Section 10.

Use of Counters

367

Control signal

Light

Endless belt
conveyor

FIGURE 10.1: Counter arrangement to prov

ide a control ol predetermined count.
10.2.2

EPUT Meters
EPUT meters combine the simple electronic
counter and an internal time base with a mean
s
for limiting the counting process to preset time
inters als. This permits direct measurement of
frequency and is useful for accurate determina
tions of rotational speeds tsee Sections 8.6.2
dTd 10.7). The instrument is not limit
ed, howeser. to an input varing at a regu
lar rate:
intermittent or sporadic events per unit of time
mas also he counted. Other applications
include its use as a readout device lor frequ
ency-sensitive pickups. such as turbine-ty
pe
flow meters (see Section 15.5 1).

10 2 3

Tme-nterv& Meter
By modifying the arrangement of circuitr of
an electronic counter, one can obtain a rime
interval meter In this case input pulses start
and stop the counting process. and the pulses
from an internal oscillator make up the coun
ted inlormation, In this mannerthe time inter
sal
taking place between starting and stopping
may he determined, pro ided the frequency
of
the internal oscillator is known.
Figure 10.2 illustrates a simple application
of the time intersal meter. Photodetectors
are arranged so that the interruption of the beam
s of light pros ide pulsesfirst to start the
counting process and second to stop it. The
counter records the number of cycles from
the
oscillator, which has an aceuratel known
stable output. In the example shown, the coun
t
would represent the number of hundred-t
housandths of a second required for the proje
ctile
to traserse the distaneL between the light
beams. Refer to Fig. 9.2(h) for a more detai
led
picture ol the electronic countei s opei ation
in this application

214

Chapter 6

Sensors

Permanent magnet
Hat conductor
Housing

(Powerandouj_

Gear

FIGURE 6.23: Hall-effect gear-tooth sensor [30].

This force deflects electrons upward and so creates
a negative charge along the top of the
conductor and a positive charge along the bottom [Fig.
6.22(b)]. This charge distribution
in turn creates an electric field, E, whose force in steady
state is equal and opposite the
magnetic force on the electrons:

FE

qE

8
F

From these relationships, the magnitude of the electric

field is E = vdB. Since the
electric field is the gradient of voltage, the voltage
difference across a conductor of height
1 is
VHaII

1E

vjlB

(6.11)
This is the Hall-effect voltage.
The Hall beffect is present in any conductor carryin
g current in a magnetic field,
but it is much more pronounced in semiconductors
than in metals. Thus most Hall-effect
transducers use a serniconducting material as the conduc
tor. often in conjunction with an
integrated-circuit signal conditioner. A permanent magne
t may be built into the transducer
to provide the needed magnetic field (Fig. 6.23). If
a passing object, such as another magnet
or a ferrous metal, alters the magnetic field, the change
in the Hall-effect voltage is seen at
the transducers output terminals. Hall-effect transdu
cers are used as position sensors, as
solid-state keyboards actuators, and as current sensor
s [31]. Low-cost, ruggedly packaged
versions are used as automotive crankshaft-timing
sensors [32].

6.18

SOME DESIGN-RELATED PROBLEMS

Accuracy, sensitivity, dynamic response. repeatability,
and the ability to reject unwanted
inputs are all qualities highly desired in each compo
nent of a measuring system. Many of the
parameters that combine to provide these qualities
present conflicting problems and must he

Section 10 3

Stroboscopy and High-Speed Imaging

369

Line of sght

Observer

Rotating disk

FIG[RE 10.3: Essential parts of early disk-tpe stroboscope.

thousandths
aodctectors.

I to watch.
erals sshen
atch fleeting
the motion
ys the action
hediskwere
he obsersed
L This made
pring surge.
stead of the
ort-duration
source. The
eclic motion
hese desices

n concerned
ar illustrated
le tareet for
okes n this
iking certain
tise markon
hroni/ation.

The second caution concerns multiple ratios of flashing rate to the objects true cycling
rate. As an example. consider the rotation of a crank arm. Suppose that the arm is rotating
it I 200 revolutions per minute (rpm) and the flashing rate is 600 cycles per minute (cpm).
Then the arm would he in the same position at each flash and would appear to be stationary.
hut at onl half the actual frequency. Further, if the flash rate were 400 cpm or 300 cpm. the
arm would again occupy the same position for successive flashes and would again appear
to he stationary. This is another example of aliasing (see Section 4.7.2).
An obvious approach is to stop the motion, note the flashing rate, then double the
rate and check again Another approach is to use the following convenient procedure:
1. Determine a flashing rate fj that freezes the motion.
2. Slowly reduce the rate until the motion is frozen once more. Note this rate. 12.
Uhen

to

(10.1)

sshere
=

actual e cling rate of the object

It should he noted that it is not always necessar\ to obtain a onetoone synchronization.

Note also that the procedure described makes it possible to extend the upper frequency limit
beyond the stroboscopes normal range.
In addition, as shown in Fig. 10.4. stroboscopic lighting can be used to study non
lepeiiting auion. By using a still camera v, ith the shutter locked in the open position.
stroboscopic lighting can he used to track the position of a moving object. For example.
if the flashing ii is knox. n. the position or displacement of the object can he determined
x arinus instants of time. These data can he numerically differentiated to determine the
instantaneous s elocity oi acceleration.

368

Chapter 10

Measurement of Count, EPUT, Time Interval and Frequency

100-kHz crystal-controlled oscillator

2497031

Stop.+
-

Photodetector

Projectile

EZZ

LEZ
Light source

FIGURE 10.2: Timeinterval meter arranced to count the number of hundredthousandths

of a second required for the projectile to traverse a knosn distance between photodetectors.

rate,

Ther
buta

10.3
10.3.1

STROBOSCOPY AND HIGH-SPEED IMAGING

The Stroboscope
The term stroboscope is derived from two Greek words meaning whirling and to satch.
Early stroboscopes used a whirling disk as shosn in Fig. 10.3. During the inter\ als s hen
openings in the disk and the stationary mask coincided, the observer would catch fleeting
glimpses of an object behind the disk. If the disk speed v as synchronized s ith the motion
of the object. the object could he made to appear to he motionless. In some ays the action
is the inverse of the illusion produced by the motion picture projector. Also, if the disk were
made to rotate with a period slightly less than, or greater than, the period of the observed
object. the object could be made to apparently creep either forward or backward. This made
possible direct ohseration of such things as rotating gears. shaft whip. helical spring surge,
and the like s bile ihe de ices sere in operation.
Modern strohoscopes operate on a somewhat different principle. Instead of the
whirling disk, a controllable, intense flashing light source is used. Repeated short-duration
I () to 40 ji i liht flashes of adjustable frequency are supplied by the light source. The
frequency. controlled by an internal oscillator, is varied to correspond to the cyclic motion
being studied. The readout is the flashing rate required for synchronization. These devices
are often called strobe liyhis.
o different cautions require mention. The first in olves a minor problem concerned
with the geornerr\ of the item being studied. Suppose. for example. that the gear illustrated
in Fig. 10.3 is the stud\ subject. and suppose that the spokes are used as the target for
synchronization .A moments thought makes it clear that each of the six spokes in this
example will, in succession. occup a given position. One must use care in making certain
that one, and on1 one, spoke is identified. The usual practice is to place a distinctive mark on
one of the spokes and to usc that spoke alone in searching for one on-one synchronization.

to be

rate
1.
2

s herr

It shoi
Notea
heyon
repeat
strobo
if the I
at an
instant