Reservoir Engineering 1

CGE 567

Department Oil & Gas, Faculty of Chemical Engineering

CGE 567
Reservoir Engineering
1

Phase Behavior

Department Oil & Gas, Faculty of Chemical Engineering

Fluid Chemical Composition

What is petroleum ?
Petroleum comes from the Latin word petra
meaning rock or stone & oleum meaning oil.
Petroleum includes both gaseous and liquid forms
(sometimes they even exists as solids)

Petroleum
Australia: An example of a
light crude oil.

North Sea: An example of a

crude oil.

Utah: An example of
Petroleum in solid state
at room temperature.

Petroleum
In the world around us, we can see that petroleums
physical appearance varies from invisible gases to
clear liquids to very dark and thick solids. What
causes these variations in the physical properties of
petroleum?
The variation of the petroleum compound is a
function of its chemical composition and the
pressure and temperature that the petroleum
substance is subjected to.

Petroleum Chemistry
Consists of thousands of chemical compound mainly C
& H molecules + other minor amounts of N2, CO2, S, O2.
In chemistry compounds which contains Carbon are
called Organic compounds eg Methane (CH4), Ethanol
(C2H5OH) etc. The opposite term is called Inorganic eg
Salt (NaCl), Laughing gas (N2O) etc.
Petroleum can consists of chain of the smallest
molecules ie CH4 or chains of the largest molecules up
to C50++

Petroleum Chemistry
Basically, hydrocarbons are divided into two groupings
based on their structure ;
Bonds between the carbon molecules
(single, or multiples )
Arrangements of C molecules
(open chains or cyclic/rings)

Hydrocarbon classification
Hydrocarbons
Aliphatic

Aromatics

Alkanes
(Paraffins)

Cyclic
Aliphatics
(Naphthenes)

CnH22n+2
Alkenes
CnH22n+2

Alkynes
CnH22n-2

Unstable

Unstable Hydrocarbons - Unsaturated

Unsaturated hydrocarbons (or olefins) have double or triple
bonds between carbon atoms.
Have the potential to add more hydrogen or other elements.
Hence, structure is unstable
Two types

alkenes
e.g ethylene

CH2=CH2

alkynes
e.g, acetylene

CH-CH

Stable Hydrocarbons - Saturated

Paraffins
Naphthenes
Aromatics

Alkanes
The simplest Hydrocarbon is methane, CH4. It is
made up of 1 Carbon atom + 4 Hydrogen atoms.
It is a member of a homologous series of
hydrocarbons called alkanes which has a general
formula of CnH2n+2
Alkanes are also known as saturated hydrocarbons or
paraffin hydrocarbons.
Each successive member of the series has one more
Carbon atom than the preceding member.

Alkanes
The lighter ones are gases and used as fuels. The middle
ones (7 Carbons to 12 Carbons) are liquids used in
petrol (gasoline). The higher ones are waxy solids.
Candle wax is a mixture of alkanes.
Polythene is a very large alkane with millions of atoms
in a single molecule. Apart from being flammable,
alkanes are stable compounds found underground.

Alkanes
In the alkanes, all four of the Carbon valency bonds are
taken up with links to different atoms. These types of
bonds are called single bonds and are generally stable
and resistant to attack by other chemicals. Alkanes
contain the maximum number of Hydrogen atoms
possible. They are said to be saturated.
The alkanes are mainly the primary hydrocarbon in the
reservoir.

Alkanes or Paraffin Hydrocarbons

No of carbon atoms

Name

State ( NTP* )

Methane

Gas

Ethane

Gas

Propane

Gas

Butane

Gas

Pentane

Liquid

Hexane

Liquid

Heptane

Liquid

Octane

Liquid

Nonane

Liquid

10

Decane

Liquid

C5 C17

Liquid

C18+

Solid

Alkenes
Another series of compounds is called the alkenes.
These have a general formula:
CnH2n.
Alkenes have fewer hydrogen atoms than the
alkanes. The extra valencies left over occur as double
bonds between a pair of Carbon atoms. The double
bonds are more reactive than single bonds making
the alkenes chemically more reactive.
The simplest alkenes are:
C2H4 - Ethene
Used as an industrial starter chemical. These
compounds are named in a similar manner to the
alkanes except that the suffix is -ene.

Alkynes
A third series are the alkynes. These have the
following formula:
(CnH2n-2).
Alkynes have two carbon atoms joined by a tripple
bond. This is highly reactive making these
compounds unstable.
Examples of alkynes are:
C2H2 - Ethyne
Better known as acetylene which is used for welding
underwater. These highly reactive substances have
many industrial uses.
Again the naming of these compounds is similar to
the alkanes except that the suffix is -yne.

Carbon Rings
Alkanes, alkenes and alkynes all contain Carbon atoms in
linear chains. There are also hydrocarbons arranged in rings.
Some examples follow:
C6H12 - Cyclohexane - A saturated hydrocarbon with the atoms
arranged in a hexagonal ring. In organic chemistry, the presence of
Hydrogen atoms is often assumed and this compound can be
represented by a hexagonal ring:
C6H6Benzene - an industrial solvent. The Benzine Ring is one of the
most important structures in organic chemistry. In reality, its alternate
double and single bonds are "spread around" the ring so that the
molecule is symmetrical. This structure is represented by a hexagon
with a circle
C7H8Toluene - an important solvent and starter chemical.

Isomers
Isomers are substances of the same molecule compositions
but having different molecular structure and properties.
Notice that both compounds of C4H10 contain 2 Carbon
atoms and 10 Hydrogen atoms.
C4H10 can exist as the straight chain butane molecule or the
branched methylpropane. Both of these are shown below.

Butane

2 Methyl Propane

Isomers
Even though the atoms are the same, they are
arranged differently. This yields two different
compounds with the same number of atoms. These
compounds are isomers and the phenomenon is
called Isomerism.
Isomerism increases the number of Organic
compounds. The more Carbon atoms in a compound,
the more ways of arranging the atoms and the larger
number of isomers.

Isomers
One more example of a structural isomer is C6H10. This
can exist as an alkene in the 1, 2 or 3 position and as a
cyclic alkane.

Hex-1-ene

Hex-2-ene

Hex-3-ene

Cyclohexane

The more Carbon atoms in a compound, the more ways

of arranging the atoms and the larger number of
isomers.

Structure of the Four Lightest Paraffin Series

Compounds
H
H

C
H
Methane

H
H

H
Ethane

H
Propane

H
Butane

Structure Formula

H
H
H
H
Normal Hexane C6H14
(Paraffin Series)

H
H
H
H
H
Normal Hexene C6H12
(Olefin Series)

Structure Formula
H

H
C

C
C

C
H
Butane

C
H

Benzene C6H6
(Aromatic Series)

Physical Properties of Hydrocarbons

CHEMISTRY OF HC - Naphthenes
Formula CnH2n
Sometimes termed cycloparaffins or
alicyclic hydrocarbons.
Single bonds but carbon chain is closed and
saturated.
Very stable
Important constituents of crude oil.
Properties similar to paraffins.
Crude oil termed napthenic with high
napthene content

CHEMISTRY OF HC - Aromatics
Aromatic series unsaturated
closed-ring
Formula CnH2n-6
Based on the benzene compound.
Characterised by strong aromatic
odour.
Various compound found in crude
oil.
Closed ring gives greater stability
than open chain compounds.

Structure Formula
H
H

H
C

H
C

H
C

H
H

H H
Cyclohexene C6H12
(Napthene Series)

C
C

C
H

Benzene C6H6
(Aromatic Series)

CHEMISTRY OF HC - Nonhydrocarbons
Commonly found components are:
Nitrogen
Carbon Dioxide
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)

Reservoir fluids that contain H2S are called sour gases/crudes.

Reservoir fluids that are devoid of H2S are called sweet
gases/crudes.

SOLID COMPONENTS
They are unique phases that resulted from a particular pressure,
temperature, compositional or chemical changes occurring in
reservoir fluids.
It can severely restrict flow of fluids
They includes:
Gas hydrates (dirty ice)
Waxes (heavier paraffins)
Asphaltenes (aromatic, naphthenis compound with nitrogen,
sulfur and oxygen molecules

Hydrates

Wax

Asphaltene

Typical Compositional Analyses of a

Crude Oil & A Natural Gas
Components

Crude Oil
Mole Fraction

Natural Gas
Mole Fraction

C1

0.09

0.70

C2

0.10

0.14

C3

0.11

0.08

nC4

0.12

0.05

nC5

0.13

0.03

nC6

0.15

0.00

C7+

0.30

0.00

1.00

1.00

EXAMPLE OF FLUID COMP

Baronia RV2
COMPONENTS
Methane

Angsi I-35
MOLE PERCENT
47.96

COMPONENTS

MOLE PERCENT

Methane

5.15

Ethane

5.66

Ethane

1.81

Propane

5.87

Propane

2.81

i-butane

1.33

i-butane

1.5

N-butane

2.18

N-butane

1.44

i-pentane

1.09

i-pentane

1.30

N-pentane

1.04

N-pentane

0.89

Hexanes

2.05

Hexanes

2.08

Heptanes Plus
Heptanes Plus
Nitrogen
Carbon Dioxide

32.29
0.2
0.33

82.73

Nitrogen

0.06

Carbon Dioxide

0.68

Phase Behavior

INTRODUCTION
Phase Behaviour
Reservoir hydrocarbons exist as vapour, liquid or
solid phases
A phase is defined as a part of a system which is
physically distinct from other parts by definite
boundaries
A reservoir oil (liquid phase) may change form into
gas (vapour phase) during depletion
The evolved gas initially remains dispersed in the oil
phase until more and more gas is evolved. When this
happens, large clusters will form and be mobile.
Either mobile or not, both this condition is considered
as a two-phase fluid.

Phase Behaviour.cont.
The subject of phase behaviour, however, focuses
only on the state of equilibrium, where no changes
will occur with time if the system is left at the
prevailing constant pressure and temperature
A system reaches equilibrium when it attains it
minimum energy level
Fluids at equilibrium are also referred to as saturated
fluids
The state of a phase is fully defined when its
chemistry, composition, temperature and pressure
are specified

KEY POINTS
Part of a system which is homogeneous
and physically distinct from other parts by
definite boundaries gas, liquid, solid

PHASE

Has a fixed chemical

composition throughout

PURE SUBSTANCE
STATE OF A PHASE
EQUILIBRIUM

Defined by chemistry, composition,

pressure and temperature

A state where there is no changes will occur

with time if the system is left at the prevailing
constant pressure and temperature

PHASE BEHAVIOUR

Behaviour of phases under different

pressure and temperature

The Phase Diagram

Phse diagrams are generally plots/graphs of pressure
versus temperature (PT) OR pressure versus volume
(PV).
It is beneficial to study the behaviour of a pure
hydrocarbon under varying pressure and temperature
to gain an insight into the behaviour of more complex
hydrocarbon system
Phase behavior is a key aspect in understanding
nature and behavior of fluids both in the reservoir and
also during the production and transport process.

Phase Diagram Terminology

Liquid & Solid coexist

Liquid

Pressure

Solid

Liquid & Gas coexist

Gas/vapour

Gas & Solid coexist

Temperature

Phase Diagram Terminology

Vapour Pressure Line

Liquid

Pressure

Solid

Divides the
regions where
the substance is
a liquid from
regions where it
is a gas

Gas

Temperature

Conditions on the
line indicate
where both liquid
and gas coexist.

Phase Diagram Terminology

Melting Point

Pressure

C
Solid

Liquid

Gas

Temperature

Separates the
pressure and
temperature at
which solid exists
from the area
where liquid
exists.
Conditions on the
line indicates
where solid and
liquid coexist

Phase Diagram Terminology

Triple Point

Pressure

C
Liquid

Solid

T
Temperature

Gas

Represents the
pressure and
temperature at which
solid, liquid and
vapour co-exist under
equilibrium
conditions.

Not common for

Petroleum engineers
to deal with solid
state. More recently
an issue in the
context of wax,
ashphaltenes and
hydrates.

Phase Diagram Terminology

Sublimation Line

Pressure

C
Liquid

Solid

T
Temperature

Gas

Represents the
pressure and
temperature at
which solid exists
from the area
where vapour
exists.

Phase Diagram Terminology

Critical Point
The point at which all intensive properties of the gas and liquid are equal

The limit of the

vapour pressure line

Pressure

Pc

Solid

Liquid

Defines the Critical

temperature, Tc &
Critical pressure, Pc
of the pure
substance

For pure
component, it is the
limiting state for
liquid and gas to
coexist

Gas

Temperature

Tc

Pressure-Temperature diagram for

ethane

Supercritical
fluid

P-V Diagram for a Pure

System
3
T1
C - Critical Point

1
T2

Pressure

T3

2
Vapour
Liquid
Two Phase Region

Volume

Three Dimensional Phase Diagram

for a Pure Component

P-T Diagram for a Pure System

Pressure

Solid

Melting point curve

Critical Point
C
Liquid

Vapour
A
Triple Point
D
Temperature

Definition
Bubble point
The state of a system characteristic by the coexistence of a liquid
phase with an infinitesimal quantity of gas phase in equilibrium

Bubble point pressure

The fluid pressure system at its bubble point

Cricondentherm
The maximum temperature at which liquid and vapour phases can
coexist in equilibrium for a constant composition, multicomponent
system

Cricondenbar
The maximum pressure at which liquid and vapour phases can coexist
in equilibrium for a constant composition, multicomponent system

Critical state
The state of a system at which all properties of the coexisting vapour
and liquid phases become identical

Critical pressure and/ or temperature

The pressure and/ or temperature in a hydrocarbon system at the
critical state

Definition
Dew point
The state of a system characterized by the coexistence of a vapour
phase with an infinitesimal quantity of liquid phase in equilibrium

Dew point pressure

The fluid pressure in a system at its dew point

Phase
A homogeneous body of material which differs in its intensive
properties from its neighbouring phases

Producing gas: oil ratio, GOR

The ratio of gas production rate to crude oil production rate
expressed as volume/ volume; for example, cubic feet per barrel
measured under standard conditions

Properties, extensive and intensive

Properties that are directly proportional to the quantity of
material making up the system are termed extensive properties.
Those that independent of the quantity of material and therefore
describe its condition at a particular state are termed intensive
properties

Definition
Pseudo- critical pressure and temperature
Fictitious critical pressure and temperature values
ascribe to a multicomponent system in order that the
reduced pressure- volume- temperature states of the
system conform to the reduced states of pure gases

Reduced pressure and temperature

The ratio of pressure in a system to the critical pressure
(or pseudo- critical pressure) of the system. The
reduced temperature is the ratio of the temperature of
a system to the systems critical pressure

Saturated liquid
A liquid that is in equilibrium with vapour at a given
pressure and temperature state

Saturated vapour
A vapour that is in equilibrium with a liquid at a given
pressure and temperature state

Definition
Saturated pressure
The pressure at which vapour and liquid are in equilibrium (also
bubble point pressure or dew point pressure)

Stock tank oil

Crude oil in equilibrium with a portion of its evolved gases at
standard atmospheric conditions

Undersaturated fluid
A liquid or vapour capable of holding additional gaseous or liquid
components in solution at the specified pressure and temperature

P-T Diagram for a Binary System

Critical
Point

Cricondenbar

Pressure

Vapor Pressure
Curve for pure
Component A

Two phase
envelope for
mixture A+B

Cricondentherm

Vapor Pressure
Curve for pure
Component B

Temperature

P-T Diagram for a Binary

System
A1

Pressure

Bubble Point
0% vapour,
100% liquid

Critical
Point

Cricondenbar

A2
Two phase
region
Cricondentherm

Dew point
100% vapour, 0% liquid
Temperature

P-V Diagram for a Binary

System
T >Tc
T <Tc

T =Tc
C, Critical Point

Pressure

T3

Vapour
Liquid

Two Phase Region

Volume

P-T Diagram of a Binary Mixture

B
C

Critical
Point

Pressure

Two Phase
Region

Temperature

The phase rule indicates that in a

binary vapour- liquid system, both
the temperature and the pressure
are independent variables
The phase envelope, inside which
the two phase coexist, is bounded
by the bubble point and dew point
curve
The two curves meet at the critical
(C), where all differences between
and two phases vanish and the
phases become indistinguishable
Two phase can coexist at some
conditions above critical point
The highest pressure (B) and the
highest temperature (D) on the
phase envelope are called the
cricondenbar and cricondentherm,
respectively

Multi- Component Hydrocarbon

Reservoir fluids contain hundreds of component and therefore are
multicomponent system
The phase behaviour of multicomponent hydrocarbon systems in the
liquid- vapour region however is very similar to that of binary system
however the mathematical and experimental analysis of the phase
behaviour is more complex.
Understanding the phase behavior of a binary system allows
appreciation of the more complex multi-component systems.
Additionally, crude oils also contain appreciable amount of relatively
non- volatile constituents which affect the systems phase behaviour
such that dew point are practically unattainable

Phase Diagram For Multicomponent System

Pressure-Temperature diagrams
Consider behaviour of a PVT (pressure, volume, temperature ) cell charged
with a pure substance and the volume varied by frictionless piston.

P1

Single phase liquid at P1

Pressure-Temperature diagrams
Single phase liquid at P1
Significant pressure reduction
Small liquid volume change
P1

P2
Bubble point
pressure
P2
Small gas bubble
in equilibrium
with liquid

Pressure-Temperature diagrams
Single phase liquid at P1

P1

P2

Further volume
expansion
P3

More gas phase.

Liquid volume decreases
Pressure remains
constant

Pressure-Temperature diagrams
Single phase liquid at
P1

P1

P2

Bubble point
pressure P2

P3

Further volume
expansion

P4

Dew point
pressure P4
Small liquid drop in
equilibrium with gas
Pressure remains
constant

Pressure-Temperature diagrams
Single phase liquid at
P1

Bubble point
pressure P2

Dew point
pressure P4
Pressure reduces

P1

P2

P3

P4

P5
Further gas
expansion

Further volume
expansion

Phase Diagram of a Multicomponent Mixture

Bubble Point Curve

Critical Point
C

100

30

80

20

10

Pressure

60

Liquid Volume %

50

Temperature

Dew- Point Curve

Phase Diagram of Segregated Oil & Gas in the

Vicinity of Gas/Oil Contact

Pressure

Critical
Point
GC

Gas Phase Envelope

Critical
Point
OC

Res.
Pres.
Oil Phase Envelope

Reservoir
Temp.
Temperature

Pressure

Pressure- Volume Diagram For A Two- Component Mixture

Bubble Point

Dew Point

Specific Volume

Pressure, psia

Pressure- Composition Diagram for Two- Component Mixtures

Combination of the composition
and pressure which plot above the
envelope indicate conditions at
which the mixture is completely
liquid
Combinations of composition and
pressure which plot below the
envelope indicate conditions at
Liquid
which the mixture is gas
Tie line
Any combinations of pressure and
composition which plot within the
2
1
3
envelope indicate that the mixture
exists in two phases, gas and liquid
The bubble- point line is also the
locus of compositions of the liquid
when two phases are present
Gas
The dew- point line is the locus of
composition of the gas and liquid
are in equilibrium
0
50
100
The line which ties the composition
Composition, mole % component A
of the liquid with the composition
of gas in equilibrium is known as an
equilibrium tie- line
Typical pressure-composition diagram of a two Tie-lines are always horizontal for
component mixture with one tie line, 123
two- component mixtures

Pressure, psia

Pressure- Composition Diagram for Two- Component Mixtures

Liquid

50

Consider that a mixture of

composition represented by
point 1 is brought to equilibrium
at the indicated pressure and the
temperature of the diagram
The composition of the liquid is
indicated by point 2, and the
composition of the equilibrium
gas is given by point 3
Tie line
The tie- line can also be used to
1
3
determine the quantities of gas
and liquid present at 1
The length of line 12 divided by
the length of the tie- line 23, is
the ratio of moles of gas to total
Gas
moles of mixture
The length of line 13 divided by
100
23 is the ratio of moles of liquid
to total moles of mixture

Composition, mole % component A

Typical pressure-composition diagram of a twocomponent mixture with one tie line, 123

Isothermal pressure- composition diagram of mixtures of methane and

ethane
There are four saturation envelopes
corresponding to four different
temperatures
The edge of the diagram labeled 100
mole percent methane represents
vapor pressure of methane
The edge of the diagram labeled zero
mole percent methane gives vapor
pressures of ethane
When the temperature exceeds the
critical
temperature
of
one
component, the saturation envelope
does not go all the way across the
diagram; rather, the dew point and
bubble point lines join at a critical
point
E.g., when the critical temperature of
a mixture of methane and ethane is
minus 100F, the critical pressure is
750 psia, and the composition of the
critical mixture is 95 mole percent
methane and 5 mole percent ethane

Example
Determine the compositions and quantities of gas
and liquid formed when 3 lb moles of mixture of
70 mole percent methane and 30 mole percent
ethane are brought to equilibrium at 100 F and
400 psia

SOLUTION
Plot 70 mole percent methane and 400
psia on the 100 F saturation envelope
Draw the tie- line and read the
composition of the equilibrium liquid
on the bubble point line and the
composition of equilibrium gas on the
dew- point line
Calculate fractions of the gas and liquid
from length of the tie- line
fraction gas
= 70.0 52.2
91.8 52.2
= 0.45 lb mole of gas/lb mole total
fraction liquid

= 91.8 70.0
91.8 52.2
= 0.55 lb mole of liquid/lb mole total
quantity of gas

= ( 0.45) (3 lb mole)
= 1.35 lb mole gas

quantity of liquid = ( 0.55) (3 lb mole)

= 1.65 lb mole liquid

SOLUTION

Component

Composition of
liquid, mole percent

Composition of
gas, mole percent

Methane

52.2

91.8

Ethane

47.8

8.2

100.0

100.0

Ternary Diagram
100
0

C1

% C7+

% C1
M

0
100

C7+ 0

100

C2 C6

% C2 C6

Three- Component Mixtures

Component A

Compositional phase diagram for three- component mixtures must be

plotted in such way that the compositions of all three components can be
displayed
Diagrams formed from equilateral triangles are convenient for this purpose
These are called ternary diagrams

Ternary Diagrams
Component A

Each apex of the triangle corresponds to 100% of a single component

The usual convention is to plot the lightest component at the top and the heaviest
component at the lower left
Each side of the triangle represents two- component mixtures
The left side of the triangle represents all possible mixtures of the light and the heavy
components
Point within the triangle represents three- component mixtures
Composition is usually plotted in terms of mole fraction or mole percent
For a single diagram, both pressure and temperature are constant; only composition
change

Ternary Diagrams
Component A

Point 1 represents pure component B

Point 2 represents a mixture of 30 mole percent component A and 70 mole percent
component C
Point 3 represents a mixture which consists of 50 mole percent A, 30 mole percent B,
and 20 mole percent C
The composition of the mixture represented by point 3 is best determined by imagining
three lines from point 3 perpendicular to the sides of the triangular diagram
The length of line 43 represents the composition of component A in the mixture
The length of line 53 represents the composition of component B, and the length of line
63 represents the composition of component C

Ternary Diagrams
Component A

Line 21 represents a process of interest to the petroleum engineer

Point 2 represents the composition of a mixture of component A and component C with
no component B present (A = 30 % & C =70 %)
Line 12 represents the compositions of all mixtures formed by the addition of
component B to the original mixture of component A and C
E.g., point 7 represent a mixture of equal parts of the original mixture if A and C with
component B
The composition is 50% component B, 15% component A, and 35% component C
The ratio of component A to C, 15:35, is the same as the ratio of A to C in the original
mixture, 30:70

Example
Determine the compositions and quantities of
equilibrium gas and liquid when 6 lb moles of a mixture
of 50 mole percent methane, 15 mole percent propane,
and 35 mole percent n-pentane are brought to
equilibrium at 160F and 500 psia

Solution
Plot composition of the mixture on the
ternary diagram for the given temperature
and pressure (point 1)
Read composition of equilibrium gas at
point where the tie- line through point 1
connects with dew- point line (point 2)
composition of gas:
14 mole percent propane
75 mole percent methane
12 mole percent n- pentane
100 mole percent
Read composition of equilibrium liquid at
point where tie- line through point 1
connect with bubble-point line (point 3)
composition of liquid:
13 mole percent methane
17 mole percent propane
70 mole percent n-pentane
100 mole percent

Solution
Calculate fraction of mix which is gas
fraction gas = 0.65 inches
1.07 inches
= 0.607 lb mole of gas/lb mole total
Quantity of gas
= (0.607) (6 lb mole)
= 3.6 lb moles
Calculate fraction of mix which is liquid
fraction liquid = 0.42 inches
1.07 inches
= 0.393 lb mole liquid/ lb mole total
quantity of liquid

= (0.393) (6 lb mole)
= 2.4 lb moles

Reservoir Fluids Classifications

Common Types of Petroleum

5 reservoir fluid
The behavior of reservoir fluid during production is determined by
the shape of its phase diagram and the position of its critical point
5 types black oil, volatile oil, retrograde gas, wet gas, and dry gas
Type of reservoir fluids have been define because each requires
different approaches by reservoir engineer and production
engineer
Method of fluid sampling, type and size of surface equipment,
cal.procedure to determine oil and gas in place, plan of depletion,
selection of EOR

Common Types of Petroleum

Black oil ;
Exist as liquid in the reservoir. Will exhibit bubble point behavior as pressure of
reservoir decreases through the field life.
As the liquid oil is being produced through surface, dry gas (mainly C1) will
evolved due to pressure reduction.The gas remain gaseous through the
reservoirs, tubular, separators till the surface.
The higher the number of API degree, the lighter is the oil. A rough classification
of crude oil is sometimes used based on the API gravity. Conventional black oil
has viscosity low enough to flow naturally into a well, usually in the range 2045API, and is the most common form of reservoir liquid
Oil prices vary with specific gravity, heavy oil of less than 20 API having relatively
low value and lighter oil between 20 API and 45 API having progressively higher
values
GORs are in the range 100-2000 scf/stb (20 360m/ m ); specific gravity () from
0.6 to 1.0; and viscosities range from below 1 cp (liquids that are about as thin as
water) to those that are > 100cp
They are black to green- black in colour

Black oil

Volatile oil

Common Types of Petroleum

Volatile oil

This has low specific gravities and viscosities, 4570 API

GORs are in excess of 2000 scf/bbl (360m/ m)
They are pale red to brown in colour

Common Types of Petroleum

Gas condensate
Hydrocarbon which are gaseous in the reservoir but which, when
temperature and pressure are reduced, partially condense to yield
condensate in liquid form
The hydrocarbons mixture gravity is usually above 45API
The liquids that condense (6- 60 m/ m, 30- 300 bbl/ MMscf) are strawcoloured
If the condensation occurs in the reservoir fluid is termed a gas
condensate fluid
This isothermal condensation behaviour is opposite to normal
experience, and the phenomenon is known as retrograde condensation
Gas condensate reservoirs are an important class of hydrocarbon
accumulation

Oil & Condensate from Australia

Common Types of Petroleum

Natural gas ( gas )
A mixture of hydrocarbons that consist mainly of methane, but
also includes ethane and minor quantities of natural gas liquids

Natural gas liquid ( NGL )

A light hydrocarbon that consist mainly of propane and and
butane, which is liquid under pressure at normal temperature

Associated gas
The natural gas and NGL which, under reservoir conditions, are
dissolved in the crude oil or are present as a gas cap above the
reservoir

Common Types of Petroleum

Sour
A petroleum is considered sour when other substances such as sulphur compounds, carbon
dioxide and so on that are often mixed with the hydrocarbons in various proportions and
caused problems in production and processing
Oil or gas is considered sweet if it contains few sulphur components
Sour natural gas contains an appreciable amount of hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide
if there is any measurable sulphur content (more than one part per million) then the
sulphur components, particularly hydrogen sulphide (H2S), can cause considerable damage
to the production facilities unless they are designed for, are poisonous to human, and lower
the commercial values of the oil or gas
They therefore have to be extracted, but can be converted to sulphur and sold on as a
useful product
The production equipment has to use special quality steels to prevent rapid corrosion
The water found in the reservoir at discovery is termed connate water and can occupy 5
50% of the pore volume
It is also usually very salty ( sometimes more concentrated than seawater, 35000 ppm salts)

Liquid Density
Specific gravity of a liquid

o ( P1 , T1 )
o
w ( P1 , T1 )
API gravity
o

API

141.5

131.5

Typical Compositions of Reservoir Fluids

Component

Black Oil

Volatile Oil

Gas Condensate

Wet Gas

Dry Gas

C1

48.83

64.36

87.07

95.85

86.67

C2

2.75

7.52

4.39

2.67

7.77

C3

1.93

4.74

2.29

0.34

2.95

C4

1.60

4.12

1.74

0.52

1.73

C5

1.15

3.97

0.83

0.08

0.88

C6

1.59

3.38

0.60

0.12

42.15

11.91

3.80

0.42

225

181

112

157

GOR

625

2000

18,200

105,000

Tank API

34.3

50.1

60.8

54.7

Liquid
Color

Greenish
Black

Medium
Orange

Light
Straw

Water
White

C7

MwC 7

Production Path
Separator

Gas

Wellhead

Water
Oil

Wellbore

Reservoir

Production Path
Rsi scf/stb
Solution Gas

+
Stock Tank Oil

1 stb. oil

Bo res. Bbl. oil

Oil Reservoir

Concept to understand
Undersaturated
Saturated

Schematic Diagram of Stabilising Produced Oil As

Stock Tank Oil & Gas at Standard Condition

Separator

Gas

Reservoir
Oil

Gas

Stock Tank
Oil

The reservoir fluid is

produced and measured at
the surface as the stock
tank oil and gas at standard
conditions,
as
shown
schematically

Reservoir Thermodynamic Engineering Data

Physical properties are needed accurately to describe the fluids
for pressures up to 1500 bar ( 22000psia), the possibility of high
temperatures (up to 250C) and corrosive fluids (water more
saline than sea water, which is approximately 35000ppm)
Empirical relationships are often used to extrapolate this
physical understanding to applications to the real system
The comprehension of such complex natural fluids comes from
an understanding of simple and ideal systems, which starts with
visualization in the laboratory
The data required include density, compressibility, formation
volume factors of oil and gas: oil ratios for determination of
recovery factors, viscosity and gas: oil ratios for production
rates, and interfacial tension for recovery efficiency, as it has a
major influence on oil trapping

The Thermodynamic Path From Reservoir To Stock Tank

separators
Up to 35 bar, 0 - 60C

gas

Well bore

To sell

Reservoir

Up to 1500 bar, 250C

Stock tank
Ambient conditions
water
T&P
Formation Volume Factor
GOR
Density
Shrinkage
Bubble/ dew points
Flash/ differential
Viscosity
Flow rates

oil

Typical pressure, & temperature

Location

Pressure Temperature (oF)

(psia)

Reservoir
Separator
Stock tank
Standard
Conditions

500-10,000
100-600
14.7
14.7

100-300 (500+ thermal)

75-150
Ambient
60

Overview of Reservoir Engineering

Phase diagram
Reservoir fluid
Bubble point pressure the
pressure at which the first
bubble of gas appears as the
pressure of a liquid is reduced
at constant temperature

Critical point the temperature

and pressure at which the
properties of liquid and vapor
phase are identical

Dew point
pressure the
pressure at which
the first drop of
liquid appears as
the pressure of a
gas is increased at
constant
temperature

Faculty of Chemical Engineering

Hydrocarbon phase behavior

Present as a single liquid in the reservoir
{point (a)}
Remains a single phase liquid at the
wellbore (significant reduction in pressure
and small change in temperature during
flow in reservoir) {point (b)}
Starts to evolve gas {point (c)} as
temperature and pressure are reduced
during flow up the tubing
Evolves increasing amounts of gas {points
(d) and (e)} until the separator {point (f)} is
reached

Faculty of Chemical Engineering

Overview of Reservoir Engineering

Phase diagram
Oil reservoir

Faculty of Chemical Engineering

Overview of Reservoir Engineering

Phase diagram
Oil Reservoir
If the initial Pres and Tres are
at point 2 oil is at its
reservoir bubble point and
is said to be saturated ( the
oil contains as much
dissolved gas as it can; and
a further reduction in
pressure will cause
formation of gas)

As the oil being brought up

to the surface (separator) a
further reduction on the
pressure will increase a
number of gas produced

If the initial Pres and Tres are

at point 1 oil is said to be
undersaturated ( fluid
behaviour in the reservoir is
single phase oil)

Faculty of Chemical Engineering

Classification of Reservoirs based on

Production and PVT data
(from Mc Cains textbook )
BLACK OIL RESERVOIRS:
GOR less than 1,000 SCF/STB
Density less than 45 API
Reservoir temperatures less than 250 F
Oil FVF less than 2.00 (low shrinkage oils)
Dark green to black in color
C7+ composition > 30%

Phase Diagram of a
Black Oil Reservoir
Initial Reservoir
Conditions
Path of Production

Pressure

CP

75%

50%
25%

Separator Conditions

Temperature

Classification of Reservoirs based on

Production and PVT data
(from Mc Cains textbook )
VOLATILE OIL RESERVOIRS:
GOR between1,000-8,000 SCF/STB
Density between 45-60 API
Oil FVF greater than 2.00 (high shrinkage oils)
Light brown to green in color
C7+ composition > 12.5%

Phase Diagram of a
Volatile Oil Reservoir
Initial Reservoir
Conditions

Pressure

CP
Path of Production

Separator Conditions

75%
25%
50%

Temperature

Classification of Reservoirs based on

Production and PVT data
(from Mc Cains textbook )
GAS CONDENSATE RESERVOIRS:
GOR between 70,000-100,000 SCF/STB
Density greater than 60 API
Light in color
C7+ composition < 12.5%

Overview of Reservoir Engineering

Phase diagram
Retrograde Gas Condensate Reservoir

Faculty of Chemical Engineering

Overview of Reservoir Engineering

Phase diagram
Retrograde Gas Condensate Reservoir
As Pres decreases,
the retrograde reach
dew point at point 2

Initially when Pres and

Tres are at point 1 it is
totally gas in the
reservoir

As Pres continue
reduced, liquid
condenses from the
gas to form a free
liquid in the reservoir

Liquid produced
from retrograde gas
reservoir often
called as condensate

Faculty of Chemical Engineering

Phase Diagram of a Retrograde Gas

Initial Reservoir
Conditions

Pressure

CP

Path of Production

Separator Conditions

Temperature

Classification of Reservoirs based on

Production and PVT data
(from Mc Cains textbook )
DRY GAS RESERVOIRS:
GOR much greater than 100,000 SCF/STB
No liquid produced at surface
Mostly compose of methane

WET GAS RESERVOIRS:

GOR > 100,000 SCF/STB
No liquid is formed in the reservoir
Separator conditions lie within phase envelope and liquid is
produced at surface

Overview of Reservoir Engineering

Phase diagram
Wet Gas Reservoir

Faculty of Chemical Engineering

Overview of Reservoir Engineering

Phase diagram
Wet Gas Reservoir
A wet gas exist solely
as a gas in the reservoir
throughout the
reduction in Pres

The pressure path

(point 1 -2 ) does not
enter the phase
envelope

No liquid is formed in
the reservoir

Separator conditions
lie within the phase
envelope causing some
liquid to be formed at
the surface

Faculty of Chemical Engineering

Phase Diagram of Wet Gas

The phase diagram for a mixture
containing smaller molecules lies
below the reservoir temperature.
The reservoir
condition always
remains outside the
two phase envelope
Wet because
produces condensates.

Condensates produced in separator

Phase Diagram of a Wet Gas

Pressure

CP

Initial Reservoir
Conditions

Path of Production

Separator Conditions

Temperature

Overview of Reservoir Engineering

Phase diagram
Dry Gas Reservoir

Faculty of Chemical Engineering

Overview of Reservoir Engineering

Phase diagram
Dry Gas Reservoir

Dry gas is primarily

methane with some
intermediates

Hydrocarbon mixture is
solely gas in the
reservoir

Normal surface separator conditions fall

outside the phase envelope thus no
liquid is formed at the surface

Faculty of Chemical Engineering

Phase Diagram of a Dry Gas

Initial Reservoir
Conditions

Pressure

CP

Path of Production

Separator Conditions

Temperature

Dry Gas
GOR>100,000 scf/stb

The reservoir condition

always remains outside
the two phase envelope

Dry because does

not produce
condensates

Separator lies outside

two phase envelopes

Additional Guidelines
Reservoir
fluid

Surface
appearance

GOR range

Gas specific
gravity

API
gravity

Dry gas

Colorless gas

Essentially
no liquids

0.60 - 0.65

Wet gas

Colorless gas
Greater than
with small amount 100 MSCF/bbl
of clear or straw
colored liquid

0.65 - 0.85

60o-70o

Condensate

Colorless gas
3 to 100
0.65 - 0.85
with significant
MSCF/bbl
amounts of light- (900-18000 m3/m3)
colored liquid

Volatile or
high shrinkage
oil

Brown liquid
with various
yellow, red, or
green hues

About
3000 SCF/bbl
(500m3/m3)

Black or low
shrinkage oil

Dark brown
to black
viscous liquid

Heavy oil
Tar

Typical composition, mole %

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
96

2.7

0.3

0.5

0.1

0.4

50o-70o

87

4.4

2.3

1.7

0.8

3.8

40o-50o

64

7.5

4.7

4.1

3.0 16.7

100-2500 SCF/bbl
(20-450 m3/m3)

30o-40o

49

2.8

1.9

1.6

1.2 43.5

Black, very
viscous liquid

Essentially no gas
in solution

10o-25o

20

3.0

2.0

2.0

2.0

Black substance

Viscosity >10,000cp

<10o

0.65 - 0.85

71
90+

There are no definite boundaries between these classifications and usage may vary depending on location. Gravities and GOR are also
dependent on separation conditions.

Phase envelopes of mixtures with different

proportions of same HC components
7000

Pres, Tres

TR

Critical Points

6000
Volatile I
5000

Pressure (psia)

Condensate

Volatile II

4000

3000

2000

Wet Gas
Black Oil

1000
Dry Gas
0
-200

-100

100

200

300

Temperature

400
o

500

600

700

800

Relative
positions of
phase
envelopes