
2.14 Attitude
Control pitch attitude with smooth control inputs to the elevator. Closely monitor the ADI/FDH as it
is the only correct indication while all other instruments may be seriously erratic.
MAINTAIN CONSTANT ATTITUDE
2.15 Recovery
Should control be partially lost due to severe turbulence, resulting in a steep dive, the following
recommendations may be helpful for a successful recovery:
o Use speed brakes to prevent a rapid speed build-up. The pitching effect caused
thereby is secondary to the need to keep the speed at a reasonable level.
o Do not retract speed brakes until recovery is effected.
o Elevator forces can become very heavy as speed increases, thus being a safeguard
against excessive g-loads. If stabilizer trim is used for recovery, use it with utmost
caution so as to avoid heavy loads and a possible over-trim which could result in a
renewed loss of control.
o If strong elevator forces are applied, the trim motors might become ineffective
(stalled). By reducing the elevator forces, the trim motors will be enabled to drive
the stabilizer in the desired direction.
2.16 Assessment after crossing adverse conditions
After crossing a thunderstorm or turbulence area, the functions of the various airplane systems
should be checked as far as possible, i.e.:
Flight and engine instruments;
pitot and static heating;
radio and navigation equipment;
readings of compasses;
electrical system including circuit breakers.
2.17 Approach and landing
During approach, good monitoring of thrust, attitude, vertical speed and IAS as well as prompt
action are the best insurance against the effects of wind shear/downburst. Always be alert to
differences between RNAV/GPS airspeed readouts, where available, and reported surface winds.
Be prepared to make a second power and attitude change to maintain the proper approach path
as soon as the initial correction has taken effect. Initiate a missed approach if sudden speed
increments exceeding 20 kt below 500 ft AAL are encountered.
A critical case is an approach encountering an initially increasing headwind while approaching a
shower or virga. This could indicate an approach to the downburst center of a microburst which
will be reached while correcting down to the glide slope. Here a down flow and tailwind can hit the
airplane. Therefore, whenever such a condition is reported or anticipated, proper action must be

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taken immediately. If sudden speed loss and/or downburst is encountered or if there is any doubt
about the ability to re-establish a correct approach path:
EXECUTE A MISSED APPROACH OR FOLLOW THE WINDSHEAR PROCEDURE *
Note: In case of risk of imminent ground contact apply CFIT avoidance maneuver
2.18 Reporting ATC
Whenever any significant turbulence, particular below 500 ft AAE is encountered, ATC shall be
informed immediately, giving position, altitude, wind velocity and direction above and below wind
shear level, if available, or observed airspeed changes, etc. The same applies if an issued
warning is no longer encountered.
2.19 Company
In order to assure that the technical inspection for damage is carried out when an aeroplane
structure has been exposed to abnormal stress, e.g. severe turbulence, lightning strikes etc., the
flight recorder EVENT button shall be pressed and an entry be made in the aeroplanes
technical log, also stating gear position in case of a lightning strike or flap position in case of
turbulence. An exceedance of the engine power limitations must also be noted in the aeroplane
technical log.

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Aircraft Upset Recovery

3.1 General
The overall goal of the Airplane Upset Recovery Training course is to increase the ability of pilots
to recognize and avoid situations that may lead to airplane upsets and improve the pilots ability
to recover control of an airplane that has exceeded the normal flight regime. This may be
accomplished by
increasing awareness of potential upset situations and knowledge of aerodynamics and by
application of this knowledge during simulator training scenarios. Therefore, an academic and
training program is provided to support this goal.
3.2 Factors leading to an Upset situation
Airplane upsets are not a common occurrence. This may be for a variety of reasons. Airplane
design and certification methods have improved. Equipment has become more reliable. Perhaps
training programs have been effective in teaching pilots to avoid situations that lead to airplane
upsets. While airplane upsets seldom take place, there are a variety of reasons why they happen.
Turbulence
Clear Air Turbulence
Mountain Wave
Windshear
Thunderstorm
Microburst
Wake turbulence
Icing
System Anomalies
Pilot Induced
Combination of causes
3.3 Identification
In most cases effective situational awareness will avoid an upset from developing in the first
place.
However, it is important that the first actions for recovering from an airplane upset be correct and
timely. Exaggerated control inputs through reflex responses must be avoided. It is worth
repeating that inappropriate control inputs during one upset recovery can lead to a different upset
situation.
Troubleshooting the cause of the upset is secondary to initiating the recovery. However, the pilot
still must recognize and confirm the situation before a recovery can be initiated. Regaining and
then maintaining control of the airplane is paramount. Communication between crew members
will assist in the recovery actions. At the first indication of an unusual occurrence, the pilot should
announce what is being observed.
It is necessary to use the primary flight instruments and airplane performance instruments when
analyzing the upset situation. Visual meteorological conditions may allow the use of references
outside
the airplane. However, it can be difficult or impossible to see the horizon because in most large
commercial airplanes, the field of view is restricted due to window geometry and overhead panel
placement.
For a nose-low upset, normally the airspeed is increasing, altitude is decreasing, and the vertical
speed indicator (VSI) indicates a descent. For a nose-high upset, the airspeed normally is
decreasing, altitude is increasing, and the VSI indicates a climb. Cross-check other attitude
sources, for example, the Standby
Attitude Indicator and the pilot not flying (PNF) instruments.
Pitch attitude is determined from the ADI pitch reference scales (sometimes referred to as pitch
ladder bars). Most modern airplanes also use colors (blue for sky, brown for ground) or ground

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perspective lines to assist in determining whether the airplane pitch is above or below the
horizon.
Even in extreme attitudes, some portion of the sky or ground indications is usually present to
assist the pilot in analyzing the situation.
The bank indicator on the ADI should be used to determine the airplane bank.
The situation analysis process is to
a. Communicate with crew members.
b. Locate the bank indicator.
c. Determine pitch attitude.
d. Confirm attitude by reference to other indicators.
e. Assess the energy.
3.4 Recovery technics
There are issues associated with differences between simulator training and aircraft recoveries. A
simulator can provide the basic fundamentals for upset recovery, but some realities such as
positive or negative gs, startle factor, and environmental conditions are difficult or impossible to
replicate.
These limitations in simulation add a degree of complexity to recovery from an actual aircraft
upset because the encounter can be significantly different from that experienced during simulator
training. Therefore memory checklists or procedural responses performed in training may not be
repeatable during an actual upset situation. The limitations of simulators at the edges of the flight
envelope can also cause fidelity issues because the simulator recovery may or may not have the
same response characteristics as the aircraft being flown. However, provided the alpha and beta
limits are not exceeded, the initial motion responses and instrument indications of the simulator
should replicate airplane responses. The reaction of the simulator is based on given parameters
(CG, weight, speeds, etc.). An actual encounter at greatly different parameters than those
practiced in the simulator may result in a different aircraft response. For example, flight controls
are more effective at 250kn than at 150kn. These same realities exist for thrust asymmetry, wind
shear, stall recovery, and the like.
For instructional purposes, several different airplane upset situations are discussed. These
include the following:
Nose high, wings level.
Nose low, wings level.
--Low airspeed.
--High airspeed.
High bank angles.
--Nose high.
--Nose low.
This provides the basis for relating the aerodynamic information and techniques to specific
situations.
At the conclusion of this recovery techniques section, recommended recovery techniques are
summarized into two basic airplane upset situations: nose high and nose low. Consolidation of
recovery techniques into these two situations is done for simplification and ease of retention.
Following several situations, where appropriate, abbreviated techniques used for recovery are
indicated by the solid diamond shown here.
Airplanes that are designed with electronic flight control systems, commonly referred to as fly-by
wire airplanes, have features that should minimize the possibility that the airplane would enter
into an upset and assist the pilot in recovery, if it becomes necessary. But, when fly-by-wire
airplanes are in
the degraded flight control mode, the recovery techniques and aerodynamic principles discussed

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in this training aid are appropriate. Some environmental conditions can upset any airplane. But
the basic principles of recognition and recovery techniques still apply, independent of flight control
architecture.
Airplane autopilots and autothrottles are intended to be used when the airplane is within its
normal flight regime. When an airplane has been upset, the autopilot and autothrottle must be
disconnected as a prelude to initiating recover techniques. Situational analysis of the energy
state of the aircraft is also required. This analysis assesses the energy and trend. This includes
but is not limited to altitude, airspeed, attitude, load factor, power setting, position of flight
controls, position of drag and high-lift devices, and the rate of change. This analysis may cause
the crew to make appropriate changes, such as use of speed brakes or lowering the landing gear
for drag as necessary to aid in the recovery.
3.5

Aerodynamics

3.5.1 Swept-Wing Airplane

Aircraft are designed, tested, and certified based on accepted assumptions of how pilots will operate
them, together with various environmental and technical constraints (e.g., gusts, engine failure dynamics).
These assumptions drive the regulatory certification requirements and are validated through inservice
experience. The certification flight test process examines the entire flight envelope of the aircraft,
including that area beyond which the airline pilot normally operates. Examples would be a fully stalled
aircraft or airspeed exceeding Vmo.
The process even explores how the aircraft could possibly be inappropriately operated; however, the
testing assumes fundamental flying skills are known and understood. A primary assumption
regarding pilot inputs is that they are based on control inputs that are measured (the result of
experience), analyzed, then finetuned to achieve a desired result. Exaggerated rates and amounts of
control deflection (overcontrolling) may cause an accelerating divergence of flight path control until
the input is countered.

3.5.2 Flight Dynamics
In understanding the flight dynamics of large, sweptwing transport airplanes, it is important to
first understand what causes the forces and moments acting on the airplane and then move to what
kinds of motion these forces cause. Finally, with this background, one can gain an understanding of
how a pilot can control these forces and moments in order to direct the flight path.
Pilots are expected to make control inputs based on desired aircraft reaction. Control deflections at
on point in the flight envelope might not be appropriate in another part of the flight envelope. Pilots
must have a fundamental understanding of flight dynamics in order to correctly make these choices.
They should not make mechanical control deflections and rote reactions to dynamic situations that
require an understanding of these flight fundamentals.

Newtons first law states that an object at rest will tend to stay at rest, and an object in motion will
tend to stay in motion in a straight line, unless acted on by an external force. This definition is
fundamental to all motion, and it provides the foundation for all discussions of flight mechanics. A
careful examination of this law reveals an important subtlety, which is the reference to motion in a
straight line. If an airplane in motion is to deviate from a straight line, there must be a force, or a
combination of forces, imposed to achieve the desired trajectory. The generation of the forces is the
subject of aerodynamics. The generation of forces requires energy.
The term energy state describes how much of each kind of energy the airplane has available at any given
time. Pilots who understand the airplane energy state will be in a position to know instantly what options
they may have to maneuver their airplane. The three sources of energy available to the pilot are
Kinetic energy, which increases with increasing airspeed.
Potential energy, which is proportional to altitude.
Chemical energy, from the fuel in the tanks.

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The airplane is continuously expending energy; in flight, this is because of drag. (On the ground,
wheel brakes and thrust reversers, as well as friction, dissipate energy.)
Drag energy in flight is usually offset by using some of the stored chemical energy, by burning fuel in the
engines.
During maneuvering, these three types of energy can be traded, or exchanged, usually at the cost of
additional drag. This process of consciously manipulating the energy state of the airplane is referred to as
energy management. Airspeed can be traded for altitude, as in a zoom-climb. Altitude can be traded for
airspeed, as in a dive. Stored energy can be traded for either altitude or airspeed by advancing the throttles
to command more thrust than required for level flight. The trading of energy must be accomplished,
though, with a view toward the final desired energy state. For example, while altitude can be traded for
airspeed by diving the airplane, care must be taken in selecting the angle of the dive so that the final
desired energy state will be captured.
This becomes important when the pilot wants to generate aerodynamic forces and moments to maneuver
the airplane. Only kinetic energy (airspeed) can generate aerodynamic forces and maneuver
capability. Kinetic energy can be traded for potential energy (climb). Potential energy can only be
converted to kinetic energy. Chemical energy can be converted to either potential or kinetic energy, but
only at specified rates.
High-performance jet transport airplanes are designed to exhibit very low drag in the cruise configuration.
This means that the penalty for trading airspeed for altitude is relatively small. Jet transport airplanes are
also capable of gaining speed very rapidly in a descent. The pilot needs to exercise considerable judgment
in making very large energy trades. Just as the level flight acceleration capability is limited by the
maximum thrust of the engines, the deceleration capability is limited by the ability
to generate very large drag increments. For high performance jet transport airplanes, the ability to generate
large decelerating drag increments is often limited. The pilot always should be aware of these limitations
for the airplane being flown. A very clean airplane operating near its limits can easily go from the lowspeed boundary to and through the high-speed boundary very quickly.
The objective in maneuvering the airplane is to manage energy so that kinetic energy stays between limits
(stall and placards), the potential energy stays within limits (terrain to buffet altitude), and chemical energy
stays above certain thresholds (not running out of fuel). This objective is especially important during an
inadvertent upset and the ensuing recovery.
In managing these energy states and trading between the various sources of energy, the pilot does not
directly control the energy. The pilot controls the orientation and magnitude of the various forces acting on
the airplane. These forces result in accelerations applied to the airplane. The result of these accelerations is
a change in the orientation of the airplane and a change in the direction or magnitude, or both, of the flight
path vector. Ultimately, velocity and altitude define the energy state.
This process of controlling forces to change accelerations and produce a new energy state takes time. The
amount of time required is a function of the mass of the airplane and the magnitude of the applied forces,
and it is also governed by Newtons laws. Airplanes of larger mass generally take longer
to change orientation than do smaller ones. The longer time requires the pilot to plan ahead more in a largemass airplane and make sure that the actions taken will achieve the final desired energy state.