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Semester 1, 2015
Dr Jeremy W. Leggoe
February 2015
Figure 2.1
2.2 Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid characterizes the efficiency with which a fluid is able to
transport momentum. Naturally, viscosity will depend on the intensity and frequency
of the molecular interactions within a fluid as can be seen from the typical
viscosity values presented in Table 1 below. As you would expect, solids exhibit the
highest viscosity. Liquid viscosities vary widely, depending on the nature of the
molecules in the liquid and the nature of their interactions (entanglement, polarity,
etc). Gas viscosities are relatively low, and are orders of magnitude lower than
those exhibited by liquids, as would be expected given the much wider spacing of
gas molecules.
One intuitive way to think of viscosity is to think of it as characterising the resistance
to flow exhibited by a fluid the more viscous a fluid is, the harder it is to make it
flow. This is a logical alternative way of thinking, given that the slower moving
molecules do draw momentum from the faster moving particles, diminishing their
ability to move freely and reducing flow. It is important, though to remember that
this is just another way of thinking about the momentum transport that is happening.
Phase
Solid
Viscosity
Range
Pa.s
Up to
Liquid
100 10-2
10-3 10-4
Gas
10-4 10-6
Table 2.1
Description
Rigid bonds give virtually perfect momentum transport in
many materials but many glasses (polymer and ceramic)
exhibit high but finite viscosities, and flow slowly
High viscosity liquids polymers such as glycerol (0.9 Pas),
which have long entangled chains, high density fluids such
as Mercury and sulphuric acid (2.5 x 10-2 Pas).
Moderate viscosity low molecular weight liquids, such as
water (10-3 Pas at room temperature) and butanol (2.8 x 10-4
Pas at room temperature)
Low viscosity widely separated molecules, (relatively)
infrequent interactions. Sample values Isobutane: 8 x 10-6
Pas at standard atmospheric conditions (SAC), Air: 1.8 x
10-5 Pas at SAC
Figure 2.2 Simple shear flow. The bottom plate moves to the right
with velocity U in the x direction, the top plate is stationary.
The plates are separated by a distance of Y in the y
direction.
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Given a linear velocity profile, the velocity gradient, or shear rate is given by:
!!!
!"
= !
(2.1)
Note that the shear rate will normally be a function of position it is only constant
for this simple linear velocity profile.
Since the fluid near the moving bottom plate is moving faster than the fluid near the
stationary top plate, momentum will be transported upwards (in the positive y
direction) in the simple shear flow depicted in figure 2.2. From equation 2.1, it is
apparent that momentum is being transported in the direction of the negative
velocity gradient (ie in the direction of decreasing velocity). In fact, whenever a
non-zero velocity gradient exists, this type of viscous momentum transport
will occur.
Recalling the relationship between impulse and momentum, for momentum to be
transported a force must be exerted. When faster moving molecules interact with
slower moving molecules, they exert a force on those particles, imparting (and
therefore transporting) momentum. Returning once again to our molecule layers in
figure 2.3 (where the molecule layers have been separated for the purpose of
illustration), this force can be thought of as a shear force acting at the interface
between the layers. The faster molecules exert an accelerating force on the slower
particles; the slower particles exert an equal and opposite decelerating force on the
faster particles.
!" = !
(2.2)
Where A is the area of the interface between the layers, and F is the total force
acting over the interface area. Now, let us consider the dimensions of shear stress,
which are:
!" [=] !! !
(2.3)
!" !
!
. ! . !! [=] !! !
(2.4)
In other words, Momentum Flux and Shear stress are dimensionally equivalent
this means that shear stress is equivalent to a momentum flux.
Hence : yx = the viscous flux in the y direction of x-direction momentum.
!!!
!"
(2.5)
=!
The dimensions of kinematic viscosity are L2/T, and the SI units are m2/s.
(2.6)
!!!
!"
(2.7)
Now is not a constant, independent of the shear rate it can be a function of the
shear stress and the shear rate.
The relationships between shear stress and shear rate for the major types of nonNewtonian fluids are plotted schematically in figure 2.4 above. Bingham fluids
behave as solids until a threshold shear stress is applied; once set in motion, the
fluid will flow, exhibiting pseudo-Newtonian behaviour. The Bingham fluid model can
be written as (Bird et al, 2002):
= !
!
= ! + !"!!
!"
> !
(2.8)
(2.9)
!"! !!!
!"
(2.10)
!! !
(2.11)
! ! !!
Where
Mw is molecular weight (in gm/mol)
T is the absolute temperature (in K)
is the collision diameter (in Angstroms)
is the collision integral
The last two quantities must be determined from tables in the literature they are
available in Tables E1 and E2 in Bird, Stewart and Lightfoot (2002). Written in this
form, the equation gives an answer in Pas, as long as the correct units are used for
each of the variables. Note that the constant is not dimensionless, so different
values are needed for different unit combinations (the text Transport Phenomena,
for example, uses a different constant that yields viscosity in Poise).
It appears from the equation that the viscosity is roughly proportional to the square
root of the temperature; in fact once the effect of temperature on the other variables
is taken into account it turns out the viscosity is proportional to between T0.6 and T1.0,
depending on the temperature and the gas in question.
Determining the viscosity of mixtures of gases is also of practical importance
for starters, atmospheric air is a mixture of gases. For mixtures of gases at low
pressure (ie around atmospheric pressure) the viscosity of a gas mixture having N
components can be estimated using:
!"# =
!
!
!! !!
!! !
! ! !"
(2.12)
where xi is the mole fraction of component i of the mixture, and the interaction
parameter ij is given by
!" =
!
!
!!
1+!
!!/!
1+
!!
!!
!/!
!! !/!
!!
10
(2.13)
The effect of temperature on the viscosity of liquids can be estimated using the
Eyring equation [Bird et al, 2002]:
=
!!
!
!!
!.! !
(2.14)
Where
is Avogadros Number (6.023 x 1023)
h is the Planck Constant (6.626 x 10-34 J/s)
is the specific molar volume
Tb is the boiling temperature of the liquid (in K)
T is the temperature of the liquid (in K)
As with the other equations in this section, this is a basic model, which gives a
rough estimate of the viscosity (which may be significantly in error). However, it
does identify the important point that the viscosity of a liquid decreases with
increasing temperature, and the decrease follows an exponential relationship.
2.4 Viscometry
Viscometers are used to measure the viscosity of fluids. The key characteristic of
viscometers is that by establishing a geometrically simple (easily characterised)
laminar flow field, it is possible to analytically relate the shear stress to the shear
rate, and thereby extract the viscosity.
The falling ball viscometer is the simplest type of viscometer. As illustrated in
figure 2.6, a sphere is dropped in a cylinder of fluid (usually liquid spheres
generally fall too quickly in gases for reliable measurement). By determining the
time taken for the sphere to pass between two timing marks, it is possible to
calculate the terminal velocity of the sphere.
For a sphere falling through a fluid, the Reynolds number is given by
=
!"#
!
(2.15)
where the characteristic length D is the diameter of the sphere, and the
characteristic velocity U is the terminal velocity of the sphere. If the Reynolds
Number is less than 0.1, then a creeping flow state exists, and the viscosity is
given by:
=
!! !!! !! !
!"!
(2.16)
where s is the density of the solid sphere, and f is the density of the fluid. It should
be noted that this equation is based on an analysis for a sphere falling in an infinite
medium, and thus slightly overestimates when the tests are done in a finite
cylinder. A correction is available that can correct the value to obtain the true
viscosity [Bohlin, 1960]
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!"#
!
(2.17)
where the characteristic length D is the diameter of the tube, and the characteristic
velocity U is the average velocity of the flow in the tube. For a vertical tube (the
usual test configuration), the volume flow rate in the tube is given by:
=
!! ! !! !!! ! !"#
!"#!"
(2.18)
where the L is the length of the tube, and Po and PL are the pressures at the inlet
and outlet of the tube.
12
!!
!!! !
(2.19)
where k is the ratio of the radius of the inner cylinder divided by the radius of the
outer cylinder, R is the radius of the outer cylinder, and L is the length of the inner
cylinder (or bob).
The calculation will be valid as long as the system maintains laminar flow. If the
outer cylinder rotates too quickly, then a transition to turbulence will initiate in the
form of the creation of Taylor vortices. This will occur at a critical value of the
Couette viscometer Reynolds number, which is given by
=
!!! ! !
13
(2.20)
The transition point is a function of the geometry of the viscometer typical values
for the critical Reynolds number are provided in Table 2.4.1 below
Radius Ratio
k
0.975
260
0.9
130
0.5
70
14
References
R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart & E.N. Lightfoot, Transport phemonena, Second Edition,
John Wiley and Sons, New York, 2002
T. Bohlin, Terminal velocities of solid spheres in cylindrical enclosures,
Transactions of the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Report #155, 1960
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