Pipeline Journal PDF

December, 2007
Vol.6, No.4
Journal of
Pipeline Engineering
incorporating
The Journal of Pipeline Integrity
Scientific
Surveys Ltd, UK
Clarion
Technical Publishers, USA
HE Journal of Pipeline Engineering (incorporating the Journal of Pipeline Integrity) is an independent, international,
quarterly journal, devoted to the subject of promoting the science of pipeline engineering and maintaining and
improving pipeline integrity for oil, gas, and products pipelines. The editorial content is original papers on all aspects
of the subject. Papers sent to the Journal should not be submitted elsewhere while under editorial consideration.
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will be reviewed for technical content and general presentation.
The Journal of Pipeline Engineering aims to publish papers of quality within six months of manuscript acceptance.
Notes
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Pipeline Engineering, Scientific Surveys Ltd and Clarion
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5. Publisher: The Journal of Pipeline Engineering is
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Editor and publisher: John Tiratsoo
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Clarion Technical Publishers, 3401 Louisiana, Suite
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web: www.clarion.org
Associate publisher: BJ Lowe
email: bjlowe@clarion.org
6. ISSN 1753 2116
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4th Quarter, 2007
193
The Journal of Pipeline

Engineering
incorporating
The Journal of Pipeline Integrity

Volume 6, No 4 Fourth Quarter, 2007
Contents
Joe Paviglianiti, Dr Alan Murray, and V Dhawan ............................................................................................... 197
An analysis of significant SCC data reported to the National Energy Board
Prof. Valerie Linton*1, Dr Erwin Gamboa1, and Dr Michael Law .................................................................... 207
Strategies for the repair of stress-corrosion cracked gas transmission pipelines: assessment of the potential
for fatigue failure of dormant stress-corrosion cracks due to cyclic pressure service
Claudio Camerini, Jean Pierre von der Weid, Miguel Freitas, and Thiago Salcedo .......................................... 219
The feeler-snake pig: a simple way to detect and size internal corrosion
Dr Roger A King .................................................................................................................................................... 225
Trends and developments in microbiologically-induced corrosion in the oil and gas industry
Dr Robert Goodland .............................................................................................................................................. 231
Oil and gas pipelines: environmental and social impact assessment
MuhammadAli M Trabulsi .................................................................................................................................... 245
Black powder in sales-gas transmission pipelines
Adrian John and Steve Robertson ......................................................................................................................... 251
Onshore pipelines outlook: 2008-2012
Saeid Mokhatab, Sidney P Santos, and Greg Lamberson .................................................................................... 255
Pipeline systems: control and integrity management
H J Brink, Dr H M G Kruse, H Lbbers, H J A M Hergarden, and Jan Spiekhout ......................................... 263
Design guidelines for the bending radius for large-diameter HDD
Editorial announcement: 20th annual Pipeline Pigging and Integrity Management conference ...................... 268
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THE COVER PICTURE shows 14-in high-frequency induction-welded coated linepipe from Corus Tubes of the
UK being reeled onto the Apache reelship for a rapidly-undertaken recent project for the Forties North Sea field.
Corus manufactured and delivered the 5.25km, 16-mm wall thickness, linepipe within nine weeks from receipt of
order. The pipeline, located between the Charlie and Bravo platforms in the Forties field, is now in place and is
ready for tie-in, the complete project taking only 95 days from conception to completion.
194
The Journal of Pipeline Engineering
Editorial
Rio conference: a hugelyencouraging pipeline outlook

T
HE Journal of Pipeline Engineering (JPE) was pleased

to be able to attend the Rio de Janeiro Pipeline
Conference held on 2-4 October, and organized by the
Instituto Brasiliero Petroleo e Gas (IBP) in association with
ASME. As is becoming the habit with these biennial
meetings, a huge amount was shoehorned in to the threeday event, which not only included 350+ technical
presentations in the multi-track conference, but also our
sister publication Global Pipeline Monthlys Pipeline
Opportunities Forum, the ASME Global Pipeline Award
ceremony, and an exhibition that seemed larger and of
greater interest than ever. Run in parallel with the
International Pipeline Conference (IPC) held in Calgary in
even-numbered years, the Brazilian event in odd-numbered
years provides a different feel from its North American
counterpart. This may be just down to a Southern
Hemisphere exuberance that those of us from the cold and
reserved North dont instinctively embrace, or it may be
because the pipeline industry, as seen from a Rio viewpoint,
is exciting, expanding, and exhilarating.
The talk in Rio was of expansion, of ethanol and of the
skills shortage and demographic changes that may do more
to curb some of the much-needed future projects than any
efforts of those opposed on environmental, safety, or other
grounds. But well look here at some of the positive notes
that were struck at the event.
Petrobras pipeline investment is

to reach US$ 7.5 billion
ETWEEN NOW and 2012, Petrobras will construct

more than 4560km of pipeline, ten compression
stations, 31 city gates, and two LNG terminals, with
investments that exceed $7.5 billion, according to the
Brazilian companys general manager for engineering
Henidio Queiroz Jorge. This year, in the countrys SE
region, the Campinas-Rio gas pipeline and the CacimbasVitoria stretch of Gasene which will join the SE and NE
will come on-line. In the NE of the country, by the end
of 2007, the Atalaia-Itaporanga and Itaporanga-Pilar gas
pipelines will also start operation, continued general
manager of the companys planning and implementation

of logistic and natural gas, Celso Luiz Silva Pereira de
Souza. According to Mr de Souza, the natural gas market in
Brazil has been growing at 15% a year since 2001; in 2006,
46.3m cum/d was produced, while in 2012, the forecast is
for 134m cum/d.
Transportation of hydrocarbon liquids is also growing
substantially. With annual rates of 5% a year, the liquid
logistic is going to be challenged by Petrobras investment
plans, pointed out the general manager of operational
planning of the companys supply area, Carlos Felipe
Guimares Lodi. The main challenges are to find able
people to manage the projects, the minimization of delay in
obtaining environmental licenses, and the difficulties in
acquisition of equipment such as spheres and compressors,
the delivery deadline for which often exceeds 450 days, he
summarized.
Pipeline Opportunities Forum:

global pipeline opportunities
ERHAPS MORE-importantly than the construction

of new pipelines for transporting oil and gas, the seven
presentations at the Pipeline Opportunities Forum
emphasized the need to maintain the two million land
pipelines in the world today. According to a report from
Douglas-Westwood, of the United Kingdom, world gas
consumption has grown 435% since 1965. But it is a very
old transportation infrastructure that cannot continue
operating for more than 10 years, warned the director
John Westwood. (We are publishing a summary of this
report on pages 251-254 of this issue.)
This is the reality in Ecuador, for example, where no new
construction is foreseen for the short term, since the
country is undergoing a constitutional revision and all
investment has been paralyzed. Nevertheless, Ecuador has
3,300km of pipeline that consumes nearly $40 million in
annual maintenance, said the president of Oleoducto de
Crudos Persados (OCP), Wong Loon. The same occurs in
Europe where the demand for gas should reach 652bn cum
4th Quarter, 2007
in 2030. We have to invest in modernization since the

number of pipelines that are more than 40 years old is
increasing, said the member of the Board for Energy and
Transportation of the European Commission, Cristobal
Burgos-Alonso. Besides that, in 2008, the European Union
will revise its energy policy, foreseeing additional investments
in infrastructure for building CO2 and biofuel pipelines,
for example, he added.
However, when the issue involves new networks, the
emphasis is on the distance between large gas reserves and
the main consumer markets. In Brazils case, the demand
for gas, which was 48.2m cum/d in 2006, will reach 121m
cum/d in 2011, according to the general manager for new
business development at Transpetro, Charles Labrunie.
According to Plangas Petrobras Natural Gas Production
Anticipation Plan Brazil will increase natural gas
production by 15m cum this year to 40m cum in 2011, he
said. Besides the approved projects, which total $6.5 billion
in investment between 2007 and 2011, Transpetro plans to
build 523km more pipeline between Urucu and Porto
Velho, along with 88km for the Gaspal project and 1,190km
for Gasbol. Douglas-Westwoods projections for all of
Latin America total 17,000km of new pipeline between
2008 and 2012.
Similarly, Canada has two large pipeline construction
projects: the Alaska pipeline, which should start operations
in 2014 and foresees an investment of $20 billion to
transport from 120 to 180m cum/d, and the Mackenzie
pipeline, with operations projected to begin in 2012, an
investment of $7.5 billion, and the capacity to transport
from 36 to 54,000 cum/d. The increase in oil prices is
driving new investments, said Dr Mo Mohitpour, speaking
on behalf of Canadas Enbridge International. In North
America, projected investments in pipelines will reach
$155 billion in the next 20 years, he said.
195
has required a significant research programme, he affirmed.

Mr Gomes reminded the audience that pipelines have been
used in the Brazilian alcohol programme for 32 years and
there has not been, until now, any significant corrosion.
In 1996, we transported 2m cum/yr of ethanol, equivalent
to 20% of the Brazilian production of the product. In 2015,
it will be 15m cum/yr, he pointed out.
In Mr Gomes assessment, the growth of the ethanol
market will change the pipeline industry in the country,
and will require the construction of new lines from the
interior to the coast, from where the product will be
exported. The ethanol business is going to change the fuel
logistics in Brazil and is going to bring other players to the
sector, which will be very good for the national economy,
he affirmed.
Speaking at the meeting on the subject of the need for
construction of new pipelines, the director of Brazils
National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels
(ANP) Victor Martins said that today there are no specific
regulations that cover the design, construction, and
operation of alcohol pipelines. The creation of regulations
will depend either on amending the countrys petroleum
laws, or on handling new projects for ethanol transportation
as products pipelines, which would be subject to his Agencys
existing regulations. It is important that there be regulation.
The risk of concentration production in the hands of few
multinational groups could harm the national producers,
Mr Martins said, after pointing out the relevance of ethanol
to the Brazilian economy.
Global Pipeline Award
HE GROWTH of ethanol production in Brazil and

the expansion of the pipeline system for transportation
of the product were the central theme of the last panel at the
conference. According to director of Transpetro, Marcelino
Gomes, co-ordinator of the events organizing committee,
by 2015 approximately 30% of ethanol produced in Brazil
will be transported by pipeline.
RELATIVELY-new and increasingly-important aspect

of both the Rio and the Calgary conferences is the
ASME Global Pipeline Award competition, which is growing
both in stature and in the number and quality of entries.
The JPE wholeheartedly supports this initiative, and
congratulates ASME and, in particular Marcelino Gomes
(the incoming chairman of the Pipeline Systems Division
and one of the prime movers in setting the competition up
in 2005) on this initiative. The Award was first introduced
at the 2005 Rio pipeline conference, where it was won by
TransCanada PipeLines. In 2006, in Calgary, the Award
was won by Petrobras. This year, the 16 entries an
increase of nearly 200% over 2006 presented the judging
panel with significant difficulties.
During his lecture, Mr Gomes replied to the point raised by

the Association of Oil Pipelines (AOPL) representative,
Eric Gustafson, about the potential for pipeline corrosion
by ethanol, especially that produced from corn. In Mr
Gustafsons assessment, the corrosion of pipelines is one of
the greatest challenges the United States has in the biofuel
area. This is a critical technical point for the expansion of
the pipeline network for the transportation of ethanol and
One of the very encouraging aspects of this years

competition was the geographical spread of the entries,
which ranged from Saudi Arabia and Russia, via Europe
and North America, to South America and Brazil. The
basic intention of the Award competition is to recognize
outstanding innovation and technological advance by
organizations in the field of pipeline transportation, and
the Award is presented to the organization that, in the
Pipelines will transport 30% of

Brazils ethanol in 2015
196
opinion of the judging panel, has been responsible for the

most outstanding achievement in the field of pipeline
transportation for that year.
This year, the judging panel first whittled the entries down
to a shortlist of five, all of whom were profiled at the Awards
luncheon. The final five (in alphabetical order) were:
CPTI - Center for Research in Inspection Technology

/ PUC-Rio University, Brazil: Feeler-snake pig for
the detection and sizing of internal corrosion
E.ON Ruhrgas, Germany: CH4 airborne remote
monitoring
Nova Research and TransCanada, Canada : A
supersonic ejector for capturing low-pressure gas
leakage from dry seals and reinjecting the gas into
the fuel gas of a gas turbine
Smart Pipe, USA: A self-monitoring composite pipe
that can be used as a stand-alone pipe or as a tightfitting liner for high-pressure pipelines
WorleyParsons, USA: A project to control the lateral
buckling stress generated due to high internal
pressure and very high temperature in subsea
pipelines
The winning entry was the new pig from CPTI, and we
warmly congratulate Miguel Freitas and his colleagues on
this useful and interesting development, aimed a much as
anything at the problems of hitherto unpiggable or, at least,
uninspectable, pipelines. We are publishing a technical
paper from CPTI on this development on pages 219-224,
and a presentation on the subject will be made at the
Houston pipeline pigging and integrity management
conference on 12-14 February (see www.clarion.org for
details, as well as pages 268-272).
If you are interested in entering for next years Global
Pipeline Award to be presented at the IPC in Calgary on
30 September-3 October the details will shortly be
available via the events site at https://
www.asmeconferences.org/IPC08/index.cfm.
BP fined for Alaskan leaks
HE US Department of Justice reports that British

Petroleum Exploration (Alaska) (BPXA) pleaded guilty
on 29 November in a federal court to a criminal violation
of the Clean Water Act for spilling 200,000 gallons of
crude oil from a pipeline onto the tundra and a frozen lake
on the North Slope in March, 2006. The announcement
was made by Ronald J Tenpas, Acting Assistant Attorney
General for the Justice Departments Environment and
Natural Resources Division, and Nelson P Cohen, US
Attorney for the District of Alaska.
US District Court Judge Ralph R Beistline accepted the
guilty plea to the one-count information and sentenced
BPXA to pay a total of $20 million in criminal penalties, of
which $12 million is criminal fine, $4 million is community

service payments to the National Fish and Wildlife
Foundation (NFWF) for the purpose of conducting research
and activities in support of the arctic environment in the
State of Alaska on the North Slope, and $4 million is
criminal restitution to the State of Alaska. BP also will serve
a three-year term of probation.
At the sentencing, Judge Beistline said, This incident
provides us all a clear warning of the need to be vigilant with
regard to pipeline maintenance and with regard to safety
and security of the pipeline and environmental protection.
BPXA needs to make sure the oil flows smoothly but safely
and I think we have to put particular emphasis on the need
to give high priority to maintenance and maybe a little less
priority on profits.
The joint federal and state criminal investigation leading to
the plea agreement involved two different leaks from oil
transit lines (OTLs) operated by BPXA. The leaks occurred
in March and August, 2006 and, according to the
Department of Justice, were the result of BPXAs failure to
heed many red flags and warning signs of imminent internal
corrosion that a reasonable operator should have recognized.
The first pipeline leak, discovered on 2 March, 2006, by a
BP employee who smelled the leaking crude oil, resulted in
more than 200,000 gallons of crude oil spreading over the
tundra and a nearby frozen lake. This was the largest spill
ever to occur on the North Slope.
BPXA failed to heed warning signs that would have
avoided the corrosion that lead to oil spills onto the North
Slope, said Ronald Tenpas for the Environment and
Natural Resources Division. There is no excuse for these
spills and todays sentence is a fair and appropriate penalty.
The Justice Department is committed to strong enforcement
of environmental laws.
The second leak occurred in August, 2006, but was quickly
discovered and contained after leaking approximately 1,000
gallons of oil onto the tundra. Nevertheless, the second
leak led to the shut-down of Prudhoe Bay oil production on
the eastern side of the field. BPXA shut-down production
because it could not guarantee the condition of the line and
whether it was fit for service. By reason of BPs immediate
spill response and its cooperation with the investigation, it
was not charged with the second spill.
During the investigation, the United States obtained a
section of pipe where the March 2006 leak occurred.
Approximately 6in of sediment was found on the bottom
of the 34-in diameter pipe. When sediment such as this
builds-up in a pipeline, it forms an environment in which
acid-producing bacteria can thrive undisturbed by the flow
of oil and chemicals intended to protect the pipe from
continued on page 249
4th Quarter, 2007
197
An analysis of significant SCC

data reported to the National
Energy Board
by Joe Paviglianiti*, Dr Alan Murray, and V Dhawan
National Energy Board, Calgary, AB, Canada
S A RESULT of numerous stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) failures on Canadian pipelines, the National
Energy Board (NEB) held an inquiry in 1995 to determine the extent of knowledge and occurrence
of SCC on Canadian oil and gas pipelines. The report of the inquiry, which was published in December, 1996,
issued 27 recommendations to promote public safety by encouraging the sharing of information on the
extent of SCC and methods for managing and mitigating it.
Recommendation 6-6, related to the SCC management programme, stated the NEB requires companies
to report immediately to the NEB any finding of significant SCC and any immediate mitigative actions
taken. The definition of significant SCC adopted by the NEB is based on the definition proposed by
the Canadian Energy Pipeline Association (CEPA). Subsequently the NEB has required companies to submit
this information and has used it to monitor the extent and management of significant SCC on NEBregulated pipelines. This paper examines trends identified from the 355 significant SCC reports submitted
to the NEB. The analysis examines significant SCC trends associated with product shipped, coating type,
and the location of SCC on the pipe. In addition the paper highlights the length and depth of significant
SCC features, their methods of detection, and the mitigation steps used to neutralize any threat posed by
the SCC. From the information presented in the paper, companies and regulators should be able to
compare their significant SCC findings with the NEB data, hopefully aiding in the continued management
of SCC.
N RESPONSE TO numerous stress-corrosion cracking

(SCC) ruptures, the Canadian federal pipeline regulator,
the National Energy Board (NEB, or the Board) of Canada
held a public inquiry into SCC on Canadian oil and gas
pipelines. The SCC public inquiry was called to address an
increase in SCC ruptures and in response to a
recommendation that pipeline pressure be reduced to
prevent or slow down the incidence of SCC ruptures. This
recommendation was suggested because, from 1977 to
1995, the Canadian pipeline industry had experienced 22
failures, 12 ruptures, and ten leaks, attributable to SCC. A
report of the inquiry on SCC on Canadian oil and gas
pipelines was released in November, 1996. Since that
inquiry, there have been two more in-service failures
attributed to SCC, as reported by the company, on federallyregulated pipelines.

Stress-corrosion cracking is a form of localized
environmentally-assisted cracking (EAC) that is caused by
a combination of environment, susceptible material, and
tensile stress. SCC may be categorized either as corrosion,
corrosion fatigue, or hydrogen embrittlement. External
SCC has been found on both liquid and natural gas
pipelines related to production, gathering, transmission,
and distribution systems.
*Authors contact details:

tel: +1 403 299 3864
email: jpaviglianiti@neb-one.gc.ca
In Canada, the SCC failure mode has not produced as

many failures as third-party damage, external or internal
corrosion, or failed components; however, it is recognized
as a serious pipeline integrity threat. The NEB inquiry
provided a forum to share oil and gas pipeline SCC
knowledge which has subsequently been used by numerous
companies and regulators around the world.
This paper was presented to the Rio Pipeline Conference held on 2-4
October, 2007, in Rio de Janeiro, and organized by the Instituto
Brasileiro de Petrleo e Gs.
There are two distinct types of SCC: one is known as nearneutral SCC (also known as low-pH SCC), and the other is
198
Length inspected (m)
Number of SCC
colonies detected
Gas
125,855
17,925
Liquid
20,532
366
Total
146,387
18,291
F l ui d
Table 1. Historical SCC

data on Canadian
pipelines [2].
commonly known as high-pH SCC. While the only

satisfactory means currently available to differentiate
between the two types is through metallurgical analysis, a
less-certain way may be by examining the crack aspect ratio
length versus depth. Due to the predominant growth
mechanism, a previous analysis [1], has indicated that nearneutral-pH SCC has been associated with longer cracks
near the long seam, whereas high-pH SCC is associated
with shorter, deeper, cracks. Both types of SCC have been
discovered on Canadian pipelines and on pipelines in
other countries throughout the world.
in reporting; unfortunately the significant SCC data

historically reported to the NEB has not always been
consistent between companies. The inconsistencies have
included using different terminology and the submission
of partial data. Therefore, not all reports of significant
SCC submitted are complete, and this is reflected in the
variable total counts in the analysis of the various trends
presented in this paper.
The NEB SCC inquiry report made 27 recommendations

in six key areas; the focus of this paper however will be to
examine the reported significant SCC to the NEB. The
examination looks at the instances of significant SCC
reported to the Board in order to identify any trends related
to depth, length, time, location, mitigation, and detection
methods. A difficulty encountered with conducting any
form of comparative assessment is the need for consistency
Recommendation 6-10 (page 114 of the NEB inquiry

report) requested that the Canadian Energy Pipeline
Association (CEPA) collect SCC data and perform an
analysis to determine whether there are trends in the data
that will aid in SCC research. The last trend analysis was
published in 2000, and Table 1 illustrates the number of
SCC colonies detected on major Canadian pipelines which
the NEB regulated up to that time. The high number of
The extent of SCC
Fig.1. Number of ruptures on NEBregulated pipelines [3].
4th Quarter, 2007
Table 2. Reported significant SCC to

the NEB up to June, 2007.
199
F l ui d
significant SCC reported
Liquid
86
Natural gas
269
Total
355
F l ui d
Natural gas
Liquid
Table 3. Comparison of CEPA SCC

data versus reported significant SCC
up to 31 December, 2000.
Total
colonies reported on gas pipelines may be attributable to

several causes, the most obvious being that there is almost
double the length of gas transmission lines to liquids
pipelines under NEB jurisdiction; there also may be a
tendency for liquids pipelines to classify some SCC as
corrosion fatigue. However one gas pipeline company that
submitted data had long segments of PE-tape-coated
pipelines a contributing factor in many reported instances
of SCC.
Examination of the data contained in Table 1 illustrates
that while the occurrence of SCC cracks is widespread, they
do not always grow to failure. Two of the key objectives of
SCC pipeline research are to predict which colonies will
grow to failure, and at what rate. Pipeline companies
continually strive to find and mitigate the most critical
SCC on their system so as to prevent failures. As Jeglic [3]
illustrated in Fig.1, Canadian companies have been
successful in reducing the number of ruptures, which
includes SCC failures, since the implementation of the
NEB SCC inquiry report recommendations in 1996.
The successful and sustained reduction of SCC on NEBregulated pipelines is coincident with one of the SCC
inquiry requirements, which recommended that companies
develop and implement SCC-management programmes.
As a result of the inquiry, and its recommendations,
companies became more aware of stress-corrosion cracking
and accordingly developed appropriate management
programmes to determine the susceptibility of pipeline
segments to SCC. Once susceptible pipeline segments have
been identified, companies are then able to conduct
condition monitoring in order to determine if SCC is
actually present and, if so, to perform the appropriate
mitigation.
Number of SCC
colonies detected
significant SCC
reported
% significant SCC
of total SCC
discovered
17,925
73
0.4 %
366
18,291
79
1.6 %
0.43 %
How significant is
significant SCC?
During the SCC inquiry, the NEB accepted the proposed
CEPA definition of significant SCC, and hence the
inquiry report defined significant SCC as:
SCC that is deeper than 10% of the pipe wall
thickness and is as long as or longer than the critical
crack length of a 50% through-wall crack at a stress
level of 110% of the pipes specified minimum yield
stress.
The Board requires the companies which it regulates to
report any significant SCC that has been found on their
system in order to allow it to monitor the condition of
pipelines and to determine if companies are managing the
SCC hazard appropriately. Recognizing that the discovery
of significant SCC as defined above will, in most cases,
provide a level of safety, allows companies the necessary
time to take appropriate mitigative actions and to conduct
further condition monitoring before failure occurs.
To gain a better understanding of the extent and severity of
the significant SCC, companies were asked to report the
following information related to it:
date the SCC was detected;
location on the system (km post) and valve section;
pipeline attributes, such as diameter, thickness,
coating type, grade, year of manufacture and
maximum operating pressure;
mode of detection;
significant SCC crack characteristics such as length,
200
300
250
Frequency
200
150
100
50
Fig.2. Range of depth of significant

SCC reported to the NEB.
0
>10% to 25%
> 25% to 40%
> 40%
Depth
companies, four of which found significant SCC on

pipeline segments transporting natural gas while the other
two discovered the significant SCC on pipeline segments
transporting liquid products. As noted earlier, the length
of NEB-regulated gas pipelines is almost double that of
liquids pipelines, their combined length amounting to
about 45,000km.
depth, significant length criteria, location on the

pipe (body, weld toe), orientation on pipe, type
(near-neutral or high-pH);
mitigation technique.
Some companies have also reported upon the topography,
soil, and drainage conditions at the site of the SCC colony.
An analysis of the data submitted to the NEB indicates that
significant SCC has been discovered on pipe manufactured
between 1956 and 1981 of Grades X52, X60, and X65
material. The reported significant SCC has been identified
on pipe diameters ranging from 12-42in. In addition,
significant SCC has been associated with electric-resistancewelded (ERW), double-submerged-arc-welded (DSAW), and
spiral-welded long-seam manufactured pipe.
Analysis of the data:

looking for trends
An examination of the submitted data was performed to
gain a better understanding of the amount of significant
SCC reported to the NEB when compared to that identified
earlier by CEPA. The analysis compared the number of
SCC instances reported by CEPA in Table 1 to the
significant SCC data reported to the NEB up until the end
of 2000. This data was extracted from that contained in
The data in Table 2 was compiled by the NEB and illustrates

the number of instances of significant SCC reported to
the Board up to June, 2007. The data was submitted by six
100.00%
90.00%
80.00%
70.00%
Depth %
60.00%
50.00%
Series1
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
0
250
500
750
1000
1250
1500
1750
2000
2250
Length (mm)
Fig.3. Comparison of significant SCC crack depth versus length.
2500
4th Quarter, 2007
201
100.00%
90.00%
80.00%
70.00%
60.00%
Depth %
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
0
30
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
Length (mm)
Fig.4. Comparison of significant SCC crack depth versus length for cracks less 350mm long.
Table 2. During the time frame analysed, five companies,
four with natural gas segments and one with liquid pipeline
segments, had reported a total of 79 instances of significant
SCC. For the purpose of this analysis it was conservatively
assumed that the CEPA data included significant SCC.
As shown in the comparison presented in Table 3, the
amount of significant SCC found is very small when
compared to the total SCC discovered. This may be due in
part to the detected cracks not having yet reached significant
size as a result of the time-dependent behaviour of the SCC.
Another possibility is that during the reporting period,
companies were just beginning to perform SCC-focused
condition-monitoring as required by their SCCmanagement programmes, and were perhaps finding
numerous SCC colonies whenever they excavated. However,
they were not at the time employing methods, or the
technologies, that would enable them to find and size the
deepest cracks. An analysis of the data supports this
possibility, since 56 (70%) of the 79 reported instances of
significant SCC were found as a result of using either
predictive soils models, or from opportunity digs undertaken
to validate metal loss due to corrosion. It is widely recognized
that while both these methods will enable a degree of
success in identifying locations which may be susceptible to
SCC, these are not necessarily the locations containing the
largest cracks.
One method of identifying SCC and characterizing crack
depth, without excavating and exposing the pipe, is through
the use of ultrasonic-based, crack-detection in-line inspection
(ILI) tools. These tools usually characterize and report the
ILI indication within three depth categories, which are 1025%, 25-40%, and >40% of wall thickness. Therefore, to
simplify the comparison, the analysis of the reported
significant SCC depth has been segregated into the same
depth categories. Figure 2 illustrates that a large majority of
the significant SCC found to date lies within the depth
range of 10-25% of wall thickness: 258 cracks were reported
in this range (75.4% of the total 342 usable data points for
this data set). The category 25-40% deep had 53 (15.5%)
reported significant SCC, while the remaining 31 features
had depths >40% of wall thickness.
The >40% deep category is noteworthy for two reasons:
first, depending upon its length, the crack depth may be
approaching a critical size, leading to a failure. This makes
it important to accurately characterize the actual crack
depth and length so as to prevent failure. Secondly, it is well
known that the ultrasonic signal fully saturates the pipe
wall within this depth range, making more-accurate depth
characterization difficult. Therefore, if the ultrasonic ILI
tool is able to detect the defect, the only definitive way to
characterize its dimensions, and thus begin to determine its
remaining life, is by excavating and exposing the pipe in
order to measure the crack.
The data points in Fig.3 illustrate the actual depths of the
reported significant SCC. The range of depth extends
from 10% to 92% deep. Of note is that the 92% deep crack,
which was 82mm in length, leaked during a hydrotest that
successfully found the critical SCC before rupture. In
addition to the majority of the significant cracks lying
within the 10-25% depth range, a majority of the cracks are
also less than 150mm long. The reported significant SCC
cracks fell within a significant length criteria range of 2295mm long. This range indicates that the pipe toughness
values (an unreported quantity) varied considerably for the
reported significant SCC features. Future additional data
analysis is needed to help identify trends in this area.
Figure 3 presents in graphical form a plot of crack versus
length for all the reported significant SCC, including
some exceptionally-long defects. In order to allow a clearer
graphical representation of the bulk of the data presented
in Fig.3, the 15 (4%) data points with a length greater than
500mm have been removed, resulting in Fig.4. This
refinement helps highlight that the preponderance of the
202
3000
2500
2000
Length (mm)
1500
Series1
1000
500
0
1997
1998
1999
2001
2002
2004
2005
2006
2008
Time
Fig.5. Comparison of significant SCC crack length versus time.

of reported crack depths and lengths for each year since
1997. A linear regression of the data points in both Figs 5
and 6 indicates an upward trend, implying that larger,
deeper, cracks are being found. Further analysis is warranted
here to determine if this is simply a function of ageing pipe
that has previously gone unmanaged for SCC, or whether,
for example, a corrosion fatigue mechanism is present in
these data outliers. The trend could also simply be due to
the increasing ability to focus the SCC condition-monitoring
efforts on finding deeper cracks through the increased use
and capabilities of ultrasonic crack-detection ILI tools.
reported cracks are between 30 and 150mm, long while

their associated depth lies in the band 10-40% of wall
thickness. Not so evident is the fact that there are five cracks
less than 30mm long and, as stated previously, 31 cracks
greater than 40% deep. These numbers are noteworthy
because cracks which are either less than 30mm long or
greater than 40% deep are approaching the detection
capability limits of the ultrasonic-based crack-detection ILI
tools.
Few companies submitted crack type data, i.e. a nearneutral or high-pH characterization, since presently these
can only be accurately determined by cutting out the crack
and examining the metallurgy of the crack surfaces. As will
be seen later, cut-outs have been rarely used as a means of
defect mitigation. In the future, an analysis of the crack
aspect ratio (that is, the length versus the depth), may
provide an indication of which reported significant SCC
cracks may be near-neutral or high-pH SCC.
The data presented in Table 4 shows the location on the

pipe where the significant SCC was observed. The
predominance of significant SCC located adjacent to the
toe of a seam weld could lend support to the view that
residual stresses can play a role in the formation of SCC [4].
A combination of susceptible microstructure, complex
residual stress, and a corrosive environment in the vicinity
of the longitudinal seam weld, could increase the likelihood
of SCC occurring [5]. Tenting of the PE pipe coating in
the vicinity of the long seam weld is widely known to occur
and, rather than protect the pipe surface, this can often be
detrimental both by allowing moisture penetration and
shielding the cathodic protection.
While some SCC can remain dormant, other colonies

often have a time-dependent growth component in both
the length and depth dimensions. All of the significant
features in this study have been mitigated, so it is not
possible to determine crack growth rates for specific SCC
defects. However analysis of the bulk data suggests an
interesting trend. Figures 5 and 6, respectively, show plots
L o c a t io n o n p ip e
Interestingly, from Table 4 it can be seen that relatively-
Significant SCC reported
Pipe body
26
Toe of seam weld
188
Total
214
Table 4. Location on the pipe of the

significant SCC.
4th Quarter, 2007
203
100.00%
90.00%
80.00%
70.00%
Depth (%)
60.00%
Series1
Linear (Series1)
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
1997
1998
1999
2001
2002
2004
2005
2006
2008
Time
Fig.6. Comparison of significant SCC crack depth versus time.

little significant SCC was reported on the pipe body,
though this is often the location of SCC colonies. While
these colonies often interlink to create long cracks, they
appear to be shallow for much of their total length. Further
analysis of the data is required to determine whether
inspection tool accuracy is compromised by these very long
aspect ratios. The possible effect of signal shadowing in the
vicinity of the long seam weld also warrants further
examination in order to help companies focus their efforts
on finding the potentially more injurious significant
SCC.
An analysis of the reported data indicates that significant
SCC has been discovered on pipe that was constructed
during the period 1956-1981, and this corresponds with
the type of corrosion protection coating that was used at the
time. The data in Table 5 confirm that the majority of
significant SCC is associated with the use of PE tape, a
finding consistent with data published by Marr and in
other literature. As companies have expanded their
condition monitoring to include other types of coated pipe
they have again found significant SCC. For example, in
addition to the occurrence of significant SCC on asphaltcoated lines, it has also been found on coal-tar-coated pipe,
which was previously considered to have a low susceptibility

to SCC. Thus companies with coal-tar pipe would be well
advised to include condition monitoring for SCC to verify
that it is not a problem on their system.
As noted by Marr, there are four discrete methods to detect
SCC in buried pipelines prior to a failure. These techniques
consist of hydrostatic testing, use of a predictive soils
model, investigative excavations, crack-detection ILI, or a
combination of any of the techniques. The capabilities of
ultrasonic crack-detection ILI tools have increased
significantly since the release of the SCC inquiry report.
However, verification of the reported indications from this
source requires the exposure and excavation of the pipe to
confirm the presence of SCC. Table 6 illustrates that the
majority (58%) of the cracks reported were identified using
crack-detection ILI tools. This success rate is promising;
however, as discussed previously, the tools have limitations
regarding crack depth and length characterization, and the
potential exists to miss large cracks.
The next-most-successful method occurs through
investigative excavations. This is significant because it
indicates that 30% of the significant SCC cracks were
Coating type
Table 5. Coating type associated

with the reported significant SCC.
Significant SCC reported
Asphalt
18
Coal tar
Polyethylene (PE) tape
242
Total
264
204
Detection method
significant SCC reported
Hydrotesting
12
Predictive soils model excavation
23
I nvestigative excavations
79
Crack detection I LI
158
Total
272
found fortuitously during excavations conducted for reasons

other than SCC-focused digs. This may reinforce the need
to ensure that appropriate NDE methods are used when
excavations are performed for reasons other than a focused
SCC investigation. In short, it is a good practice when the
pipe surface has been exposed and cleaned to examine
corrosion colonies and the area adjacent to seam welds for
the possible presence of SCC. This NDE inspection to
verify whether SCC is present will also help confirm the
accuracy of predictive models and whether additional
condition monitoring of the line is required. As is the case
with predictive models, investigative digs do not aid in
pinpointing where the deepest cracks are on the segment,
hence additional condition monitoring using other methods
may be warranted.
Also of interest in Table 6 is the comparatively-low success
rate of 8% associated with the use of predictive soils
modelling in finding significant SCC. As noted earlier,
soils models may help identify SCC-susceptible segments,
but short of excavating the entire segment, they have
limited value in pinpointing the location of the deepest
crack. Hydrostatic testing, as a form of SCC condition
monitoring, is the only known method that provides a great
degree of certainty that existing near-critical cracks (i.e. of
a size and depth that would indicate that the crack is near
failure by either leaking or rupture) will be removed from
a pipeline. However, it is usually the method of last resort
due to cost and logistical problems, such as treatment of the
water and also the incompatibility of using liquids on a
natural gas system. Whilst the hydrotest will find the nearcritical cracks, in common with the predictive models and
investigative digs, it will not pinpoint the significant SCC
which may require additional monitoring. Therefore, as
discussed above, additional condition monitoring with
other methods may be required, or a retest may have to be
conducted, before the SCC grows to critical size.
Once companies find SCC on their pipeline segment they
must mitigate the threat of the SCC. They have the option
of using a number of methods such as sandblast/recoat,
buff/grind, sleeve, cut-out, or a combination of them, to
mitigate or remove the SCC. The use of each method is
highly dependent on factors associated with operation of
the pipeline such as the ability to reduce the pressure, or
shut down the flow completely. If companies are able to
accurately determine if the SCC is superficial, they may
mitigate the SCC by removing one of the key drivers which
Table 6. Method of detection.

promotes SCC growth, by recoating the affected area.
Sandblasting and recoating the pipe, removes the
environment that promotes SCC, which should in turn
arrest the crack growth of SCC. However, without proper
crack-length and -depth characterization, companies run
the risk of leaving a crack defect on the pipe which may still
be susceptible to growth due to loading associated with the
pipeline operating spectrum. This may be the reason that,
as illustrated in Fig.7, companies only reported recoating
and sandblasting 11 (3%) significant SCC out of the 342
reported data points.
Figure 7 also shows that companies predominantly used
buffing/grinding as the mitigation technique of choice.
The use of this mitigation method is limited by the crack
depth and length, because removal of too much pipe metal,
usually beyond 40% wall thickness with any appreciable
length, will affect the ability of the remaining pipe wall to
withstand the pressure. The 202 (60%) significant SCC
instances removed by this method correspond to the larger
proportion of cracks which have been reported below the
40% deep range, as illustrated in Figs 2 to 4. Using this
method allows the company to remove the SCC crack
threat but still provides the opportunity to obtain available
information on the crack depth and length size
characteristics. This information may be used to help verify
and calibrate the ILI tool results and to aid in the
determination of crack growth rates.
Figure 7 also illustrates that companies have used sleeves as
a significant SCC mitigation method on 78 occasions
(23% of the total). This method may be chosen in order to
add reinforcement to areas that have been buffed or
ground when the crack is being removed. In some instances
the cracking is not completely removed before it reaches a
depth and length which may compromise safety. Instead,
companies may choose to sleeve the pipe to maintain safety.
However, one drawback with this approach is that it may
mean that the depth and length of the crack are not able to
be accurately characterized. This may impact the ability to
verify and calibrate the in-line inspection tool and ultimately
the knowledge of the actual SCC threat on the pipeline
segment.
Companies have removed 49 (14%) instances of significant
SCC by cutting out the affected portion of the pipe. Cutouts of the pipe may be chosen for various reasons, the most
common of which are to completely remove the threat
4th Quarter, 2007
205
250
200
Frequency
150
Series1
100
50
Fig.7. Mitigation techniques used on

significant SCC.
0
Buffing / Grinding
when the previous mitigation techniques are insufficient,

or to enable a more-thorough analysis of the crack
characteristics. As discussed previously, the only definitive
means to accurately measure the crack size and depth and
to determine the SCC type (i.e. near-neutral or high-pH) is
by cutting out the affected pipe and metallurgical examining
the crack. The other three mitigation techniques do not
allow a detailed examination; therefore, assumptions, such
as SCC type and growth rates must be made during the
continuing management of SCC on the susceptible segment.
The 14% cut-out rate would seem appropriate when
compared to the 9% of significant SCC, identified in
Fig.2, which were greater than 40% deep.
Conclusion
In Canada, the SCC failure mode has not produced as
many failures as third-party damage, external or internal
corrosion, or failed components; nevertheless, it is
recognized as a serious time-dependent pipeline integrity
threat. The NEB inquiry provided a forum to share oil and
gas pipeline SCC knowledge that has been used by numerous
companies and regulators around the world. The
requirement to submit significant SCC data and its
subsequent analysis will hopefully help companies
understand how their systems compare with the compiled
data, and further assist in the development of their SCCmanagement programmes. A more-detailed analysis of the
reported significant SCC data may identify additional
trends associated with the grade of pipe, pipe toughness,
location downstream of compressor /pump stations,
location on valve sections, the type of SCC, as well as the
location and orientation on the pipe.
Stress-corrosion cracking on Canadian oil and gas pipelines
continues to be monitored and actively researched. The
high number of incidents of SCC colonies and the relativelylow significant SCC reported to the NEB, when compared
to the number of failures since the 1996 NEB inquiry,
indicates that a comprehensive SCC integrity programme
can minimize the risk of an in-service failure or leaks.
Cut out
Sandblasted / Recoated
Sleeved
Mitigating Techniques
However, companies must continue to improve upon

condition-monitoring techniques to enable them to find
SCC before their pipelines fails. More research is required
to better understand the growth mechanisms of SCC and
the remaining life of cracks on pipeline systems as they age.
It is only through continued condition monitoring, research,
and mitigation that companies will be able to prevent
failures due to stress-corrosion cracking.
The author
Joe Paviglianiti is a senior pipeline engineering specialist
in the Compliance Planning and Analysis Team at the
National Energy Board (NEB) in Calgary, Canada. As coleader of the Integrity Community of Practice his
responsibilities include development and implementation
of compliance strategies for the NEB regulated companies.
Mr Paviglianiti has over 25 years of experience in the oil
and gas industry. He is a certified NDE technician and
worked in oil and gas facility construction for 14 years
before obtaining a BSc in Civil Engineering from the
University of Calgary. Joe has been with the NEB for over
11 years and his responsibilities include auditing and
reviewing integrity management programmes and
engineering assessments and conducting failure
investigations. In addition he provides input into regulatory
and standards development, and is the current chairman of
the CSA Z662 Technical Subcommittee on Construction
and a member of the Materials Technology Laboratory
Advisory Committee on Non Destructive Testing Personnel
Certification.
References
1. J.E.Marr, S.B.Hardy, and E.Huuskonen,2003. SCC integrity
management liquid and gas pipeline systems.
continued on page 224
206
4th Quarter, 2007
207
Strategies for the repair of stresscorrosion cracked gas

transmission pipelines:
assessment of the potential for
fatigue failure of dormant stresscorrosion cracks due to cyclic
pressure service
by Prof. Valerie Linton*1, Dr Erwin Gamboa1, and Dr Michael Law2
1 University of Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
2 Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organization (ANSTO), New South Wales,
Australia
SECTION OF submerged-arc-welded 864-mm (36-in) diameter API 5L grade X65 gas pipeline containing
known stress-corrosion cracks (SCC) was selected for fatigue testing to determine whether SCC
shallower than a certain depth could be recoated without the need for grinding, and returned to service
without the risk of later failing by fatigue. The SCC-containing pipe section was removed from service,
instrumented with strain gauges, fitted with proprietary glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) repair sleeves
(ClockSprings) at the location of some of the cracking, and hydrostatically pressure cycled under automatic
control. After pressure cycling, SCC cracks were extracted from the pipeline and metallographically
examined.
The fatigue testing was terminated by a small leak after the equivalent of approximately 8000 years of daily
and maintenance-related pressure cycling for the pipeline concerned. This life exceeded the fatigue life of
defect-free as-welded joints for pipelines and structures according to the fatigue design rules of the DIN and
DNV standards, respectively.
The amount of fatigue crack growth extension caused by pressure cycles equivalent to the 50 years of service
proposed for the pipeline concerned was negligible on bare pipe and minuscule under the GRP sleeves.
The measured fatigue crack growth rates were compared to a computer model based on BS7910. The model
tended to overestimate fatigue-crack growth because the shape of the stress-corrosion cracks was far from
ideal and because of complex crack interaction effects. The stress-corrosion cracks were inclined away from
the perpendicular and had a range of configurations and crack aspect ratios different from typical fatigue crack
characteristics. This added further complexity to the issue of predicting fatigue crack interaction and growth.
The results of the testing show that if the SCC-causing environment can be excluded from the pipe surface
by effective re-coating, it is likely that stress-corrosion cracks small enough to be safely left in the pipeline
under static pressure will not need to be removed by grinding, and will not grow to critical levels by fatigue
in normal gas pipeline service. This work has also shown that BS7910 can provide a conservative fatigue-crack
growth estimate (when using the recommended values plus two standard deviations) for a gas pipeline
containing stress-corrosion cracks rendered dormant.
*Authors contact details: tel: +61 8 8303 3980; email: valerie.linton@adelaide.edu.au
208
ISTORICALLY, gas pipelines have occasionally

ruptured due to stress-corrosion cracking (SCC),
leading to emergency repairs, temporary bypassing,
permanent renewal, and ongoing mitigation expense. Once
the pipeline coating has been replaced, the SCC-causing
environment is effectively isolated from the pipe-steels
surface, and the cracks will not grow further by this
mechanism. However, the cracks could continue to grow
further even after re-coating under a fatigue mechanism.
The repair procedure required to be selected depends on
how much fatigue-crack growth may occur from the SCC in
service, and what the burst strength of the damaged pipe is.
The work reported in this paper focused on quantifying the
potential fatigue-crack growth through the service life of
SCC-affected pipelines under typical Australian gas
pipeline operating service. Accurate determination of crack
extension due to fatigue will provide confidence in
sentencing defects, possibly removing the need to grind
cracks that have adequate life expectancies. This will greatly
simplify the repair process, removing unnecessary cost and
delay.
Test methodology
94.5% of the fatigue crack growth over the life of the

pipeline.
Due to experimental testing time constraints, the pressured
pipe section was cycled for the equivalent of 5300 0-72%
SMYS pressure cycles (corresponding to approximately
100 times the 50-year service life), after which a 2-m section
of the pipe was cut out and the remaining pipe re-welded
and pressure cycling was resumed. The section of removed
pipe was analysed in order to confirm that the stresscorrosion cracks were growing by fatigue. The remaining
pipe section was pressure cycled for a total of 8800 72%
SMYS pressure cycles (equivalent to a total of around 166
times the 50 year service) until a leak was detected. The leak
was caused by a 55-mm x 6.4-mm stress-corrosion crack,
located under a ClockSpring, that extended through-wall
by fatigue. The defect that leaked was the largest stresscorrosion crack found in the tested section, and the
ClockSpring had been placed deliberately over this
maximum-depth and -length defect.
Examination of cracking in the

SCC-affected pipe
Test section
Examination of the location of cracking
A section of pipeline containing SCC was chosen for

testing based on the results of in-line inspection (ILI). The
section was made from submerged-arc-welded API 5L grade
X65 steel, and had a diameter of 864mm (36in) and a
nominal wall thickness of 8.4mm. A 9-m section was cut
out from the pipeline, capped off, and fitted to pressurization
equipment. The dimensions of the largest stress-corrosion
cracks in the test section were measured by ultrasonic
inspection (UT).
Based on in-line inspection (ILI) results from the pipeline

under consideration, a section of pipe adjacent to the test
section was selected and examined by magnetic-particle
inspection (MPI). The MPI results indicated that the pipeline
section contained SCC colonies at the same locations as
identified by the ILI. To illustrate this point, a full-scale
map of the pigging results was produced and overlaid on
the relevant pipeline section (Fig.1). The background white
picture is the photograph of the pipe section after
examination by MPI (stress-corrosion cracks are indicated
by the black horizontal lines), and the transparent map is
the overlaid ILI output. Comparison between the full-scale
ILI map and MPI markings on the pipe surface showed that
ILI results accurately predicted not only the locations of the
SCC colonies, but also showed the layout of the stresscorrosion cracks within the colony.
The pipe test section was filled with water and pressurized
to 50% MAOP (maximum allowable operating pressure
36% SMYS). At this point, ClockSpring repairs were
applied over some areas containing SCC, including the
area containing the deepest stress-corrosion cracks. The
200-mm wide ClockSprings had an area of effect of 100mm.
The ClockSprings applied onto the test pipe section were
placed such that none affected neighbouring ClockSpring
repairs.
Test-pressure cycling
For the pipeline being considered in this work, a typical
service lifetime is over 50 years. Based on pipeline operating
data, each year was taken to contain 364 cycles with a 0
3.4% SMYS pressure range and one cycle with a 0 72%
SMYS pressure range representing one shut down per
year). In this cycling regime, and based on the BS7910 [1]
model, the daily cycles would be responsible for only 5.5%
of the extension of the stress-corrosion cracks by fatigue,
and the 50-yearly depressurizations would cause the other
Figure 2 shows a similar ILI-MPI comparison to that shown

in Fig.1, but carried out on the 2-m length removed from
the test section after 5300 0 - 72% SMYS pressure cycles. In
Fig.2, the white outline was drawn around the ILI results
and drawn to scale on the pipe surface (dark outline) after
MPI was performed on the pipe section. As before, the
stress-corrosion crack colonies and their layout were found
to have excellent agreement with the ILI results. No falsepositive results from ILI were found on the section of
pipeline surface examined.
Some of the areas identified in both of these sections as
containing SCC colonies were cut out for further study to
determine the size and layout of the stress-corrosion cracks,
4th Quarter, 2007
209
Fig.1. Overlay comparing ILI results to

actual stress-corrosion crack locations
on the surface of the pipe.
Fig.2. Comparison between ILI results and MPI results for location of stress-corrosion cracks in the 2-m length of pipe
removed from the test section.
and to confirm that the stress-corrosion cracks had extended
by fatigue after pressure cycling.
Examination of stress-corrosion cracks

Some of the stress-corrosion cracks found in the examined
pipe sample (without cyclic loading) were removed and
cross sections through the cracks were prepared for
metallographic examination. The unetched polished
sections showed that the stress-corrosion cracks grew
through the pipe wall, inclined at an angle away from the
perpendicular (Fig.3); similar observations have been
recorded elsewhere in the literature [2]. The two-sectioned
cracks in Fig.3 grew at an angle inclined to the perpendicular,
and away from each other. The stress-corrosion cracks also
had had some short secondary branches, as indicated in
Fig.3.
Figure 4 shows a section of pipeline that was opened-up so
as to show the fracture surface of several stress-corrosion
cracks. The single cracks display the typical semi-elliptical
crack profile of the stress-corrosion cracks. To the left of

Fig.4, there is a long, shallow crack which is composed of
several individual stress-corrosion cracks which have
coalesced to form a single crack.
Examination of stress-corrosion cracks

extended by fatigue
After cyclic loading of the test pipe section for 5300 cycles,
a 2-m section of the test pipe was removed for examination.
Several stress-corrosion cracks were extracted from this test
section and opened by immersing them in liquid nitrogen
and striking the section with a hammer to break the
remaining ligament in a brittle fashion. The fracture surfaces
were examined and the stress-corrosion cracks were seen to
have extended by fatigue due to the cyclic loading.
Figure 5 shows a typical crack removed from the SCCcontaining test section and opened after it had been
subjected to cyclic loading. The figure shows three distinct
regions: the original stress-corrosion crack (black semi-
210
Fig.3. Pipeline transverse section

showing two non-collinear stresscorrosion cracks inclined away from
each other. The external surface of the
pipe is at the top of the picture; the
arrowed area shows crack branching.
Fig.4. Typical stress-corrosion crack

profiles found on the examined
pipeline samples. The stress-corrosion
cracks show up black on the fracture
surface.
ellipse from the top surface of the pipe), a fatigue fracture
surface extending from the stress-corrosion crack, and a
brittle overload failure accounting for the rest of the
fracture surface. The fatigue crack had a transgranular
fracture surface with fatigue striations orientated parallel
to the crack front.
Figure 6 shows two different stress-corrosion cracks which
were extracted from the pipe section after cyclic loading,
sectioned across their main axis, polished down to a 3
micron finish and etched with 5% Nital solution. Figure 6a
shows the profile of a stress-corrosion crack that has
propagated at an angle away from the perpendicular. At the
inflection point (arrowed), the crack started to propagate by
fatigue directly into the material, perpendicular to the free
surface (parallel to the top of the photograph). Figure 6b
shows the tip of a different crack, showing an inclined
stress-corrosion crack growing in an intergranular manner
(SCC) up to the arrowed point, and thereafter growing
directly into the material in a transgranular manner (fatigue).
Many of the examined stress-corrosion cracks showed a
significant depthwise extension by fatigue, and little (if any)
sideways extension by fatigue along the pipe surface. The
extent to which cracks grew along the surface of the pipe
seemed to be influenced by the proximity and layout of
neighbouring cracks, with close proximity to other cracks
limiting the crack extension along the pipe surface. Figure
7 shows fatigue crack extension in both the depth direction
and surface extension around a solitary stress-corrosion
crack, while Fig.8 shows coalesced stress-corrosion cracks
that predominantly have extended by fatigue in the depth

direction. The solitary crack shown in Fig.7 illustrates that
the fatigue crack extension along the pipe surface was small
compared to the growth in the depth direction. Figure 8
shows that the fatigue extension from the coalesced stresscorrosion cracks was a complex issue, as the fatigue-crack
extension in the depth direction from the coalescing SCC
bridge was larger than that from the smaller of the two
coalescing stress-corrosion cracks. Also, the fatigue-crack
extension along the pipe surface was negligible for the
cracks shown in Fig.8.
Observations made of a large number of stress-corrosion
cracks opened after the cyclic-loading testing suggested that
collinear stress-corrosion cracks tended to coalesce and
grow towards each other if they were inclined at a similar
angle from the vertical and towards the same side. In
contrast, collinear cracks that were inclined in opposing
directions did not tend to interact. Cracks that were not
collinear were observed to interact under the free surface
when they grew towards each other, and grew by fatigue at
an angle close to the perpendicular towards the opposite
pipe wall after coalescing. It was this case that produced the
crack that leaked, prompting the ending of the cyclicloading test.
Stress-corrosion crack colonies contain a large numbers of
cracks, giving many combinations of ways in which they can
interact with each other as a result of crack extension by
SCC or by fatigue. Consequently, predicting the way in
which the cracks will interact with each other is a complex
4th Quarter, 2007
211
Fig.5. An opened SCC crack after cyclic load testing showing SCC and fatigue crack regions. The bottom left picture shows a
close-up of the fatigue crack, and the bottom right picture shows the fatigue striations found in the fatigue region.
Fig.6. Cross sections through stresscorrosion cracks showing (a) the

fatigue crack extension orientated
perpendicular to the pipe surface,
and (b) a close-up of the crack path
and the transition from SCC to
fatigue-crack growth.
a)
problem, especially given the added complexity of the

stress-corrosion cracks growing in different orientations
through the pipe wall thickness.
Measurement of crack aspect ratios

After the completion of the testing and detailed examination
of many of the cracks, measurements were made of a
number of cracks with the initial crack dimensions and the
amount of crack extension that had occurred by fatigue.
Crack aspect ratios were calculated for the original stresscorrosion cracks and for the SCC plus fatigue extension
cracks. The results are tabulated in Table 1, and include
results for cracks under a ClockSpring (CS) and those
remote from a ClockSpring (no CS). The data has been
b)
sorted in descending order according to the original stresscorrosion crack depth. In order to compare crack growth
rates between cracks under and remote from ClockSprings,
cracks with comparable crack depths in each of these
locations have been identified in pairs in Table 1.
A clear result that can be seen from the results in Table 1
is that cracks remote from a ClockSpring had a greater
fatigue-crack extension than those cracks with similar initial
SCC depth located under a ClockSpring. Stress-corrosion
cracks that were longer in the depth direction tended to
have greater fatigue-crack extension than shallower stresscorrosion cracks.
Most stress-corrosion cracks had no extension by fatigue
212
Fig.7. Stress-corrosion crack showing extension by fatigue

both in the depthwise direction and along the free surface
of the pipe at a solitary stress-corrosion crack.
along the pipe surface (for example, the LS crack), whereas
others had significant fatigue-crack extension in this
direction. No clear determinant for fatigue-crack extension
along the pipe surface was found based on stress-corrosion
crack sizes or initial aspect ratios. However, proximity to
other cracks did appear to influence crack extension along
the pipe surface, as shown previously.
The measured fatigue-crack extensions in Table 1 represent
between 100 and 166 equivalent lifetimes of service for the
conditions chosen for the test. This implies that the amount
NO CS
NO CS
NO CS
NO CS
NO CS
NO CS
NO CS
NO CS
NO CS
NO CS
NO CS
NO CS
NO CS
NO CS
NO CS
CS
CS
CS
CS
CS
CS
CS
CS
Crack SCC
name Surface
length
(2c)
LS
30.00
C2 1
15.25
C2 3
11.94
C1 5
22.94
C1 1
10.64
C2 4
13.16
C1 4
22.94
C2 2
13.70
J1 1
15.00
C1 2
6.97
C1 6
7.0
C2 5
8.61
C1 3
3.48
J1 3
7.50
J1 2
3.50
E1 1
23.60
E1 2
11.80
E1 3
9.20
E1 4
7.90
E1 5
8.10
E1 6
9.40
E1 7
8.50
E1 8
9.00
Fig.8. Coalescing stress-corrosion cracks showing fatiguecrack growth predominantly in the depth direction.
of fatigue-crack extension in one pipe lifetime is miniscule,

much less than the uncertainty involved in measuring the
actual crack dimensions.
Literature surveys have shown that fatigue-crack aspect
ratios tend to grow at a value of 0.31 (depth/total surface
length) [3], whereas stress-corrosion cracks tend to grow in
a range of aspect ratios between 0.07 and 0.3 [4]. The results
presented in Table 1 confirmed that the stress-corrosion
cracks grew with typical SCC aspect ratios (0.07 0.3) and,
after fatigue cycling, the aspect ratios increased and tended
New
SCC
Total surface
depth Fatigue depth length
(a)
(anew) (2c n)
depth
3.00
1.89
4.89
30.00
2.83
1.68
4.51
16.44
2.65
2.02
4.67
12.39
2.42
1.52
3.94
22.94
2.27
0.58
2.85
10.64
2.18
1.71
3.89
13.16
2.15
1.64
3.79
22.94
2.11
1.35
3.46
13.97
2.09
0.35
2.44
15.00
2.02
0.80
2.82
6.97
1.85
0.57
2.42
8.0
1.60
0.68
2.28
8.61
1.01
0.80
1.80
3.48
0.76
0.05
0.80
7.50
0.52
0.00
0.52
3.50
2.60
0.62
3.21
23.60
2.22
0.02
2.24
11.80
1.89
0.05
1.94
9.20
1.47
0.05
1.52
7.90
1.39
0.02
1.41
8.10
1.38
0.05
1.44
9.40
1.24
0.11
1.35
8.50
1.09
0.05
1.14
9.00
Crack New
profile profile
(a/2c) (anew/2c n)
0.10
0.16
0.19
0.27
0.22
0.28
0.11
0.17
0.21
0.27
0.17
0.30
0.09
0.17
0.15
0.25
0.14
0.16
0.29
0.40
0.26
0.30
0.19
0.26
0.29
0.52
0.10
0.11
0.15
0.15
0.11
0.14
0.19
0.19
0.20
0.21
0.19
0.19
0.17
0.17
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.16
0.12
0.13
Change
in
aspect
ratio
0.06
0.09
0.06
0.07
0.05
0.13
0.07
0.09
0.02
0.11
0.04
0.08
0.23
0.01
0.00
0.03
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.01
%
change
in aspect
ratio
63.10
47.72
27.97
62.54
25.63
78.54
75.94
61.09
16.87
39.50
15.39
42.53
79.10
6.08
0.00
23.77
0.90
2.81
3.40
1.44
3.91
9.07
4.32
Table 1. Measurement of crack dimensions for stress-corrosion cracks extended by fatigue through cyclic loading.
4th Quarter, 2007
213
Meaured strains under pipe and Clockspring
350
1400
300
1200
250
1000
200
800
Microstrain
Stress (MPa)
Clockspring model
150
600
Uns leeved
100
Average bare pipe
400
0 application pres s ure
50
Average under
Clockspring
200
36% SMYS application

pres s ure
0
0
Pres sure (MPa)
Fig.9a. Predicted ClockSpring response and measured

strains from testing.
towards 0.3. With sufficient pipe wall thickness and fatigue
cycles it may be that the SCC-fatigue-crack aspect ratios
would achieve the typical 0.31 fatigue-crack aspect ratio.
An additional factor that complicates understanding the
growth of the stress-corrosion cracks by fatigue is that
because of the close proximity of many of the stresscorrosion cracks there is the possibility of crack interaction
and coalescence.
Modelling of the ClockSpring repairs

Modelling of ClockSpring repairs was undertaken to explore
the characteristics of this repair system. The modelling
(Fig.9a) showed that the application pressure affected the
stresses acting on a fatigue crack, and that only small
reductions in stress and crack growth could be expected
through the application of a ClockSpring.
The use of a GRP sleeve repair, such as the ClockSpring, is
predicted to reduce the hoop stress in the pipe wall. Data
recorded from strain gauges placed on the pipe surface
under the ClockSprings, Fig.9, compared well with the
predictions from modelling. The amount of stress reduction
achieved depends on the pipe and ClockSpring wall
thicknesses, the ClockSpring stiffness, and the pressure in
the pipe at the time of the ClockSpring application. The
ClockSprings were applied when the pipe was pressurized
at 36% SMYS (3.1 MPa), and the strains (and stresses) were
only reduced in the pipe wall when the pressure rose above
this level. Due to the construction of the ClockSpring, the
adhesives used between the ClockSpring and the pipe
surface and the shear load transfer between the pipe and
the ClockSpring, the ClockSpring only supplied full support
to the pipe wall at a pressure of approximately 3.8 MPa.
For this pipe, applying the ClockSpring to the pipe while it
was pressurized to 36% SMYS, the stresses in the pipe wall
at pressures equivalent to 72% SMYS are reduced by
Pressure (MPa)
Fig.9b.Modelling of fatigue-crack growth rates.
approximately 7%. This was predicted to lead to a decrease

in fatigue-crack growth rates of approx. 18%. This may be
useful in a service cycle with high daily pressure cycles
where crack growth is a problem. Though the collapse
pressure will be higher under the ClockSpring compared to
in a section of pipe without a ClockSpring, the ClockSpring
is not able to guarantee against leakage of the pipe.
The examined cracks from the test section were shown to
have grown by fatigue, and the amount of fatigue crack
growth was measured. The crack growth rates were
subsequently compared to those predicted by BS7910, and
it was found that the model tended to overestimate the
fatigue crack growth for cracks both under and remote
from ClockSprings.
The fatigue crack growth rates measured in this work were
compared to the rates predicted by BS 7910 and also to
measurements on pipeline steels made by NIST [5], Fig.10.
The NIST average results were comparable to the BS 7910
lower-bound predictions, except for the case of cracks
growing in X100 material which had much higher crack
growth rates.
From Figure 10 it can be seen that the crack growth rates
measured in this test work fall well below all other estimates.
One reason for this is that the current testing was on roughshaped stress-corrosion cracks, often not initially
perpendicular to the surface, while the stress intensity
factor (on which crack growth rates depend) was calculated
assuming that the crack was semi-elliptical and perpendicular
to the surface with no crack interaction.
In addition, the original stress-corrosion cracks were found
to be inclined away from the perpendicular and to have a
range of configurations and crack aspect ratios, further
adding complexity to the issue of fatigue-crack growth.
Finally, multiple parallel, but not collinear, cracks, orientated
in the hoop direction, reduce the stress-intensity factor and
214
0.0045
Crack growth per cycle (mm)
0.004
BS 7910 mean
0.0035
BS 7910 + 2 Std Dev

0.003
NIST average
NIST X100
0.0025
Current test
0.002
0.0015
0.001
0.0005
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Stress Intensity factor (MPa root-m )
Fig.10. Comparison of fatigue-crack growth rates for BS7910 mean and +2 standard deviation predictions, NIST fatigue
crack growth rate measurements for the average of pipeline steels up to X65, NIST X100 data, and data from the current
test.
fatigue-crack growth rate, though axially-aligned cracking
may increase it. The SCC cracking was aligned in the axial
direction, and additional cracks parallel to these were
found not to have a significant effect on the fatigue-crack
growth rates or plastic collapse.
The effect of the presence of additional cracking on the
fatigue-crack growth of an individual crack was explored in
computer modelling using the conservative assumption of
infinite crack lengths. In a section of pressurized pipe, the
stress-intensity factor at a crack reduced 8% as additional
equal-depth cracks were added parallel to each other.
When shorter cracks were added, there was little change in
the stress-intensity factor.
Comparison with standards for the fatigue

strength of defect-free pipes
The results of the test showed that the fatigue life of the
worst defects present in the test section exceeded the
predicted fatigue life of defect-free as-welded joints for
pipelines and structures according to the fatigue-design
rules for SAW pipe, such as DIN and DNV standards.
Figure 11 shows a comparison of predicted fatigue lives for
pipelines with the results from this and other experimental
work. The results referred to as the Fletcher results are
from a series of fatigue tests on the seam welds in the similar
Moomba to Sydney Pipeline [6]. The test section in this
work performed better than the predictions from the
standard for SAW pipe, with the defect that leaked under
the ClockSpring, due its lower stress-intensity factor from
the reduced stress and stress range, performing only just
above the standard.
These experiments prove that a pipeline with dormant

stress-corrosion cracks would perform marginally better
than defect-free SAW pipe in terms of fatigue.
Effect of the presence of SCC crack colonies

on pipeline integrity
When considering the potential failure modes of the
pipeline due to stress-corrosion cracks, two main failure
modes are most likely. These are extension of the stresscorrosion cracks through wall by fatigue during the pipelines
lifetime, or failure of the pipe by plastic collapse in a region
containing sufficient cracks of a critical size. While the test
work showed that the recoated pipe is unlikely to fail by
fatigue, some modelling work was undertaken to determine
the effect of SCC cracking in the pipeline on plastic
collapse.
SCC cracking in the test pipe was aligned along the axial
direction. As shown above, additional cracks orientated
parallel, but not collinear, to the original cracks do not have
a significant effect on the plastic collapse of the pipeline.
However, the possibility of the growing cracks linking up in
the axial direction may lead to a reduction of the failure
pressure by plastic collapse.
When multiple equal-depth cracks were added to an FEA
model, a small decrease in the rupture pressure was noted.
This result is affected by the crack spacing and depth
selected for the model. When shorter cracks were added to
the equal-depth crack models, there was little reduction in
the burst pressure. The case where multiple equal-depth
cracks were present had the lowest burst pressure.
4th Quarter, 2007
215
Stress range (MPa)
1000
100
DIN 2413 SAW

DIN 2413 seamless and ERW
IDE/TD1
DR 04561
First test
5300
0-72% SMYS
l SMYS
Full test
8800
0-72%
Leak under
underl Clockspring
CS
Leak
Fletcher tests
10
100
1000
10000
100000
1000000
10000000
Cycles
Fig.11. Comparison of fatigue life of defect-free as-welded joints for pipeline structures according to fatigue-design rules with
test results.
The effects of crack spacing and crack density require

further modelling based on the colony characteristics, both
for the effects on fatigue-crack growth and on plastic
collapse. The results of further work on burst tests on the
SCC-affected pipe may provide some experimental
validation for the determination of plastic collapse.
Repair strategies for SCCaffected pipelines

When determining whether a grinding or sleeving repair is
required for pipelines containing SCC, the methodology
should be to determine the maximum stress-corrosion
crack size that can be safely left in the pipeline for its
remaining life without intervention and compare this to
the actual measured crack sizes in the pipeline. The mostconservative estimate of the allowable SCC defect size that
will survive the required lifetime and not fail by fatiguecrack extension is to assume that the defect has infinite
length and calculate the depth of multiple infinite-length
cracks which will survive 100% SMYS pressure. Figure 12
shows a plot of crack length versus crack depth, giving FEAgenerated predictions of the largest allowable defect that
will survive 100% SMYS pressure. The uncertainties
associated with the measurement of the crack depth need
to be factored into this depth value; in the case shown in
Fig.12, the allowable depth has been assumed to be 20%
(1.66mm). This depth value may be adjusted to take account
of other safety factors.
Less-conservative estimates of allowable crack depth, Fig.12,

may be based on the measured crack length, as shorter
cracks have a higher burst pressure and hence greater-depth
cracks are acceptable. However, there is a major uncertainty
in the determining the actual axial length of individual
cracks from ILI measurements. The reported values of the
crack lengths depend on the interaction rules adopted by
company undertaking the ILI. In addition, under-thickness
pipe is of concern as the remaining wall thickness is at issue,
not the relative wall thickness.
To be useful in the sentencing of stress-corrosion cracks,
the length-depth acceptance diagram should incorporate
the uncertainties in crack-dimension measurement. FEA
modelling showed the lowest burst pressure was for the case
where there were multiple equal-depth cracks. If the
inspection shows that this is a possibility, a further reduction
in the allowable defect size based on the results of FEA
analysis should be made in this particular case.
The allowable defect size under an applied ClockSpring,
basing the stress reduction of 7% measured from the strain
gauging data, is also shown in Fig.12. The allowable defect
length under a ClockSpring has been limited to 200mm to
ensure that it is shorter than the width of a ClockSpring.
The results of this modelling work have allowed a crack
length-depth sentencing diagram to be constructed for
SCC cracking in the pipeline under consideration. The
results of the fatigue testing have proved that stress-corrosion
cracks will not extend by fatigue discernibly within one
216
Allowable defect size at 100% SMYS pressure

9
8
API579 flow stress

FEA
inifinite defect
FEA prediction
for an infinite defect
Defects under a Clockspring
Clockspring
Defect depth (mm)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
De fe ct length (mm)
Fig.12. Defect acceptance plot for SCC cracking, including the use of ClockSprings.
pipeline lifetime under the examined operating conditions.
Hence the diagram can still be used without correction
factors for stress-corrosion cracks that have been subjected
to cyclic loading.
Conclusions
The results of a programme of work on the extension of
stress-corrosion cracks by fatigue in a section of pipe have
been presented. They include the detailed examination of
cracks before and after testing and the results of modelling.
The amount of fatigue-crack extension observed in the
replicated 50 years of service proposed for the pipeline
concerned was small on bare pipe, of the order of 0.1mm,
and less under ClockSprings. Based on the assumed material
properties and crack dimensions, fatigue-crack growth is
therefore assumed to be negligible in the likely future
operation of the pipeline. In the pressure cycle analysed,
full depressurizations were the most damaging event. To be
able to apply the results of this work to the pipelines future
operation, the service cycle that the fatigue-crack growth
analysis is based upon should be updated with future
operation data.
Modelling showed that the effects of multiple cracks in
colonies on fatigue-crack growth and plastic-collapse pressure
were small, and that the worst case was for equal-depth,
closely-spaced, cracks.
A possible maximum hydrostatic strength test pressure of
100% SMYS is implied by a MAOP of 72% SMYS. The
most-conservative crack conditions are for infinite-length

multiple equal-depth cracks, for which the maximumdepth flaws which could survive 100% SMYS were 29%
wall thickness. This may be used as a lower bound for
allowable crack depth. The value may be modified to
include uncertainties in depth measurement and any
operational safety factors including the possibility of
subcritical crack growth during a hydrostatic strength test.
If the SCC-causing environment can be excluded from the
pipe surface by effective re-coating, it is likely that stresscorrosion cracks small enough to be safely left in the
pipeline under static pressure will not grow to critical levels
by fatigue in normal gas pipeline service. This work has also
shown that BS7910 can provide a conservative remaining
fatigue lifetime estimate for a gas pipeline containing SCC
cracks rendered dormant. The results are of great economic
significance in reducing the cost of repairs and extending
the life of pipeline assets.
Follow-up work includes development of predictions for
crack interaction effects by modelling and comparison with
burst testing.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank APT and to Agility for
their assistance in the project for supplying the samples and
pipeline data and ClockSpring for suppling the
ClockSprings used in the test work. This project has been
funded by the APIA Research and Standards Committee,
to whom the authors are grateful. The assistance of the staff
4th Quarter, 2007
217
at Adelaide Microscopy is acknowledged for use of their

facilities for sample analysis. Finally, many thanks to Leigh
Fletcher for his advice and support throughout the project.
include the analysis and failure of high temperature

components, residual stresses measurement and analysis,
and pipeline integrity.
The authors
References
Prof. Valerie Linton is a metallurgist in the School of

Mechanical Engineering, University of Adelaide. She has
strong research interests related to the materials, welding,
residual stresses and performance of gas pipelines. She has
also worked as a welding consultant with Materials
Performance Technologies in New Zealand and in the
welding division of the former British Gas in the UK.
1. WEE/37 TC 1999. BS7910: Guide on methods for assessing

the acceptability of flaws in metallic structures, British
Standard.
2. R.Sutherby and W.Chen, 2004. Deflected stress corrosion
cracks in the pipeline steel. Proc. 5th International Pipeline
Conference, Oct 4-8 2004, Calgary, Canada
3. O.Vosikovsky and A.Rivard, 1981. International Journal of
Fatiguehe:, 3, 111-5.
4. B.N.Leis and J.A.Colwell, 1997. Initiation of stress-corrosion
cracking on gas transmission piping. Proc. Symposium on
Effects of the Environment on the Initiation of Crack
Growth, May 20-21 1996, Orlando, USA.
5. Bussiba, 2006. Fatigue crack growth rates in six pipeline
steels. Proc 6th International Pipeline Conference, Calgary,
Canada.
6. L.Fletcher, 1978. The role of longitudinal joint geometry in
the fatigue behaviour of submerged arc welded line.
Australasian Welding Journal, pp 18-25.
Dr Erwin Gamboa obtained his PhD in the area of stresscorrosion cracking of pearlitic steels. After graduating, he
worked at the University of Adelaide in the areas of wear
resistant alloys before becoming involved with the Australian
Pipeline Industry Association. He has carried out research
projects for APIA through UoA in the areas of SCC,
fatigue, welding and materials properties.
Dr Michael Law is a researcher with the Australian Nuclear
Science and technology Organization. His research interests
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4th Quarter, 2007
219
This paper won the 2007 annual ASME Global Pipeline Award
competition, which was adjudicated at the
Rio Pipeline Conference held on 2-4 October, 2007,
and organized by IBP.
The feeler-snake pig: a simple

way to detect and size internal
corrosion
by Claudio Camerini1, Jean Pierre von der Weid2, Miguel Freitas*2,
and Thiago Salcedo2
1 Petrobras/CENPES, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
2 PUC-RIO-CETUC/CPTI, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
UBMARINE PIPELINE inspection traditionally employs the same technologies used for onshore
pipelines, one of which is the instrumented pig, which usually runs under the same parameters and
procedures as those used for onshore inspections. However, it is very common to find submarine pipelines
with special characteristics, such as varying diameters and small-radius bends, that may prevent the use of
conventional instrumented pigs. Other equally-relevant factors that make the inspection difficult are the
increased pipeline wall thickness, which significantly limits the use of magnetic instrumented pigs. An
alternative currently available for inspecting these pipelines is the use of ultrasonic pigs. Nevertheless, this
method has its own limitations, such as the need of a homogeneous liquid, with good acoustic properties,
to serve as couplant. On crude oil pipelines this couplant is not always available, as these lines may carry
multi-phase fluids.
Focusing on this issue, a new method has been developed to detect and size the loss of wall thickness
associated with internal corrosion. A special pig has been designed that can negotiate large variations in
diameter, with no practical limit on the wall thickness to be inspected, and which can navigate through bends
with small radiuses. The pig has been called a feeler pig, as it consists of several feeler-type sensors that
measure internal corrosion. The system has been tested in the field and its performance compared to that
of a standard ultrasonic instrumented pig. Excellent defect correlation was observed between the ultrasonic
and feeler pig data, both in geometry and depth of internal corrosion. With this high confidence, other
prototypes of the feeler pig have been developed. A new design, named the feeler-snake pig, was
implemented, in which the feeler sensors are mounted over a flexible support, yielding a tool with high
tolerance to geometric restrictions. The excellent results from the prototype, and its robustness against
in-line geometric restrictions, open a wide range of opportunities for the feeler-snake pig technology in field
applications.
SUBMARINE PIPELINE inspection traditionally employs

the same technologies that are used for onshore pipelines.
One such technology is the instrumented pig, which usually
runs under the same parameters and procedures as those
*Authors contact information:

tel: +55 21 3527 1800
email: miguel@cpti.cetuc.puc-rio.br
used for onshore inspections. There are, however, some

particular aspects of these inspection procedures that must
be considered. Onshore pipelines are usually easy to access,
enabling field excavation for verification and correlation of
the results, thus allowing inspection quality assessment.
The same is not true for submarine pipelines, in which a
correlation of the indicated results from an instrumented
pig would incur very high costs or, in some cases, would not
be possible. During the 1980s and 1990s, considerable
220
Fig.1. The feeler-pig measuring method:

corrosion features (pits) are sized
according to angle variations of the
sensor arms.
investment on onshore pipelines was made in Brazil in
order to adapt them for instrumented pig inspections,
including such aspects as removing small-radius bends,
installing launchers and receivers, unifying diameters, and
removing obstacles. Some submarine pipelines received
the same treatment, but those adaptations were not extended
to the whole network. It is thus common, for example, to
find submarine pipelines with multiple diameters and
small-radius bends, among other impediments that prevent
the use of conventional instrumented pigs.
There are other equally-relevant factors which make the
inspection difficult, such as the wall thickness of submarine
pipelines, which significantly limits the use of magneticflux leakage (MFL) instrumented pigs. As oil production
heads for deeper and deeper water, pipelines become
thicker for structural reasons, and that implies loss of
measurement capacity by MFL pigs, which have a reduced
sensitivity upwards of 15 mm-thick walls, and a practical
limit of 20mm. The problem gets even worse in pipelines
with diameters smaller than 14in, which present large wall

thickness and small internal volume, making magnetization
very difficult as the space available for the magnetizers
themselves is restricted. With current technology, there are
not enough compact and high-power magnetizers to be
used for large thickness in such small space.
Another characteristic of submarine pipelines is that external
visual inspection is almost always possible, since unburied
subsea pipelines are accessible externally using ROVs
(remotely-operated vehicles). Such vehicles are already
periodically used to inspect Petrobras submarine pipelines
in order to identify external damage as well as to measure
cathodic protection electrochemical potential, identify
spans, etc. External visual access is, compared to onshore
pipelines, the greatest distinguishing feature regarding
submarine pipeline inspection.
A further aspect of submarine pipelines is that the main
cause of deterioration is internal corrosion, generally in the
(b)
(a)
(c)
(d)
Fig.2. A typical feeler-pig sensor. Two magnets (a) are fixed on the arm base (b); any movement produces a change in the
magnetic field, which is detected by a Hall sensor (c) located inside the sensor carrier (d).
4th Quarter, 2007
221
Fig.3. (a - left) Feeler pig for a 22-in diameter pipeline, with 250 sensors (sticks); (b - right) Feeler pig for 12-16-in diameter
pipeline, with 180 sensors (sticks).
lower segment, which occurs as a result of the presence of
produced water. External corrosion is easily prevented with
cathodic protection, while the damage caused by collisions
or anchor action can generally be identified by visual
inspection by an ROV. It is considered, therefore, that the
main objective for inspection of oil and gas pipelines is to
detect and quantify internal corrosion and, to a lesser
extent, external defects related to miscellaneous actions.
An alternative currently available for inspecting pipelines
subject to internal corrosion is the use of pigs employing
ultrasound technology. Depending on its mechanical design,
the ultrasonic pig may tolerate variations in diameter, and
does not present difficulties in measuring large thicknesses.
A severe limitation to this method, however, is the need for

a homogeneous liquid, with good acoustic properties, to
serve as a couplant. This limitation makes it more difficult
to inspect gas pipelines, requiring the introduction of a
batch of diesel, which might have a strong operational
impact. Also, the fluid is not homogeneous in production
pipelines with live oil (a mixture of oil, gas, and water),
making ultrasonic inspection impossible in practice [1,2].
The feeler-pig method

Given the known difficulties of submarine pipeline
inspection, an R&D project was started to devise a new
Fig.4. C-scans produced directly by data-analysis software: (a - top) a corroded area detected by a commercial ultrasonic
system; (b - bottom) the same corroded area detected by the 22-in diameter feeler pig.
222
Fig.5. The feeler-snake pig, a new concept of instrumented pig. (a - left) General view of electronics and sensor modules;
(b - right) equipment being recovered from the offshore pipeline inspection.
method to detect and size losses of wall thickness associated
with internal corrosion. A special pig was designed to
accommodate large variations in diameter, with no practical
limit on the wall thickness to be inspected, and to be able
to navigate through bends and geometric features with
small radiuses. The pig was called the feeler pig, as it
consists of several feeler-type sensors that measure internal
corrosion, as illustrated in Figs 1 and 2 [3,4].
The first special pig prototypes were developed to inspect
small-diameter production pipelines, using just a few sensors.
Later, thanks to the excellent results obtained in field tests,
the concept was extended to large-diameter pipelines, in
this case 22in. The tool carried out an inspection of a
submarine pipeline, confirming its potential for real
inspections. Figure 3 shows the pig assembled and ready for
use; the results delivered by the pigs 250 sensors (sticks)
were compared to the data collected by a previous inspection
performed with a commercial ultrasound pig on the same
pipeline. The new tool delivered results that were almost
identical to those of the ultrasonic pig in terms of defect
depth and extension, confirming the technical viability of
the new method (Fig.4).
Based on these results, several inspections using the system

have been scheduled for 2007-2008, and include oil and
gas pipelines with or without diameter variations, in addition
to pipelines of varying lengths and with a wide range of flow
speeds.
In July, 2006, an inspection was undertaken using the
feeler-snake pig, which was an innovative design based on
the above-mentioned technology, and Fig.5 shows the new
instrumented pig in which the sensors are mounted on a
flexible base. This tool allowed a multi-diameter inspection
to be performed, including small-radius bends, in a
configuration that commercially-available tools could not
accommodate. As a result, 7.6km of a submarine pipeline
were reinstated for use.
Calibration
In order to achieve accuracy in corrosion depth
measurement, it is of fundamental importance to undertake
a calibration procedure before launching the pig for the
Fig.6. Calibration accessories: (a) stepped coupon; (b) tube with the coupon in place.
4th Quarter, 2007
223
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig.7. A C-scan picture showing an internal surface free from corrosion. Longitudinal (a) and circumferential (b) welds were
detected; the grinding areas, where the longitudinal welds met the circumferential welds, were also detected (c).
(a)
(b)
Fig.8. Results from the feeler-snake pig: (a) circumferential welds; (b) a 4mm increase in pipe diameter was detected.
inspection run. Each sensor needs individually to be

programmed for the operational range of the project,
which will allow for pipeline characteristics such as internal
diameter and wall thickness. Each sensor must be able to
measure across its full range for example a 100% thickness
loss without saturation. Since there still may be some
variability between sensors due to mechanical differences,
such as magnet positioning and strength, the tool is then
recalibrated with all the sensors mounted on the tools
body.
Calibration consists of passing the tool through a 6-m long

plastic tube with the same nominal diameter as that of the
pipeline to be inspected. The tube has an access window
were a stepped calibration coupon is inserted. Each step of
the coupon is precisely known, providing calibration values
for the entire range of thicknesses which the tool is expected
to measure. Figure 6 shows the coupon and the tube used
for calibrating the pig.
As the pig traverses the tube, the signal from each sensor,
224
representing the stepped section as seen by that particular

sensor, is acquired. Since the coupon does not cover the
entire 360 circumference of the tube, the procedure is
repeated until a valid signal is obtained from all the sensors.
The known values of the step heights provide a precise
calibration that can later be used in the data analysis. The
process is fully automated, with an individual polynomial
produced to fit each sensor. Once calibrated, the
measurements taken by the pig can be presented to the
operator as changes in wall thickness measured in
millimetres.
Conclusion
Some field results
References
In January, 2005, the 16-in feeler pig performed an

inspection in a submarine pipeline and, after data analysis,
no corrosion was found. In Fig.7 it is possible to see the
high sensitivity of the feeler pig: all the welds both
circumferential and longitudinal were detected. Also,
where the longitudinal welds met the circumferential welds,
it was possible to detect and size the internal grinding of the
longitudinal welds.
1. G.Achisrtosch, 2004. Investigating the effectiveness of

techniques used in assessing the integrity of non-piggable
pipelines. IPC 04-0307 Proc. IPC-2004 International Pipeline
Conference, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
2. A.Franzoi, 2004. PCE-1 oil pipeline/point A24: Inspection
alternatives for a non-piggable pipeline. IPC 04-0634 Proc.
IPC-2004 International Pipeline Conference, Calgary,
Alberta, Canada.
3. Patent PI 0600496-2, 2006. Pig de Perfilagem de Alta
Resoluo para Deteco e Quantificao da Corroso Interna
de Tubulaes. INPI-Brasil, Rio de Janeiro, April.
4. C.Marinho, 2006. Feeler pig: a new tool for multi-size
pipeline inspection. Proc. ECNDT 2006, Berlin, Germany.
Figure 8 shows the results obtained by an 8-in feeler-snake

pig. In this 15 year-old pipeline, no internal corrosion was
found. As in Fig.7, all the circumferential welds were
detected although, in this case, there were no longitudinal
welds.
As the feeler-pig technology and the feeler-snake-pig concept

are developed further, Petrobras is changing its submarine
pipeline inspection system, prioritizing this technology for
internal corrosion control. The use of other pigs, such as
MFL and ultrasonic, will still be required wherever external
corrosion is suspected. With the new system, Petrobras
intends to inspect the majority of its submarine pipelines,
and almost to eliminate the expression non-piggable line
from its offshore production fields.
An analysis of significant SCC data reported

to the National Energy Board (continued from page 205)
2. Canadian Energy Pipeline Association (CEPA), 2000. Stresscorrosion cracking data trending report, submitted to the
National Energy Board.
3. F.Jeglic, 2004. Analysis of ruptures and trends on major
Canadian pipeline systems. Proc. International Pipeline
Conference, Calgary.
4. M.Law, T.Gnaupel-Herold, and G.Bowie, 2005 Residual
stresses in gas pipelines. Journal of Pipeline Integrity, 4, 3,
pp173-182.
5. M.Meyers, 2004. Near neutral pH SCC resistance of pipeline
steels: the effect of some material and mechanical parameters.

EPRG report, Proc.4th Int.Conf. on Pipeline Technology,
Ostend, Belgium May, pp1857-1879.
6. National Energy Board, 1996. Stress-corrosion cracking on
Canadian oil and gas pipelines. Report of the inquiry MH-295, Calgary, Canada.
7. National Energy Board, 2003. Focus on safety: a comparative
analysis of pipeline safety performance, April, Calgary,
Canada.
4th Quarter, 2007
225
Trends and developments in

microbiologically-induced
corrosion in the oil and gas
industry
by Dr Roger A King
Corrosion Services, Manchester, UK
N THIS first of a series of three papers examining issues concerning microbiologically-induced corrosion
in oil and gas pipelines, Dr King provides an overview of the main trends and developments, including
identification of sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB), taxonomy, rapid enumeration techniques, biofilms,
biocides and monitoring. Areas of ignorance are noted where relevant.
ASIC CORROSION research has remained relativelystrong for over a decade when compared to many other
industrial sectors. Much of the basic research does however
need to be transferred to development for use in production
facilities. The research included collection and taxonomy
of sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB) which should lead to
modification of enumeration media, studies on biofilms
which should lead to improved control procedures, biocide
evaluations that should lead to better formulations, and
corrosion monitoring that should lead to improved realtime evaluation of microbially-induced corrosion (MIC).
Though several patents have been lodged to date they have
not been applied. Surprisingly absent, despite massive
advances in molecular biology, gene manipulation and
understanding, there has not been a development of a
rapid technique for enumeration of SRB.
Identification of sulphatereducing bacteria

General
An explosion of interest in sulphate-reducing bacteria in
recent years has lead to the identification of many more
Authors contact details:
tel: +44 (0)161 740 6434
email: rogerking3@aol.com
genera and species and also extensive DNA-based linkage

between these which has lead to rationalization of the
genera. The SRB have been discovered in an ever-wider
range of environments and with an ever-wider range of
tolerance to environmental conditions. This interest appears
to have been initiated by the discovery of the sub-ocean
smokers and the emergence of interest in archeobacteria.
As far as the oil industry is concerned, there is a relativelycomplete ignorance of the variations between the sulphatereducing bacteria; they are unglamorously considered as a
single nuisance. This uneducated approach has the
advantage of presenting a simplified case for action to the
operator, but hides many pitfalls. In particular, the
continued use of lactate-based media can give a false
impression that a system does not host SRB. Work on
reservoir souring has lead to the development of morecatholic media but these do not appear, as yet, to have been
widely adopted. Clearly there is a need to have the relevant
recommended practices updated.
Globalization of SRB
Bacteria, like plants and animals, has had zones of activity:
for example, in earlier times it was uncommon to identify
Far Eastern SRB in the colder northern waters of Europe.
This has changed dramatically in recent times presumably
as a result of the bulk transport of crude oil. Water
discharged from tanker ballast tanks has dissipated the SRB
from one location over the complete marine biosphere.
226
Population
Activity
L ow
WI systems <2 cells/ml
Oil systems <1 cell/ml
Medium
WI systems 2-20 cells/ml
Oil systems 1 - 5 cells/ml
High
WI systems >20 cells/ml
Oil systems >5 cells/ml
L ow
WI systems >10 days
Oil systems >15 days
Medium
WI systems 3 - 10 days
Oil systems 5 - 15 days
High
WI systems <3 days
Oil systems <5 days
10
Table 1. Evaluation of risk

of corrosion by sulphatereducing bacteria.
Adaptation does not appear to have been extensively studied

despite SRB appearing to have remarkable capabilities. As
Despite the increased interest in SRB there remain an example, many oilfield waters contain high total dissolved
solids, up to 260,000mg/l. Water activity
misconceptions and much confusion over
would predict that SRB should not
relatively-simple issues. The most obvious
It is a misconception
tolerate much above 15% TDS; however,
is the nature of the dominant sulphide
amongst operators that
the Desulphovibrio desulphuricans strain
ion involved in SRB activity. Text books
SRB mutate often and
Canet 43 was found able to be grown in
suggest the sulphide ion, S2-, whilst the
rapidly, a belief that
media containing from trace sodium
cationic form over the pH range of growth
supports frequent
chloride to 23% sodium chloride. The
of SRB would be the hydrosulphide ion,
change of biocide
adaptation process required many weeks.
HS-. Interestingly it appears that the
formulation by
Growth at 23% salt was sparse, and the
optimum Redox potential for SRB growth
chemical suppliers, who
bacteria were clearly on the limit of
is over the pH range where the
perhaps take advantage
survival, failing to divide normally, and
hydrosulphide ion predominates. It is
of ignorance.
forming serpentine forms. Adaptation
possible that the confusion has prevented
of the strains back to trace sodium
an appreciation of the critical importance
chloride took less time and, on return to
of hydrogen assimilation in the corrosion process.
a low-salinity medium, the bacteria returned to their normal
Associated with this uncertainty in the form of the sulphide form. What the limitations there are to growth still, however,
ion produced is a lack of knowledge of the tolerance of the remain largely unknown.
SRB to toxic sulphide. The maximum sulphide produced
by SRB strains before they cease to grow is recorded as Interpretation of population
approx. 3,000ppm. This value was determined 50 years ago and activity data
[1], but later studies do not indicate concentrations above
600ppm. Why there should be such a large discrepancy in Operators spend considerable sums investigating the
concentration is unknown; the impacts of other variables, occurrence and populations of SRB in pipelines, storage
such as pH, have not been evaluated. In nature, SRB do not tanks, water systems and, occasionally, reservoirs. Results
appear to be able to tolerate such high concentrations; are normally recorded as populations of SRB and judgment
sediments and water floods rarely show concentrations made on this simple number. The more-educated operator
will plot trends in populations and base the treatment
above 500ppm.
programmes on the trend movements. However, this
It is a misconception amongst operators that SRB mutate approach is over-simplistic and can be markedly improved
often and rapidly, a belief that supports frequent change of when considering biological control treatments of pipelines.
biocide formulation by chemical suppliers, who perhaps Firstly the activity of the bacteria can be judged by the time
take advantage of ignorance. The changes in biocide to growth and the population criticality can be evaluated
formulations are cosmetic rather than functional, as a using water flow rates in the pipelines.
significant change will normally result in a higher cost per
unit. Some adaptation can be made by SRB and this may A simple tabulation of the activity population relationships
have slight significance but significant adaptations take is provided in Table 1. It should be realized that a small
longer than is available in an industrial system. Clearly a population of highly-active bacteria is more problematical
given biocide regime will favour the dominance of strains than a larger population of essentially-senescent bacteria.
of SRB that can tolerate the regime, but this is a form of In other words, the nominal population alone is not a good
natural selection and is far removed from mutation of the guide to the need for system treatment. For pipelines, a low
population of aggressive bacteria should be a signal that
organisms.
Grey areas and misconceptions
4th Quarter, 2007
there is a nest of bacteria somewhere in the line that needs

attention.
The use of water flow rates to evaluate the status of a system
is less obvious. For simplicity we can consider a seawaterinjection pipeline. The SRB will principally exist as sessile
bacteria at the bottom of the pipeline. Planktonic bacteria
will be mainly those bacteria shed by the sessile bacteria; a
planktonic population of 5 cells/ml means little.
Consider a pipeline that is 5km long of nominal diameter
12-in x 12.7mm wall thickness that is transporting
10,000brl/d of water (1,590m3/d). The total number of
bacteria shed from the sessile colonies is 5 x 106 x 10,000
x 0.159 = 7.95 x 109 cells per day.
227
Microscopic evaluation
Direct and stained bacteria may be counted in a
haemocytometer, though distinguishing between
viable or non-viable bacteria and colloidal debris
reduces the enumeration efficiency. The use of
selective polyclonal antisera tagging [2] or FISH [3]
combined with computer counting systems of
fluorescent (stained) bacteria would allow rapid
automatic enumeration.
ATP luminescence
The consolidated sample of bacteria are resuspended

and treated to breakdown bacterial cell walls to
release internal constituents; luciferase is added
These bacteria will largely arise from a narrow strip along
and the photoluminescence measured. The main
the bottom of the pipeline; from
drawbacks are that the method evaluates
inspection data it is known that the
the complete biological load in the system
sector over which the SRB flourish
and there may be interference by biocides
subtends an angle of approximately 30o,
and sulphide. Robust, portable
What is clearly needed
and so the area covered will be 5000 x
equipment is now available and this
is some form of rapid
PIp x 11.75 x 0.0254 x 30/360 = 390.7m2.
technique deserves re-appraisal.
evaluation technique of
The rate of shedding of bacteria equals
the population of SRB,
the total bacteria shed (7.95 x 109 per
Hydrogenase
and to date there have
day) divided by the area from which they
been many attempts to
are shed (390.7m2); this indicates ~20 x
The consolidated sample of bacteria
develop such a
106 cells/m2/day. If we compare this
is cultured overnight and the hydrogenase
technique.
with an identical pipeline transporting
activity estimated. The technique is
5,000brl/d of water, the shedding rate
moderately fast but not all SRB
would be half this. Clearly the rate of
demonstrate hydrogenase and the activity
multiplication and/or shedding of bacteria are reduced.
appears to be modified by FeS concentration (in
This may be a function of flow, but this does not appear to
one field study estimates of SRB varied 1,000-fold).
be the case in practice except at very low flow rates of water.
Additional development may resurrect this method.
If we equate the generation of bacteria with risk of MIC,
which is a reasonable assumption, then the risk of corrosion
Desulphoviridin
is greater in the first case than in the second case. However
the operator would treat both the pipelines based on the
Desulfoviridin is detected under UV light when
simplistic number of 5 cells/ml.
sodium hydroxide is added to the sample of SRB.
The technique is a reliable yes/no technique for
The case is more complex in crude oil pipelines as growth
presence of the bacteria but enumeration capability
of the bacteria will only occur at areas of stable water
is not developed. Though not all SRB contain this
phases. These can be identified to an extent from scrutiny
pigment (desulphovibrio generally do) the technique
of the pipeline profile. The volume of water resident in the
is rapid and requires minimal equipment.
pipeline can be obtained by pigging and this, combined
with the profile, will give some rough estimate of the area
APS-reductase
of pipeline surface likely to be at risk of MIC. Measurement
of the planktonic bacteria in the water phase arriving at the
APS is an essential enzyme for SRB to reduce
receiving plant can be used to calculate an average shedding
sulphate to sulphite. A consolidated sample of
rate at these wetted areas.
bacteria is treated to breakdown the cell walls. APSreductase is added, reacted and identifier added.
The population is evaluated as low medium
Rapid detection techniques
high. Field trials gave confidence that the method
What is clearly needed is some form of rapid evaluation
tracked serial dilutions. The method is fast but
technique of the population of SRB, and to date there have
evaluation remains fairly crude.
been many attempts to develop such a technique. All these
techniques require a large sample of water from which the
Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)
bacteria are consolidated by filtration. The techniques
investigated to date include:
This ELISA technique is claimed to be able to
228
identify 100 cells [4]. An anti-serum is added to a

consolidated sample; after incubation and washing
an enzyme-labelled conjugate is added and the sample
analysed by spectrophotometry. Requiring skill and
specialized equipment the method has not been
taken up yet by the industry, but clearly has huge
potential.
Auto-radiography
A consolidated sample of bacteria is resuspended
and incubated in medium containing 35S labelled
sulphate. After one or two days growth the bacteria
are extracted by filtration and the filter paper coated
with photographic emulsion. The blackened silver
spots can be counted.
Location of growth of
the SRB
General
In crude oil pipelines water separates and persists at low

areas of a pipeline when the crude oil flow rate is low. The
critical flow velocity at which separated water layers persist
can be estimated using the procedure of Wicks and Fraser
[5]; however, this is a global analysis and does not take
account of the gravitational effects that occur at low spots
along the pipeline route. Pipelines that have low sections to
cross beneath roads or rivers are at particular risk as debris
collects that cannot be easy moved out by normal flow.
Radiotracers
Radioactive sulphate is a possible technique that could aid

in the evaluation of SRB activity in low spots in the
pipeline. This is a technique that has been proven suitable
for field use [6]. A small quantity of radioactive sulphate is
added to the flow: the sulphate will partition into the
stratified water phases and, on sulphate
reduction, some of the biogenic sulphide
will be precipitated as iron sulphide but
The effectiveness of the
some will be released as hydrosulphide
treatment is rarely
ion and will be carried through the
critically reviewed,
pipeline. The radiotracer hydrogen
leading to sub-optimal
sulphide can be collected. The volume of
procedures being
radioactive sulphate added at the inlet is
accepted and it is only
known, and so it is possible to obtain an
when pipeline failures
estimate of the activity of the bacteria
occur that a critical
within the pipeline from the volume of
review is made of the
sulphide that is captured at the outlet.
It is feasible to obtain a reasonable

estimate of the population of SRB, and
other bacteria, within a system. However
it is often important to obtain an
indication of where the bacterial colonies
treatment programme.
exist so that inspection can be done to
determine the extent of the corrosion.
If all the radioactive sulphate appears at
This is particularly the case for complex
the pipeline outlet as sulphate then there
networks of pipelines where it would be of great advantage can be little or no SRB activity within the pipeline. If all the
to identify the sections of the network that are at risk. The radioactive material disappears, then it must be fixed as
location and extent of corrosion is detected by use of an iron sulphides somewhere along the pipeline. In most cases
intelligent pig. It is clearly expensive to have to inspect the some will be fixed and some will appear as hydrogen
entire network to identify the 10% at risk. Subsequent to sulphide that can be extracted into the gas phase. Clearly in
inspection it is possible to reinforce the corroded sections these cases there must be active SRB growth or activity
of the pipe prior to perforation. However SRB corrosion within the pipeline. This approach could be developed as
cells can produce magnetic iron sulphides and oxides, and an automatic method of evaluation of SRB activity because
the presence of these corrosion products can result in an the radioactive sulphate can either be introduced with the
underestimate of the depth of corrosion that has occurred. corrosion inhibitor, or separately, and the sulphide content
evaluated automatically at the pipeline outlet.
It is feasible to identify which pipelines in a network are at
greatest risk from MIC by using SRB populations and the
liquid flow rates, but it is not possible to predict where in Selection of biocides
the pipeline the corrosion cells exist. A knowledge of the
profile can assist, but this approach is far from reliable.
General
Pipeline profile
In water-injection pipelines it is possible for the bacteria to
settle and colonize the complete surface of the pipeline.
The regular use of biocide will, however, tend to kill and
remove the bacteria on the upper areas of the pipeline
whilst failing to be as effective at the bottom of the pipeline
where debris collects. It is the collection of debris which, by
protecting the bacteria, results in the prevalence of MIC at
the bottom of the line.
In most cases addition of biocides is the principal treatment

method for control of MIC in pipeline systems.
Unfortunately selection of biocide is rarely a priority and
may be based on supplier recommendation rather than by
testing; consequently the regime may not be as efficient (or
cost effective) as it could be. The effectiveness of the
treatment is rarely critically reviewed, leading to sub-optimal
procedures being accepted and it is only when pipeline
failures occur that a critical review is made of the treatment
programme.
4th Quarter, 2007
Synergism
It was expected that an advance had been made during
development of biocides for Saudi Aramco when surfactants
were included in the formulations to increase penetration
of biocide into the biofilms. Subsequent research has
indicated that few biocides are able to penetrate established
biofilms [7]. The isothiazolin compounds appear to have
penetrative ability and are being included into formulations.
However where an SH bond is present there is a sensitivity
to sulphide ions which may reduce the effectiveness against
SRB corrosion cells.
229
basis, for example quarterly. This approach is wasteful as

some pipelines do not require such frequent pigging and
others may require more-frequent pigging. More
importantly, spheres and foam pigs are not effective in
removing and clearing established SRB corrosion cells,
though they will remove soft deposits. Brush or scraper pigs
alone may also be less effective than expected because much
of the corrosion product is magnetic and is not removed by
over-aggressive pigging. Combinations of aggressive pigs
may be the optimum approach.
Pigging frequency
The structure of biofilms in oil and water-injection pipelines Pigging frequency is often fixed rather than being reis more complex than the biofilms developed for testing in evaluated based on the findings from the pigging and
laboratories. The corrosion processes and scaling result in routine analyses of fluid composition combined with flow
information as discussed above.
a matrix that includes a high proportion
Operators take considerable care in
of solids interlaced with EPS, which
Heavy reliance is placed
sampling water-injection and crude oil
reduces the capability of a biocide to
on the use of simple
systems. The decision to treat the pipeline
penetrate. For example one waterpigs such as spheres and
(by pigging and/or biocide) is determined
injection pipeline network contained 5%
foam pigs, and the
by a default procedure (for instance,
silica based material (probably filter
pigging is done on a
weekly biocide treatment in water
medium), 10% scale, 35% corrosion
routine basis, for
systems) or by adherence to a simple
product (oxide and sulphide), and 50%
example quarterly. This
population number that, when exceeded,
soft organic material (EPS and bacteria).
approach is wasteful as
triggers a treatment programme. This
For long oil pipelines it may be cost
some pipelines do not
approach is wasteful of resources. As the
effective to add biocide in an
require such frequent
type of pig used also impacts on the
encapsulated, slow-release form that
pigging and others may
frequency needed for cleaning the
would be incorporated into developing
require more-frequent
development of expert system software
biofilm.
pigging.
may be needed to aid busy operators to
make more-informed decisions that will
Much of the test work to date has been
reduce cost and improve effectiveness.
done on as one-off commercial test
programmes so it is not possible to take an overview of the
developments in biocide regimes. If information could be
pooled and combined with the use of chemical modelling, Environmental issues
optimum formulations may be identified. Modelling of
corrosion inhibitors has been effective in identifying Dumping
complimentary inhibitors with synergistic effects.
Seawater-injection systems have to have a proportion of the
treated water dumped to sea to enable the system to be
Water chemistry
balanced so as to avoid surging that could lead to unstable
High TDS waters are known to reduce effectiveness of operations. Some operators also use flushing chokes to
some biocides (such as quats). Seawater treatment is increase the water flow rate through the pipelines in an
straightforward, but often production includes water with attempt to reduce biofilm thickness; in both cases, biocide
a complex chemistry and the water may be prone to scaling is dumped to sea. Biocide has to be introduced into the
and the crude may be prone to wax deposition. Standardized systems upstream of the deaeration columns so it is not
tests are not available to evaluate biocides in these waters. possible to avoid some dumping of biocide to sea. This is
The straightforward time-to-kill tests are usually done in a wasteful, and it should be feasible to engineer the systems
low-saline water and may give completely incorrect and to avoid waste of treated water and pollution by recycling
rather than dumping, though some dumping is inevitable.
misleading values.
Pigging programmes
Type of pig
Heavy reliance is placed on the use of simple pigs such as
spheres and foam pigs, and the pigging is done on a routine
Green biocides
Green biocides may appear an oxymoron but there are
many compounds that decompose, over time, when diluted
and/or exposed to UV. The isothiazalones for example are
relatively green. However the most-effective approach to
minimizing environmental damage is to re-inject produced
230
water, in which case there is no requirement for green

biocides.
Direct monitoring techniques

Potential monitoring
Straightfrward potential monitoring is useful in indicating
when biofilms have become anaerobic and SRB are
becoming the dominant organism [8]. However potential
alone does not provide kinetic information, and has to be
supplemented with galvanic and/or electrochemical noise
monitoring.
Galvanic electrodes
A galvanic couple between steel and an inert material was
demonstrated to provide current responses that tracked
corrosion rates determined by weight loss [9]. Combined
with measurement of the potential shift (resulting from
formation of iron sulphide) this is a promising, simple
technique.
Electrochemical noise
Iverson studied electrochemical potential noise generated
by MIC on pipelines in Washington. Later studies
(supported by the UK SERC) resulted in a moresophisticated approach that used zero resistance ammeters
to generate current profiles to accompany the potential
signals. Initial studies [9] showed that the EPN signals did
relate to the rate of MIC and further work [10] have been
trialled, with success, in industrial systems.
Fibre optics
External MIC can be monitored using special probes
linked into fibre-optic cables. These sensors are fixed to the
ends of the optic cables to a base station that interrogates
the sensor on a regular basis [11]. These devices have, as yet,
not been developed for internal pipeline or vessel use.
The author
specialist knowledge of sweet and sour corrosion and its

prevention by chemical inhibition, monitoring of corrosion,
microbiological corrosion and the design of efficient
cathodic protection systems for flowlines, structures and
seabed installations. He has been an independent consultant
since September 1989, prior to which he was a founder
member of the Corrosion and Protection Centre Industrial
Service (CAPCIS) at the University of Manchester Institute
of Science and Technology (UMIST).
References
1. K.R.Butlin and J.R.Postgate, 1955. The microbiological
formation of sulphide and sulphur, Proc 6th Int Congr.
Microbiol., Rome, 126-143.
2. R.Lillebaek, 1995. Application of antisera raised against
SRB for indirect immunoflourescence detection of
immunoreactive bacteria in sediment from the German
Baltic Sea. Appj & Env Microbiol, 3436 3442.
3. R.Amman, B.M.Fuchs, and S.Behrens, 2001. Identification
of microorganisms by fluorescence in situ hybridisation.
Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 12, 231-236, Elsevier Science
Ltd.
4. S.Bobowski, 1987. Sereological methods for SRB detection.
Industrial Microbiology Testing, Eds E.C.Hill and
J.W.Hopton, Academic Press, London.
5. M.Wicks and J.P.Fraser, 1975. Entrainment of water by
flowing oil. Mater. Perf., May, pp 9-12.
6. S.Maxwell, 1987. Monitoring sulphate reduction activity in
the field using radiorespirometry. In: Biodeterioration - 7,
Eds D.R.Houghton, R.N.Smith, and E.O.Eggins, pp 411
417, Elsevier App. Sci. London.
7. C.C.Gaylarde, 1995. Design, selection and use of biocides.
Ch 10, Eds C.C.Gaylarde and H.A.Videla, Bioextraction
and Biodeterioration of Metals, Cambridge Univ. Press.
8. Brite-Euram III (200), 2002. Thematic network No ERB
BRRT-CT98-5084, Microbially influenced corrosion of
industrial materials, September.
9. R.A.King and R.D.Eden, 1989. Evaluation of biofilms by
advanced electrochemical monitoring. In: Bio-corrosion,
Eds C.C.Gaylarde and L.H.G.Morton, Biodeterioration
Society Occasional Publications No 5.
10. D.A.Eden and S.S.Moody, 2002. Control of MIC in seawater
injection systems using electrochemical noise technology.
Paper 02338, NACE 2002.
11. D.R.Hay, W.Revie, and R.Tennyson, 2002. Intelligent system
for pipeline infrastructure reliability, December.
Dr Roger King has over 30 years experience of corrosion

in the oil and gas, civil, and nuclear industries. He has
In the second and third papers of this series, to be published in the first two issues of the
Journal of Pipeline Engineering in 2008, Dr King looks at microbiologically-induced corrosion
and biofilm interactions (first-quarter issue), followed by microbiologically-induced corrosion
in the oil industry and the impact of mitigation programmes (second-quarter issue).
4th Quarter, 2007
231
Oil and gas pipelines:

environmental and social impact
assessment
by Dr Robert Goodland
Consultant, McLean, VA, USA
HIS PAPER outlines how to ensure that the worst social and environmental impacts of a pipeline in a
developing country are prevented, and that the remaining impacts are mitigated. The impacts of
pipelines inherently can and should be minor. The main way to ensure that the impacts are indeed minimized
is to optimize the routeing from the very earliest design phase. All no-go and other sensitive areas must
be prudently by-passed (Box 3 - p235). The pipeline route, and its construction roads, also needs to bypass as many dwellings, villages, and settlements as possible. Once the optimal routeing is selected in broad
terms, most of the impacts will have been avoided up front.
The need for a pipeline
imprudent pipelines could have been made acceptable had

PoEs been used.
The proponent should carefully weigh the alternatives,

such as tanker trucks, tanker ships, rail, export of electricity
and so on before deciding that in this case the pipeline
option is the best. The proponents in-house environmental
and social unit (ESU) needs to be fully integrated into this
decision.
Screening by the ESU

and the PoE
The proponents environmental

and social unit selects a PoE
Once the proponent has decided to examine the feasibility
of a pipeline, the environmental and social unit should
engage an independent and reputable Panel of Experts
(PoE), or an external environmental and social steering
committee (see Annex, p 240). The main function of this
panel is support the social and environmental unit with the
selection process for the most appropriate team to undertake
the social and environmental assessment. The PoE is
emphasized here because it is a best practice that is only
now catching on. It is a low-cost insurance policy that the
project design gets off to a reliable start. A PoE also is
emphasized because most recent examples of damaging

email: rbtgoodland@aol.com
This article was first published in Oil, Gas & Energy Law Intelligence
(OGEL) in November, 2006 see www.gasandoil.com/ogel.
Screening is the first step of learning a bit about the project

and what likely impacts may occur. In the case of the
environmental and social impact assessment (ESIA),
screening means assigning the project to one of three
categories: A, B or C. Category A needs a full-blown ESIA,
because it may have major impacts, may impact vulnerable
ethnic minorities, may cause significant displacement of
humans, or impact on a valuable habitat. Category B
projects dont have major impacts; these are relatively
modest and of the kind that have been reduced to
acceptability in previous similar cases. Category C projects
dont impose substantial impacts: building a schoolroom
in a village or providing a number of wells for a village are
examples.
Normally, such screening can be done by the proponents
in-house environmental-social unit in cooperation with
the PoE. If the project is a Category A, the PoE is firmedup, and the disciplinary balance of the panel is adjusted
after the screening process. If the project is Categories B or
C, the PoE disbands as it is no longer needed.
A key decision at the Category A screening is to keep the
ESIA as a single activity. Several pipelines recently have
232
Oil vs gas pipelines

The impacts of building either type of pipeline are,
of course, similar. What the pipeline transports
matters greatly. Oil pipelines impose more severe
risks than do gas pipelines. Oil spills and leaks are
normally more damaging than gas releases. From a
greenhouse gas point of view, burning oil releases
substantially more GHG than does gas. Gas emits
only half the GHG that coal emits per kilowatthour. However, ageing gas pipelines leak significantly
and methane (the main component of most natural
gas) is 23 times more forcing of climate change than
is carbon dioxide. To the extent that gas pipelines
defer coal use, then they can be beneficial. Best
practice is to reduce the risks of spills and leakages
by better engineering and preventive measures,
together with rapid response to oil-spill clean-up.
Terrestrial vs marine
pipelines
The impacts of terrestrial pipelines are the main
focus of this paper. Marine impacts are significantly
different to such an extent that there is a case in
having specialized marine and coastal teams
undertaking the assessment of marine pipelines.
Marine pipelines impose less social impact, but this
can still be significant especially on artisanal fishing
and coastal residents.
been divided into two or three segments on which ESIAs

have been performed by different teams. The BTC pipeline
and Perus Camisea are examples where several ESIAs were
undertaken, with the result that precautions differ markedly
and the whole is riskier than it need have been. Splitting
ESIAs weakens the overall process and makes the result less
reliable. There may be exceptions, such as when a pipeline
ends at a new refinery or a new marine port.
ESU and PoE select

the ESIA team
The experience and quality of the ESIA that is finally
accepted is critical. If a second-best or inexperienced team
is selected, it will cost much more in the end, and will often
lead to major problems when the ESIA has been completed.
Unfortunately, there are too many ESIA contractors who
produce bland ESIAs in what is called Greenwash. Such
ESIA reports downplay the impacts and can lead the
proponent into expensive post hoc design changes. It is
clearly in the interests of the proponent to engage a truly-
independent ESIA team, less beholden to the proponent.

ESIA teams must be totally honest and frank, even though
bad news may not thrill the proponent. It will save enormous
amounts of money in the future. For example,
environmental deficiencies have led to additional $20
billion costs in the case of Sakhalin II. The ESIAs of
Sakhalin and the BTC pipelines are opaque in provenance,
and they appear to have been undertaken by the proponent
which is a grave error. Unless the independent ESIA team
is prepared to sign and accept responsibility for its ESIA
work, it should not be engaged. If an ESIA team does not
sign its work, one must ask why not. Did the proponent
alter the draft ESIA so much that the original team can no
longer support it? Is the ESIA-preparing team not proud of
its own professionalism?
Requests for ESIA services are published, and some details
about the proposed project should be included in the
request for these services. Characteristics especially sought
are also specified, such as language skills, experience in the
country or region, experience in similar ecosystems,
experience in this sector, track record of producing reliable,
independent, and frank ESIA reports. The bids that are
received are then ranked by the in-house unit with the
support of the PoE, starting with the most appropriate. The
bids that are at the lower end of the ranking are rejected.
The top three ESIA team leaders may be invited to offer a
presentation of their skills and experience to the in-house
ESIA unit and the PoE. Eventually, the best ESIA team is
contracted.
ESIA team and PoE:

complete scoping
The first task of the ESIA team is to undertake the scoping
phase of the project. The PoE should assist at the start of the
scoping phase and should check when most of the scoping
has been completed. Scoping sets boundaries for the ESIA
and usually ends in detailed terms of reference for the
ESIA, and in particular which disciplines will be needed.
The scoping phase is designed to foster meaningful
participation with all potentially-affected stakeholders;
scoping is essentially a listening phase which actively seeks
the views of all who want to contribute their views. The
scoping phase consults widely with all potential stakeholders,
including the proponent, governmental counterparts, the
in-house ESIA unit, civil society, academics, and especially
potentially-affected groups. In fact, stakeholder
identification can be a valuable exercise. Scoping is the de
facto start of attaining free, prior, and informed consent of
the impacted people. The impacted people must first learn
as much about the project as the ESDA team does.
Standard practice nowadays is that the ESIA must contain,
as a minimum, an assessment of the environmental, social,
cultural, health and gender impacts and risks, prevention
4th Quarter, 2007
of the most severe impacts identified, and a feasible and

financed programme to mitigate the remainder. There are
some grey areas. For example, erosion control in cuts and
slopes near the pipeline are best handles by the engineering
and construction team. Water and wetland crossings, and
the location of shut-off valves in oil pipelines either side of
the crossing, are best carried out jointly by engineering and
environmental specialists. Lining the pipe prudently inside
and out, brine reductions, corrosion control, cathodic
protection and so on should be left to the engineering
teams.
Impacts on indigenous peoples have to be assessed by
anthropologists experienced in the culture. Birley (1995,
233
1998, 2004), Kemm et al. (2004), and WHO (2001) have

compiled useful materials on how to carry out reliable
health impact assessment. Gender impacts can be the most
serious of all impacts of pipelines (CEE Watch and
GenderAction 2006).
Scoping ensures that all relevant issues are focused on and
time is not wasted on concerns that are misplaced. It takes
up all opinions and concerns to begin with, and then
focuses on the most-relevant impacts while dropping the
irrelevant ones. The scoping phase compiles a long list of
topics, issues, concerns, potential impacts, and warnings
from the wide range of stakeholders consulted, including
the experience of the in-house ESIA unit, the ESIA team
Example: Shells Sakhalin II pipeline

by Doug Norlen
Policy Director, Pacific Environment www.pacificenvironment.org
Russia is clamping down on Sakhalin IIs environmental impacts. Shells $20-billion Sakhalin II is the largest
integrated oil and gas project in the world, and is now 80% built. The Ministry of Natural Resources annulled the
2003 Environmental Expert Review on 25 September, 2006, for non-compliance, major environmental
breaches and criminal violation of the Zubrovy Nature Preserve, noting that environmental damage could total
$50 billion. There had been mass deaths of fish and crab, and methylene dichloride with lube oil was spilled in
Aniva Bay, source of much of Japans sea food. The Natural Resources Minister said (on 28 September, 2006) that
the whole project would be halted if environmental guarantees were not provided. Shell has suspended work on
several stretches of the pipeline.
Russia may want out of an outmoded PSA negotiated just after the Soviet Union collapsed when oil prices were
a fraction of those of today. According to PSA expert, Dr Ian Rutledge, the Sakhalin II PSA is grossly unfavourable
to the Russian side, with no annual cost caps and other features that keep Russia from receiving 45% more
economic rent than had a normal PSA been agreed. But a deal is a deal, says Shell.
Yet, a deal is a deal for Russia, too. So, when Shell announced in 2004 that the project had suddenly experienced
a staggering $10 billion (100%) cost overrun, Russia understandably began to doubt the oil giants sincerity in
holding up its end of the agreement. That the overrun was suddenly announced just days after an initial agreement
on Gazproms project share soured relations even worse.
Making matters worse for Shell, many of these environmental violations have also been independently documented
by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), which is considering financing the project;
a lynchpin decision for around $5 billion to $7 billion in financing from Export Credit Agencies (ECAs) and
private banks. The fact that the big-oil friendly EBRD has delayed its environmental approvals for several years due
to related concerns undermines claims that these violations were invented from thin air.
To environmental groups shock, EBRD management has recently been seen as caving-in to Shell, and seemed
ready to finance Sakhalin II while acknowledging that the project severely derogates from its policies. The Russian
Federations recent environmental enforcement actions brought this regress to a quick halt, since EBRD simply
cannot fund projects that host countries say violates their laws. That, in turn, effectively blocks the rest of the $57 billion in external financing.
Shell needs public financing from EBRD and ECAs not for the money per se. Rather, it needs the kind of political
insurance that comes from having a loan backed by many of the worlds most powerful nations. But no deal was
ever reached with these banks. With environmental permits being revoked and the potential for indefinite delay
in product delivery, approaching those banks now must seem to Shell like trying to buy automobile insurance for
a car that is already wrecked.
234
members, and the PoE. The ESIA team then transparently

ranks the long list of concerns and topics thus obtained.
The topics low down the ranking that, in the professional
judgment of the ESIA team, are not germane to the project,
or insignificant, or are misconceptions, or belong elsewhere
than in the ESIA process, are removed from the shorter
residual list. The reasons why each specific topic is taken off
the residual list must be spelled out in adequate detail and
discussed with the stakeholders again. The rationale for
dropping some concerns is an important part of the scoping
document.
such sites a wide berth. There are many programs that can
be used to optimize such routeings: more important than
which methods are used is the policy decision to avoid
settlements, habitats, and other very-high-impact sites.
Reduce RoW width

The ROW needs to be as narrow as feasible with wider
equipment marshalling yards at intervals. Many pipelines
nowadays can be constructed with a 15-m RoW width,
given the political will to reduce impacts.
Once the long ranked list has been winnowed down to Reduce construction road length and width
impacts which, there is general agreement, could be
significant, and once there is agreement for dropping the All access, construction and maintenance roads should
concerns judged not to be relevant in this case, the scoping first be minimized in length, and sometimes this is best
phase is complete. The scoping phase document is widely done by using existing roads. If this method is adopted, care
must be taken to minimize traffic impacts
circulated, especially to all contributing
on humans near the existing road.
stakeholders, and discussed. The main
Participation and
results of the scoping process are
meaningful
Normally, if an existing road is to be used
agreement on what potential impacts
consultation with the
for pipeline construction, it should be
merit detailed assessment and which
scoping process by all
upgraded to accommodate heavy trucks.
concerns need not be addressed further.
stakeholders, including
Blacktopping is a partial benefit for the
The scoping phase agrees on the area of
civil society, is a tacit
people living along the road unless their
potential impacts (often a series of maps)
agreement that if the
dwellings are actually adjacent to the
showing where the impacts may occur.
impacts identified
road. Best practice is to reduce the length
The watersheds and airsheds of the
during scoping are
of construction roads by using helicopters
project and all ancillary features are
minimized, then the
or airships to the fullest extent possible.
included in the area of potential impacts,
likelihood of achieving
If construction roads are to be deactivated
especially construction and access roads
planning consent on the
after the pipeline has been built, and
and transportation systems, quarries,
full ESIA document is
maintenance carried out by helicopter,
borrow pits, construction and other
the temporary impacts, and those
camps, and villages supplying workers to
associated with decommissioning and
the project.
restoration of the roads, are taken into
As the scoping document shows which features, activities, account during the ESIA.
and sites are agreed to be relevant and which are not, this
is the start of the ESIA itself. When the scoping is nearing Deactivate roads and bridges
completion, the disciplinary composition and schedules of
the ESIA team may have to be adjusted to address the A firm policy on deactivation and restoration of construction
roads and bridges is needed from the start. Now that
concerns agreed upon during scoping.
helicopters are becoming more frequently used most, if not
all, maintenance can be done from carefully-located helipads.
The impacts of high volumes of traffic, heavy trucks, both
The design of the ESIA
loaded and empty, pounding along formerly bucolic country
The agreed-on scoping document is essentially the design by-ways can be severe. Old dwellings, often made of wattle
of the full ESIA process. The scoping document shows and daub, may be located near the edge of the dirt road bed,
which impacts are to be thoroughly assessed, prevented by and heavy truck traffic exacerbates wall cracking in such
design changes, or minimized to acceptability, and for houses. The best solution is to re-route the construction
road. The second best is the repair of such houses, or
which reliable mitigation must be designed.
payment of fair compensation. The worst reaction to such
complaints is to send in lawyers to dispute the cracks.
The paramountcy of routeing
The most important decision at this stage is routeing, both
of the pipeline right-of-way (RoW) and of the construction
and access roads. The ESIA team obtains the best maps and
images of the area and consults government and other
planners on the location of human settlements and natural
habitats and other no-go zones. The best pipelines give
Watercourses and wells can similarly be damaged by

construction roads and traffic.
Water crossings
The policy to pull and push the pipe underneath rivers,
4th Quarter, 2007
235
Definitions of no-go and other sensitive areas:

to be avoided by pipeline projects to the fullest extent possible
Human settlements: dwellings, villages and other settlements are no-go areas because displacement of humans or
involuntary resettlement historically has led to impoverishment, the opposite of the main goal of development.
The concerns of potentially-affected people are paramount and need to be addressed before or at the same time
as the other no-go criteria.
Vulnerable ethnic minorities: areas used by vulnerable ethnic minorities or indigenous peoples are no-go to
pipelines and their roads.
Rich biodiversity: critical natural habitats are no-go areas. They include:
Protected areas (such as UN World Heritage sites, UN Biosphere Reserves, Natura 2000 sites in Europe,
Ramsar Convention sites).
Areas meeting IUCNs categories I-VI, and marine categories I-V (such as fishing or fish-breeding reserves).
Proposed protected areas (as designated in ecoregion action proposals, regional assessments or land-use
plans).
Areas recognized as protected.
Areas maintaining conditions vital for protected areas (watersheds, buffer zones).
Areas on supplementary lists or as determined by the nations biodiversity guardians.
Areas highly suitable for biodiversity conservation (meaning that areas in which biodiversity is unknown
need to be assessed before they can be categorized).
Areas critical for rare, vulnerable, migratory or endangered species.
Cultural property: this refers mainly to archaeological, religious, and historic sites. The national museums of
history and archaeology maintain lists and maps of such sites. Aesthetic sites and beauty spots also should be
avoided.
If displacement is guaranteed to be successful (those displaced becoming promptly better off after their move), then
it would become admissible. If biodiversity is better-off by means of financing compensatory offsets in perpetuity,
then such sites may be useable. Pipeline proponents should follow international best practice such as the World
Banks Environmental and Social Safeguard Policies. The World Conservation Congress Resolution (No 2.82,
IUCN, held in Amman, October 2000), and the UN Biodiversity Convention can be used to foster improvements
in conservation by the extractive sector. Proponents can be guided by WWFs detailed guideline To dig or not to dig
(Dudley & Stolton, 2001). The UNs Convention on Biological Diversity and the Akwe Kon Guidelines also
provide a framework for linking extractive industries with sustainable development and with improved conservation.
streams, and other watercourses also is improving.

Temporary dams across watercourses can be very damaging
for long after the dam has been removed. Best practice is to
place block valves either side of the water body (see the
Chad-Cameroon box).
Above-ground vs buried pipelines

The decision on whether to bury the pipeline underground
is becoming more routine; the above-ground method is far
more vulnerable to disruption.
Greenhouse gas accounting

Best practice would be to transparently account for all
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from construction
(including diesel fuel, cement manufacture), leakages, and

consuming the oil or gas after transport. While this is not
yet mandatory, it is likely to start to influence financing
decisions as climate change intensifies. Gas pipeline leakages,
especially in ageing pipelines, contributes significantly to
GHG emissions. This needs to be addressed during
operation.
Public participation on
scoping and design
As the scoping phase ends, the people consulted must have
seen that their concerns have all be conscientiously addressed
and resolved for the best. The feeling of having been
236
Example: the Chad-Cameroon oil pipeline (CCP)

by Alan M Dransfield
Former CCP consultant and UK representative for Global Network for Good Governance (GNGG)
alanmdransfield@tiscali.co.uk
There is compelling evidence on file and in the field that the CCP is unsafe and illegal, and offers life-threatening
dangers to the public along the entire 1070km route. The irregularities are detailed in the files of the World Banks
Inspection Panel, the International Advisory Group, and the External Compliance Monitoring Group. Four
major concerns are:
Main line block valves (MLBV): ExxonMobil, World Bank, and other investors purport that the MLBVs
have been installed in strategic locations including both sides of the 25 major rivers traversed. This is
factually incorrect. The MLBVs, which are paramount for safety and environment, have been installed at
35-75km random locations and on one side only of the major rivers. The initial 120km from Chad contains
zero MLBVs.
Area-specific oil-spill response plans (ASOSRP): The oversight authorities claim the ASOSRP are an
integral part of the National Oil Spill Response Plan. This is factually incorrect because the ASOSRPs that
have been compiled in-house are not available in the public domain.
Project management capacity procedures (PMCP): The primary aim of the PMCP is to ensure accountability
and transparency of public funds and oil revenues. Perusal of project reports confirms the mandatory
PMCPs are not yet in place.
Drinking water resources: Drinking water resources along the entire 1070km route have been polluted.
Owing to the MLBV and ASOSRP irregularities, the drinking water resources are under significant threat
from oil pollution. These claims can be verified by a simple ocular inspection of the pipeline route and
reference to the World Bank project reports.
meaningfully consulted and the realization that their

suggestions have led to an improved design, are major steps
in earning planning consent.
All stakeholders should be invited to contribute to the
decisions above, in particular to the tentative decision on
routeing. Local people that may have lived in a particular
site are valuable sources of information, such as on landslips
and flooding frequencies. They can suggest cost-free minideviations which can avoid substantial costs for the future.
Participation and meaningful consultation with the scoping
process by all stakeholders, including civil society, is a tacit
agreement that if the impacts identified during scoping are
minimized, then the likelihood of achieving planning
consent on the full ESIA document is improved.
ESIA process begins:

impact assessment
Preventive measures by design modifications
As soon as there is general agreement on scoping, the full
ESIA team begins assessing all significant impacts. As the
assessment proceeds, the ESIA team interacts systematically

with the feasibility and engineering design teams. Such cooperation between the design teams can lead to many costfree design modifications during the often two years of
feasibility and design.
Mitigation measures designed

When the social and environmental impacts have been
assessed, and co-operation with the engineering design
teams has achieved as much prevention as possible, the
ESIA process then designs mitigatory measures for those
residual impacts that cannot be prevented. The mitigatory
measures usually form a separate section of the ESIA, often
called the Environmental Mitigation Plan (EMP), which
becomes the most important section of the ESIA. In
addition to specifying how unpreventable impacts are to be
mitigated, the EMP is fully integrated into the overall
project budget so that the mitigation is fully financed.
Institutional capacity strengthening is usually necessary to
ensure that the proponent or responsible agencies are
capable of carrying out the mitigation plan throughout the
construction and operation periods of the pipeline.
The main sites to be strengthened are, first, the proponents
4th Quarter, 2007
237
in-house environmental and social unit, including health

and safety. Second, the governments environmental and
social units (for example, the Ministry of Environment)
usually has a standards setting, monitoring, and regulatory
role, which will be called upon by the needs of the new
pipeline. The sector ministry governing pipelines in general,
such as the Ministry of Energy, Petroleum, or Hydrocarbons,
has its own environmental and social unit which must be
strengthened to accommodate the needs of the new pipeline.
during the construction of the pipeline. The in-house ESU

is responsible for ensuring that the mitigation plan is
conscientiously implemented by all parties, such as the
Ministry of Environment, the environmental and social
unit in the Ministry of Energy and Hydrocarbons. Some
implementation occurs during operation of the pipeline.
PoE inspects during

construction and operation
First draft ESIA:

public participation
The panel of experts supports the in-house ESU during

construction and operation of the pipeline, and this usually
takes the form of two inspections or so per year during
As soon as the first draft ESIA is ready it should be construction, and less than that during operation. During
discussed in detail with stakeholders, especially potentially- construction, the PoE checks that the environmental and
affected parties. Stakeholder views should
social mitigation plan is being well
be recorded and taken into account when
implemented, and the PoE advises the
the ESIA is revised. Most discussion
ESU about any special problems that
Experience shows that if
should focus on the environmental and
have arisen. The PoE checks that the
the start of
social mitigation plan. The most relevant
complaint or grievance mechanisms are
environmental and
questions will be: are the mitigation
functioning properly, and make itself
social work is not fully
measures proposed in the EMP adequate?
available to receive complaints. An
reliable, the project will
Is the budget sufficient to pay for
important function of the PoE at this
attract problems, major
implementation of the mitigation plan?
stage is to ensure that institutional
expenses and
Is there adequate institutional capacity
capacity is adequate, that effective
controversy. A deficient
to implement the mitigation plan?
training programmes are being carried
start to the
out, and that the ESU is functioning
environmental and
well.
Consent of
stakeholders
social precautions is
very expensive to
retrofit after feasibility.
When stakeholders, especially the

potentially-affected people, agree that the
mitigation measures specified in the ESIA are adequate,
that the institutional capacity is strong enough to implement
the mitigation, and that the budget is sufficient, then they
are likely to provide consent. Such free, prior, and fullyinformed consent (FPIC) marks the end of the preconstruction ESIA phase. After consultation and
participation on the draft ESIA has been reflected in the
revised ESIA team, the ESIA becomes the main document
for implementation of the mitigation plan. The ESIA team
signs the ESIA; any ESIA team unwilling to sign its ESIA
is suspect. (Note how difficult it is to find out what team
produced the Sakhalin II pipelines ESIA. That turned out
to be so shoddy that several million dollars of extra costs
had to be added during construction.)
Pipeline construction and

mitigation begin
As soon as the ESIA has been finalized and consent has
been achieved, implementation of the mitigation plan
begins. Most implementation of the mitigation plan occurs
Decommissioning,
restoration, and
rehabilitation
While the ESIA normally outlines decommissioning,

rehabilitation, and restoration policies and source of the
budget (such as performance bonds, insurance) to carry out
such activities, when the time comes, the details of the
decommissioning are designed under the direction of the
proponents ESU, and are checked by the PoE.
Conclusion
The process of social and environmental assessment contains
many checks and balances to ensure that the pipeline goes
ahead smoothly with minimal impacts and full mitigation.
The key to a successful pipeline, and the way to ensure best
practice and how to minimize risks and delays, is to
implement the social and environmental assessment process
adequately. The main ways to success, outlined above,
include starting with a professional in-house ESU, arranging
for an experienced panel, and the selection of a reputable
ESIA team. Thus most measures leading to a successful
pipeline are front-loaded; they occur early in the project
cycle, starting at the pre-feasibility stage.
238
Experience shows that if the start of environmental and

social work is not fully reliable, the project will attract
problems, major expenses and controversy. A deficient
start to the environmental and social precautions is very
expensive to retrofit after feasibility.
Starting the environmental and social precautions as
outlined above practically guarantees that problems will be
prevented, that stakeholders will be satisfied, and the
pipeline will be built on time and on budget.
Abbreviations and acronyms

in general use
ADB African Development Bank
ALARP As low as reasonably practicable
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
BAT best available technology
CLC Civil Liability Convention, 1992 and the
Compensation Fund IOPC
CO2 Carbon dioxide, the main anthropic greenhouse
gas
EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and
Development
EIA Environmental impact assessment, now often EA
EIR Extractive Industry Review [of the World Bank
Groups oil, gas and mining portfolio] eireview.org
EITI Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative
EMP Environmental management plan, an integral
part of ESIA which operationalizes the
recommendations of the ESIA, and specifies how
the ESIA will be implemented
EMS Environmental management system, designed to
manage the corporations processes and
environmental results; not part of the ESIA
ESIA Environmental and social assessment, the current
preferred term
ESHIA Environmental, social and health assessment,
the most complete term
ESU Environmental and social unit
FIPOL Les Fonds internationaux dindemnisation pour
les dommages dus la pollution par les
hydrocarbures, see IOPC
FOC Flag of convenience
FSO Floating storage and offloading system
FPSO Floating production, storage and offloading vessel
FPS Floating production system
FSU Floating storage unit
GHG Greenhouse gas, mainly carbon dioxide from
burning hydrocarbons, causing climate change
GDP Gross domestic product
GEF Global Environment Facility (UNEP, UNDP,
World Bank)
HIA Health impact assessment, an integral part of ESIA
HSE Health, safety and environment
H2S Hydrogen sulphide
IAIA International Association for Impact Assessment
IMO International Maritime Organization

IUCN International Union for the Conservation of
Nature
IOPC International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds
(IOPC Funds)
MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention
of Pollution from Ships
MMSD Minerals, Mining and Sustainable Development
(of IIED)
OBM Oil-based muds
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development
OSPAR The Oslo and Paris Commission and
Convention for the Protection of the Marine
Environment of the North-East Atlantic
www.ospar.org
and
www.offshoreenvironment.com/ospar
OSRL Oil Spill Response Ltd, Southampton, UK
PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
PFW Produced and formation water, usually hypersaline
water accompanying produced oil, always tainted
with oil residues
PoE panel of experts
POLMAR Pollution Marine (www.polmar.com) the
French governments oil-spill response procedures
PSA Production-sharing agreement
PSC Production-sharing contract
SBM Synthetic-based muds
SEA Strategic environmental assessment of a programme
or sector, not of a project
SIA Social impact assessment, an integral part of ESIA
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development
VOC Volatile organic compounds
WBM Water-based muds
WWF World Wildlife Fund
The author
Dr Robert Goodland combines the roles of environmental
scientist, ecologist, and tropical ecologist, and specializes in
social and environmental assessments and sustainable
development. His PhD is in environmental sciences from
McGill University, Montreal, Canada, where he also was
awarded a BSc Hons in biology and an MSc in environmental
sciences.
Among his many and renowned activities, he has served on
the following recent pipeline projects:
2006 Canada: Mackenzie Valley gas pipeline (Imperial,
Shell, Conoco-Phillips): JRP/WWF
2003 Peru: Camisea gas pipeline
2003 Ecuador: crude oil pipeline
2003 Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline, MER
Commission Panel
2002 Venezuela gas pipeline: ESIA design and PoE
4th Quarter, 2007
He retired as a group adviser environment for the World

Bank in 2001, a role he had undertaken since 1990. Prior
to this, from 1986-1990 he was chief of the Environment
and Social Division, Latin America, for the World Bank,
and from 1978-1986 he was head of the EA Unit at the
Office of Environment Affairs, World Bank.
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240
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manual of quick, accurate solutions to everyday pipeline
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Annex
Panels of environmental and

social experts: generic guidelines
Introduction:
The mandate for PoEs
PoEs have become best practice throughout the industry
and are mandated by international policies such as the
Environmental Assessment (EA) Operational Directive
(OD) 4.01 Environmental Assessment of the World Bank1.
The focus nowadays is getting the PoEs started at the most
effective time and not waiting until a pipeline becomes
mired in controversy such as in the case of the Sakhalin II
pipeline.
Terms of reference
General
This is the first attempt at drafting generic terms of reference
(ToR) for such panels, although they have been mandated
since the late 1980s. The ToR need to provide acknowledged
experts the opportunity to examine anything they deem
necessary. The ToR should be a facilitation document to
legitimize what the proponent and experts want to do. In
general, the ToR should routinely include all the issues that
should be dealt with in environmental assessment, risk
assessment, social assessments, and health impact
assessments. ToRs can include the tables of contents of
social assessments/EA/health assessments, or annex them.
While it is desirable that the responsible project agency

craft ToR for the panel before each mission, it must be
clearly established that as an independent panel of experts,
it not only must be able to look into any issues deemed
important by the sponsor, but need not justify such
examination. Panels occasionally had problems with
sponsors attempting to restrict PoE activities (such as in the
Chad-Cameroon project see box). Independence and
capacity to look into any and all issues should be clearly
stated in ToRs for such panels.
The balance between independent advisers

and consultants
The expert panel is to be an independent advisor, rather
than a consultant or provider of technical assistance to the
client. PoEs often provide valuable technical assistance,
but this is not their primary role. IFIs and civil society view
the panel as an independent body. In several countries,
under EA process regulations, such panels are being used
as part of a transparent public consultation and EA review
process. This may or may not be what IFIs wishes to
connote; however, it must deal with civil societys
expectations. The bank and project proponent must also
decide what it wants the panel to achieve in relation to the
banks operational directives and institutional strengthening
needs.
Selection of experts
1. The borrower should normally engage an advisory panel of
independent, internationally-recognized, environmental specialists to
advise on (a) the terms of reference for the EA, (b) key issues and
methods for preparing the EA, (c) recommendations and findings of the
EA, (d) implementation of the EAs recommendations, and (e)
development of environmental management capacity in the
implementing agency.
PoE members should be senior professionals and

undisputed leaders in their fields, with several decades of
relevant experience. Specific experience is critical. It has to
be fairly recent and it has to be appropriate to the sector or
type of project being examined. A world-class dam expert
4th Quarter, 2007
may not have kept up with the latest technology in pipeline

technology, for example. PoEs are too expensive to permit
steep learning curves. If the PoE does not provide clear
value-added, it was not appropriately selected. Based on
this leadership and experience, panel members should
have individual scientific reputations built up over the
years.
241
issue of the project, tropical rain forest for example. One

environmentalist should have a long successful track record
in the sector of the project, in the environmental impact of
pipelines, for example. Most tropical projects, especially in
Africa involving water (or transport re AIDS), normally will
need a public health panel member.
The PoE has the specific prerogative, as do the project

The reputation aspect is important in order to resolve sponsors, to co-opt additional members to deal with issues
judgmental and qualitative disagreements with clients, in which the panel has insufficient expertise. The proponent
proponents, and civil society. Panel members differ from must ensure that the panel has institutional legitimacy, the
project staff in that the latter are more beholden to their panel must have the contractual ability, including necessary
employers and may be more biased. The names, addresses resources, to be continuous in its work, including the
and affiliations of panel members should be appended to necessary administrative support, and ability to meet to
their reports. Panel members have to be frank, and will discuss its work plans, strategies, and needs of the client
protect their scientific reputations as they know critics will agencies. It must not be expected to live from one small
argue with them. Panel members put their reputations for (once-off) contract to the next, dependent on clients who
may not understand its purpose and
scientific integrity and independence on
therefore legitimacy. As far as is feasible,
the line in drafting and signing their
the panel must be immune from changes
reports, and need to be able to stand up
Panel members have to
in its client representative, such as changes
to clients in the face of negative findings.
be frank, and will
in government, or at least have the means
protect their scientific
to re-educate the client each time there is
Regular consultants may tend to sanitize
reputations as they
a change.
their findings in order to keep on being
know critics will argue
hired. Panel members should prefer to
with them. Panel
The ToR also must provide for adequate
be frank and straightforward and should
members put their
notice of requests for meetings with its
not depend so much on re-hiring.
reputations for
clients, allowing time for integration with
scientific integrity and
existing commitments, obtaining visas,
Candidates need to be carefully sought,
independence on the
and other necessary preparatory work.
as they are not common. Former
line in drafting and
professional ministers of environment
signing their reports
Some pipeline proponents cannot be
are one source; distinguished professors
expected to know who are internationallyemeriti, and former heads of
recognized experts on issues relevant to
environmental organizations, are other
the project under consideration. In such
good sources. The scientific author on
the most valuable monograph on the ecosystem surrounding cases, the recruitment procedure will submit to the sponsor
the project area would be a good candidate. Theoreticians a short list from which the project authorities can select.
may not always be the most pragmatic candidates. Seasoned
practitioners make much better candidates than The selection process needs be transparent and systematic
theoreticians. Colleagues already in the field usually know in the sense of allowing potentially-affected people, civil
the top people in their professions. Balance is important society, and stakeholders in general to suggest candidates.
between retired development or government officials and All members must attempt to be as objective as possible.
civil society members.
Procedures for panel selection need to be codified and
Panel membership need be able to cover the major issues transparent. Competitive bidding is being contemplated.
that are covered by state-of-the-art environmental, social, While this may be feasible, it does not address the issues of
and health assessments. A panel is defined as three or more transparency and independence. Competitive bidding could
members, with three the minimum. Panellists should work reduce an expert panel to a commercial arrangement. It
together as a team and visit the project simultaneously. would appear that the international community is less
Continuity is important to detect trends, so best efforts likely to accept an expert panels advice if it is hired by a
must be sought to arrange for the same members to serve competitive bidding process rather than appointed on
merit and reputation.
through the years.
In practical terms, a panel is often composed of two
environmentalists, two social scientists, and a public health
specialist. The social scientists should be selected depending
on the main issues of the project, such as an indigenous
people specialist, and a resettlement specialist. The two
environmentalists are selected depending on the main
Payment to the panel

Panels must be paid commensurate with their international
reputations and experience. Panellists are usually very
senior experienced leaders in their professional fields. It is
242
difficult to specify fees as many professionals have their

own and different fee scales. This is a starting point if
candidates from Japan and Europe are to be enticed. The
ToR should agree on payment levels and schedules, and
should include remedies for failure by any party, including
penalties for tardiness of report delivery or payment.
should be added as an attachment to the final report along

with the panels response.
Host country representation on

the PoE
The IFI then should have about 30 days to respond, at least

with a no objection for the PoE report to be made public
documents by the sponsor. If the sponsor prefers that the
IFI disseminates PoE reports, that is acceptable.
Should panels include at least one host country national?

There are advantages and disadvantages, hence no
doctrinaire position. Well-qualified national panellists are
better than an equivalent foreigner. The advantage clearly
is local knowledge; the major disadvantages are possible
conflicts of interest and constraints on being frank. A
useful compromise is for the sponsors to add one or two
distinguished nationals to be counterparts of the panel.
National counterparts to the panel can help keep it informed
of important issues between missions; they can follow-up
on implementation, and can disseminate reports. A
technical counterpart committee is the solution successfully
adopted by some countries. Having one panellist supported
by the affected people can be very powerful, but their
selection would be equally tricky, although not insuperable.
PoE starting date

PoEs should be established immediately after project
identification, or as soon as options assessment has decided
on a specific project, but well before the design has begun.
There is great advantage in creating a panel when engineering
pre-feasibility starts even if a specific project has not yet
been identified.
Reporting responsibility
The panels primary reporting responsibility should be to
its financiers. Increasingly, the projects private-sector
sponsor engages the PoE. Private sector sponsors differ
greatly in their handling of environmental and social
precautions. The reporting should be directed at the
Ministerial level. The PoE often has its final wrap-up
meetings with the Minister. The proponents environmental
director normally accompanies the PoE during the
inspection, as this is such a valuable learning experience for
the director
Dissemination of PoE reports

All PoE reports following panel missions must become
public documents once project authorities have had a
reasonable time to comment. If the panel wants to reject
such comments, that is its prerogative; however, they
The ToR need to specify that panel reports are to be sent by

the project sponsor to the IFI together with the sponsors
comments 30-60 days after receipt of the PoE report by the
sponsor.
If the project sponsors cannot respond in that time, it

might suggest that they do not take the panels reports
seriously enough. Silence is consent: lack of comment after
the agreed-on period should be taken as assent, and the
report enters the public domain. Should the project
authorities request assistance on a confidential basis on
issues that the panel does not believe must be included in
its public report, then that is an issue for the panel and the
project authorities to negotiate.
Although the PoE reports should enter the public domain
eventually, this does not mean the PoE is an advocacy
group. Normally, the PoE should not meet the press, nor
divulge its findings during its inspections. It reports to its
clients alone. Later, if the client or IFI has no objection, or
if the PoE feels so compelled, it will follow its professional
judgments in answering queries.
PoE frequency
Frequency of visits should be commensurate with needs
and activity on the project. The PoE has a major role during
the early design phase. Quality of project design before
implementation and construction begin is a major
determinant of subsequent success.
As a minimum, the PoE should be involved with the
scoping and screening of the social and environmental
assessment (SA/EA). The PoE should accompany the 1-2
year preparation of the SA/EA such that it fully meets best
practice when it is ready.
During construction, the PoE needs to ensure the
recommendations of the SA/EA are adequately fulfilled.
Thus visit frequency should be kept flexible. During
preparation, monthly visits may be needed. Once
construction starts, two annual visits (at six-month intervals)
make sense. Mixing wet-season and dry-season visits often
is advisable. In latter years, one visit per year may suffice. In
problem projects, the frequency is usefully increased.
PoE duration
PoEs should last as long in the project cycle (from
4th Quarter, 2007
identification, feasibility, design and construction through

operation, decommissioning and rehabilitation) as they
are needed as an insurance policy and to provide early
warning. Experts have worldwide contacts so can act on
criticisms. Experts are at the cutting edge of their field so
keep up with changes in science and technology, as well as
with emerging issues. The duration of contracts in relation
to the needs of the project or loan should be decided when
a panel is first formed, subject to agreement with the client
institution.
Panel reports role in

decision-making
The panel is a tool to increase development effectiveness.
The panels over-riding goal in improving development
243
effectiveness is ensuring that the preventive and mitigation

measures of the SA/EA are successfully implemented. The
principle is that implementation and supervision are far
more important than paper plans. This means that
mitigation measures have to be adequate during design and
should fully meet all standards of acceptability. But
implementation is the key: effective implementation is
fostered by effective capacity strengthening, combined
with good design and scrupulous monitoring.
244
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legal firms, accountants, insurers, and financiers who provide skills and services to those who own or
operate pipelines.
government agencies who regulate pipelines and provide authorizations, permits and (sometimes) finance.
international financial institutions providing debt or equity financing for projects.
A summary of each issue, together with links to the issues accompanying advertisements, is sent out
by email to GPMs database of industry contacts, currently totalling over 17,000. Among these are the
memberships of:
PRCI (the US-based Pipeline Research Council International)

IPLOCA (the Switzerland-based International Pipe Line & Offshore Contractors
Association)
PPSA (UK-based pipeline Pigging Products & Services Association)
www.globalpipelines.com
4th Quarter, 2007
245
Black powder in sales-gas

transmission pipelines
by MuhammadAli M Trabulsi
General Manager, Pipelines Department, Saudi Aramco, Dharan, Saudi Arabia
LACK POWDER solids are a world-wide phenomenon in sales-gas transmission pipelines. These solid
compounds can delay in-line inspection, erode control valves, and contaminate customer supply. Saudi
Aramco has developed multiple initiatives to identify black powder compound types and sources, determine
formation mechanisms, and identify removal processes. These initiatives include: (1) using advanced
mechanical cleaning tools, (2) performing basic research in identifying black powder compound types and
formation mechanism, (3) pilot testing chemical-cleaning methods, (4) planning a field test for an inertial
separator filtration system, (5) revising company standards and construction practices, and (6) assessing the
economic and technical feasibilities of installing particle filters. Before comprehensive solutions can be
formed, the following questions need to be answered: How is the black powder formed? What level of black
powder cleanliness is desired in the line?
The type of black powder in a line can be used to determine the chemical reactions that have taken place
to form it. The level of black powder cleanliness desired in the line will dictate the degree of cleaning required
to reach the specified cleanliness level (for example, mechanical cleaning only, versus chemical cleaning or
filter installation). Finally, world-wide gas quality standards do not specify a solids amount. Simply declaring
the gas to be commercially-free of solids is ambiguous and creates difficulties in designing proper facilities
to meet this ambiguous requirement. Answers to the above questions can direct the impacted operating
companies to a more-focused and effective solution. This paper discusses the history of black powder in
Saudi Aramco, its impacts, the initiatives that Saudi Aramco has taken, and what our research discovered
on how black powder is formed.
HE BLACK powder problem is a world-wide

phenomenon. Saudi Aramco has participated in several
conferences and meetings on black powder where
participating companies exchanged their experiences. From
this, Saudi Aramco has surmised that black powder is not
the same for all gas operators around the world. Most gas
operating companies state that their black powder problem
is iron sulphide while others state their problem is with
iron carbonate, iron oxides, or iron hydroxides.
Black powder history in Saudi Aramco

Saudi Aramco encountered black powder in the mid-1980s
in the operation of its gas supply network. The operational
impact from black powder was not significant enough
because of the small number of pipelines at that time. The
black powder problem increased significantly after the
tel: +966 3 874 1444
email: muhammadali.trabulsi@aramco.com
recent gas supply expansion projects constructed mainly of

48-in and 56-in diameter pipelines. As a result, the internal
surface area of sales-gas pipeline systems increased fivefold. This significant increase in surface area magnified the
black powder problem.
Black powder type

Saudi Aramco characterized, through laboratory analysis,
the black powder in sales-gas pipelines as being mainly iron
hydroxides and an iron oxide mixed with a small amount
of iron carbonate. Other gas operators have stated that
their black powder problem is either iron sulphides or iron
carbonates.
Impact on operations
Black powder has three major impacts on Saudi Aramcos
sales-gas pipeline operations:
Black powder delays in-line inspection (ILI) runs
246
Fig.1. Incidences of black powder.

and/or lowers the accuracy of the data gathered by
the ILI tools. Thus, timely revalidation of sales-gas
pipelines became an issue.
Black powder erodes control valves in as little as 45
days. Saudi Aramco has retrofitted control valves
with trims designed to resist erosion, such as solid
tungsten carbide for valve cages and tungsten carbide
inserts for valve plugs and seat rings.
Finally, black powder contaminates the customers
sales-gas supply, and they have experienced the
need for frequent replacement of cartridge filter
elements.
Saudi Aramcos initiatives

Saudi Aramco pursued multiple initiatives such as
understanding black powder formation in sales-gas pipelines
and testing methods that can remove and/or prevent its
formation. Initially, a team was formed with members from
pipeline operations and other technical departments to
investigate the problem. The work of this team has led to
the following:
Revision of standards and construction practices to
prevent black powder from being generated during
new pipeline installations. Air was no longer allowed

during the hydrotest-water drying operations, and
chemical cleaning is required in sales-gas and
product pipelines prior to commissioning to ensure
a clean pipeline prior to starting operations.
The use of advanced mechanical-cleaning tools to
physically remove black powder. The advanced
design includes bi-directional discs, brushes,
magnets, front-end jet nozzles, and supporting
wheels.
Developing contracts to pilot test three chemicalcleaning methods for pipelines. The main objectives
are to ensure that the chemical-cleaning runs can
perform the work while the pipeline is in service,
the chemical-cleaning method can remove the black
powder, and finally, qualify contractors to perform
the chemical-cleaning work. The chemical-cleaning
methods chosen are the surfactant, gel, and chelatebased chemicals.
Assessing the economic and technical feasibility of
installing particle filters at strategic locations. The
benefits of installing particle filters are the protection
of company control valves and customer supply
quality.
Cage
Fig.2. The effect of black powder on a

filter element.
4th Quarter, 2007
247
Fig.3. Black powder accumulation

at a metering station.
Saudi Aramcos Research & Development Center
performed a comprehensive study to determine
composition, sources, and how black powder is
formed and under what conditions. The research
concluded that condensed water moisture in the
presence of hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide, and
oxygen is the cause of the formation of black powder.
Saudi Aramco has recently procured an innovative
inertial separator and is planning to evaluate its
effectiveness to remove black powder. This separator
requires no cartridge filter to trap the solids, and
claims to remove up to 98% of the solids.
All of the above initiatives have been driven by the level of
cleanliness desired by Saudi Aramco. The first level of
cleanliness that can be chosen is to be able to run ILI tools
with acceptable accuracy. This level of cleanliness may not
prevent erosion of control valves and customers gas supply
contamination, especially during mechanical cleaning tool
runs or increased flow velocity. The next level of cleanliness
that Saudi Aramco chose to employ requires prevention of
the three operational impacts stated earlier due to black
powder. Namely, delay in and inaccuracy of the ILI runs,

erosion of control valves, and contamination of customer
gas supply.
Research
The Pipelines Department requested Saudi Aramcos
Research & Development Center to initiate a research
study to determine the black powder compound type,
sources, its properties, and how it is formed, and the
following areas were studied as potential sources for the
formation of black powder:
at the pipe mill
corrosion due to hydrotest procedures, and
in-service corrosion.
The research discovered that millscale formed at the pipe
mill has a different fingerprint from black powder collected
from the sales-gas pipelines (Table 1). In other words, their
compound types and concentrations were not the same,
which means that the black powder taken inside the sales-
FRONT END
JET NOZZLES
(not shown)
BI-DIRECTIONAL
DISKS
BRUSHES
SUPPORTING
WHEELS
MAGNETS
Fig.4. A typical advanced mechanical

cleaning tool.
248
Millscale compounds
Black powder
compounds
FeOOH
F eO
Fe3O4
Fe3O4
Fe2O3
FeCO3
Elemental sulphur
Table 1. Constituents of millscale and black powder

compounds.
gas pipelines is not millscale. It is well known that new pipes
from the mill are delivered to customers with millscale,
which has distinct layers of iron oxide compounds formed
on the pipe surface. Previous analyses showed the black
powder to be mainly composed of magnetite (Fe3O4) which
is also the main component of steel millscale, and this has
led to the belief that millscale is the source of black powder.
Laboratory simulation of hydrotesting did not form black
powder. The tests were done with and without millscale to
study the effects of hydrotest duration, water quality,
oxygen scavenger, and drying conditions on black powder
formation. It was during these test conditions that it was
determined that hydrotest contribution to the black powder
formation is insignificant. However, rust (Fe2O3) will form
during the water drying operation using air. This is the
reason that Saudi Aramco revised its engineering standards
and construction practices to disallow the use of air during
hydrotest-water drying operations, and to require chemical
cleaning prior to commissioning sales-gas and product
pipelines to ensure a clean line.
(7lbs/mcuft/d). At 900psi line pressure, this maximum

allowable water moisture content translates to a dewpoint
temperature of 41F. The actual measured water moisture
content in the sales-gas samples taken from the line were
all above the maximum specified limit of 0.112mg/l, and
reached as high as 0.55mg/l; this translates to an actual
dewpoint of as high as 79.5F. The sales-gas operating
temperature can be as low as 60F and 80F during the
winter and summer periods, respectively. Thus, moisture
condensation in the sales-gas pipelines is a high potential.
The amounts of gaseous H2S, CO2, and oxygen in sales-gas
service were also analysed. Although the H2S and CO2
contents were within specified limits, their presence with
water moisture was the cause of internal corrosion. The
ensuing FeS and FeCO3 formed from internal corrosion
can be further converted to Fe3O4 in the presence of oxygen
which was also found in the sales-gas service. Finally, a
thermodynamic modelling analysis was performed to
confirm that black powder can be formed from the
compositional analysis of the sales-gas service.
A number of black powder samples were analysed for
bacteria. In-house developed bacteria analyses for sulphatereducing bacteria (SRB), general aerobic bacteria (GAB),
and nitrogen-utilizing bacteria (NUB) were performed, and
it was found that their count was either of no existence or
very, very low. These same samples were also analysed for
acid-producing bacteria (APB) and iron-oxidizing bacteria
(IOB) using DNA analysis techniques at the Gas Technology
Institute in the United States. The results of the bacterial
analysis shows that microbial corrosion has a low potential
and, if it was to occur, it would be due to APB and/or IOB.
Conclusions
The in-service phase of the research study showed that the

main cause of the black powder formation was high water
moisture content in the sales gas. The maximum moisture
content specified in Saudi Aramco is 0.112mg/l of gas
The black powder type, sources, and formation

mechanism are important for correctly determining
the most effective removal method.
CHEMICAL
ORDINARY MECHANICAL
CLEANING TOOL
BLACK POWDER
SUSPENDED IN CHEMICAL
Black powder is a world-wide phenomenon.
BLACK
POWDER
MECHANICAL
CLEANING TOOL
W/ BRUSHES
Fig.5. A typical chemical cleaning train.
4th Quarter, 2007
249
Black powder impacts Saudi Aramcos sales-gas

pipeline operations.
Saudi Aramco is working on multiple initiatives to
remove black powder to achieve the level of
cleanliness that the company desires.
Black powder in Saudi Aramco is due to internal
corrosion from high moisture content with the
presence of H2S, CO2, and oxygen.
Acknowledgement
The Pipelines Department would like to thank Dr
Abdelmounam Sherik from Saudi Aramcos Research &
Development Center, who lead the research work on black
powder.
The author
MuhammadAli Trabulsi has overall management
responsibility for Saudi Aramcos vast pipeline network,
and currently oversees all aspects of pipeline activities to
ensure delivery commitments of various hydrocarbon
streams to their respective destinations, while safeguarding

the overall integrity of the network. He also plays a key role
in steering the Pipelines Departments Capital Projects
Development, in conjunction with the ongoing crude and
gas expansion programs launched by Saudi Aramco to
maintain its leadership position in the oil industry.
Mr Trabulsi graduated from King Fahad University of
Petroleum and Minerals in 1974 with a Bachelors degree
in Civil Engineering and earned an MBA degree in 1980
from Drake University in Des Moines, Iowa. He has also
attended several management programs, including the
Executive University Program at Carnegie Mellon University
in Pittsburg, and Leadership at the Peak at the Creative
Leadership Center in Colorado Springs.
Prior to assuming the position of General Manager Pipelines Department in 2001, Mr Trabulsi served as
General Manager of Training and Career Development.
Previously to that role he served for three years as President
and CEO of Petrolube Company, a Saudi Aramco
subsidiary. In addition, Mr Trabulsi held several managerial
positions in a number of different organizations within the
company, and is a member of the founding Board of the
Professional Institute of Pipeline Engineers.
Editorial
(continued from page 196)
corrosion. The acid produced by these bacteria can cause
corrosion pits or, if unchecked, holes in the wall of the pipe.
Knowing this, BPXA should have cleaned the OTLs with
maintenance (or cleaning) pigs, and should have inspected
the pipes for corrosion with a smart pig, which had not
been done for eight years.
The investigation found that BPXAs leak detection system
was dependent upon a clean pipe in order to function
optimally and, accordingly, the companys failure to keep
the pipeline clean led to product leaking from the pipe and
the inability promptly to discover the leak. The Department

of Justice (DoJ) points out that the failure to adequately
manage the corrosion in the pipeline that leaked, in the
light of the risks known to BPXA, was due to BPXAs failure
to allocate sufficient resources to ensure safe and
environmentally-protective operation of the pipelines that
leaked. Cost-cutting, the DoJ goes on to say in a statement,
was the emphasis for operation of the Greater Prudhoe Bay
Unit by BPXA for many years without sufficient regard for
the ever-increasing needs and associated costs of running
an ageing oilfield.
250
a new report
The World Onshore Pipelines Report 2008-12 from industry analysts Douglas-Westwood considers
the prospects for this huge global market and values the future markets through to 2012.
In this first edition of the World Onshore Pipelines Report, Douglas-Westwood presents a
comprehensive view of the historic market from 2003-2007 and forecast period from 2008-2012. A
detailed database of projects combined with an involved modeling and forecasting process result in a
unique view of the market in length and value terms. The report also reviews all aspects of onshore
oil & gas pipelines from design, materials, techniques and components through to construction,
operations and maintenance.
pipeline technologies
The report is geared to the needs of the senior executive and assumes no previous reader
knowledge of the subject area. It describes pipeline design and how routes are selected, safety
considerations, sizing, flow and pressure control and storage. The choice of pipeline materials is
discussed and major pipeline components are reviewed from coatings and fittings to pumps and
compressors. Construction techniques and associated issues are explained from stringing, welding
and trenching to backfilling, cleaning, sizing, quality control and testing. Operations and maintenance
content includes a review of control, integrity, corrosion protection and repairs.
the market
The onshore pipelines market modelling process is based on actual project data. The Onshore
Pipelines Report 2008-12 begins with identifying existing pipeline projects then examines the market
drivers and prospects. Expenditure is broken down into the main spend areas of land & right of way,
line pipe and fittings, pipeline construction, pump station & equipment and other (including delivery
systems, communications, vehicles etc.)
industry players & competitive landscape

Appendices outline significant companies, manufacturers and technology providers in the sector.
Also throughout the report case studies highlight a number of projects.
Reports available as hardcopy or PDF
www.dw-1.com/products
For more information or to order:
e: publications@dw-1.com
t: +44 1227 780999
f: +44 1227 780880
4th Quarter, 2007
251
Onshore pipelines outlook: 20082012

by Adrian John* and Steve Robertson
Douglas-Westwood, Canterbury, UK
HE World Onshore Pipelines Report (see left), published by Douglas-Westwood, forecasts strong and
sustained growth in expenditure in the onshore pipelines market, with annual expenditure reaching
$38.8 billion by 2012. In this article, the authors present some of the key findings of the study.
FTER A PERIOD of declining annual global capital

expenditure (Capex) in the onshore pipelines business,
the market is set for a period of substantial and sustained
growth underpinned by many large transcontinental,
international, and national projects coming to fruition.
This article provides insights into the key drivers of this
growth, an overview of the forecast size of the market to
2012, a discussion of some key projects to be constructed
over the forecast period (2008-2012), as well as highlighting
some of the economic and political issues that many
projects will have to overcome.
There are currently more than two million kilometres of
onshore trunk pipelines used to transport oil, gas, and
refined products worldwide. Vast networks span continents,
with some 45% of these pipelines (by length) located in
North America and a further 20% in Eastern Europe and
the former Soviet Union (FSU). The great majority of this
length, 72%, is associated with the transportation of natural
gas, 18% crude oil, and 10% refined products. Much of this
global network, particularly in North America, Eastern
Europe, and the FSU, is old and in need of substantial
investment to either replace or upgrade it to meet
increasingly-demanding legislation-driven integrity
standards. In addition to factors particular to any given
region or country that are driving investment in onshore
pipeline infrastructure (discussed later in this article), there
are some key macro-economic drivers having an impact on
the entire global onshore pipelines market:
Growth in global energy demand particularly in
the developing economies, such as China and India.
*Authors contact information:
tel: +44 (0)1227 780999
email: adrian.john@dw-1.com
The attractiveness of natural gas as a fuel for power

generation the EIA forecasts that gas consumption
will grow at an annual rate of 2.4% over the period
to 2030, compared to 1.4% for oil and 2.5% for
coal. Gas will account for 26% of global energy use
by 2030.
Shifting hydrocarbon production concentrations
decline or shifts in concentration of hydrocarbons
production in key markets, such as Western Europe
and North America, requires new pipelines to either
link with, or expand, existing infrastructure.
Previous lack of investment raising increasing
concerns over the integrity of installed pipelines;
some are in excess of 40 years old and in dire need
of replacement.
Supply/demand security both exporting and
importing nations are seeking to ensure long-term
supply/demand security through diversification of
supply/demand sources. Transcontinental and
international pipeline projects are central to
achieving this.
The market
Figure 1 shows the levels of Capex that Douglas-Westwood
forecasts will be required to install new onshore oil, gas,
and product pipelines capacity over the 2008-2012 period.
The World Onshore Pipelines Report presents forecasts of
Capex and total installed length broken down by region,
diameter, and product. Also, Capex is broken down by
construction components land and right of way (RoW),
linepipe, linepipe fittings, pipeline construction, pump
stations and equipment, and other associated costs. The
252
Fig.1. Global onshore

pipeline Capex by product,
2003-2012. Source: The
World Onshore Pipelines
Report.
forecasts are established on a project-by-project basis, derived
from a careful evaluation of each identified project and
taking into account factors such as status, project size,
location, progress to date, operator workload, etc. It is
important to note that we have adopted the following
convention in order to best reflect actual levels of annual
construction and Capex within the onshore pipelines
market: firstly, we estimate the number of kilometres
installed each year for every project, based on project
schedules, and then we distribute the total project Capex
on a per-kilometre basis.
Between 2004 and 2006, onshore pipeline Capex was in
strong decline falling from $30.3 billion in 2004 to $25.1
billion in 2006, a decline of 17%. However, the market is
rebounding strongly and annual global Capex is set to grow
from $30.5 billion in 2007 to $38.8 billion by 2012 a
compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 4.9%.
More than 135,000km of oil, gas and product pipelines
were installed globally between 2003 and 2007 requiring a
Capex of almost $141 billion. During the forecast period
(2008-2012) just under 157,000km of pipelines are set to
be installed at a cost of over $178 billion, which is a 15%
increase in length installed and a 27% increase in Capex
relative to the historic five-year period.
Construction of gas pipelines is driving the growth of the
onshore pipelines market and is expected to account for
68% of global onshore pipeline Capex between 2008 and
2012. Gas pipeline Capex is set to increase from just over
$90 billion between 2003 and 2007 to in excess of $121
billion for 2008 to 2012 an increase of 35%. This growth
in Capex is supported by a 22% increase in the total length
of gas pipelines installed increasing from 77,955km to
95,341km for the respective periods. Growing demand for
gas, particularly for power generation, and a desire for
energy security through a diversification of supply, are the
main global drivers for this increasing investment in gas
pipeline infrastructure. However in North America, for
example, there are other drivers central to growth in gas
pipelines expenditure. Shifting natural gas production
concentrations, with traditional production locations in

Canada and the USA either very mature or already in
decline, are leading to strong investment in LNG and
development of unconventional sources of gas (such as
shale gas). This, along with the ageing pipeline infrastructure
60% of all pipelines were installed before 1970 is
driving the need for pipeline investment in North America.
Some of the major gas export pipelines supporting this
global growth include the 7,000-km Turkmenistan to China
pipeline, the 2,800-km Altai gas pipeline connecting Russia
to China, and the 3,400-km Nabucco pipeline between
Turkey and Austria.
Total Capex for crude pipelines is set to increase from
$32.5 billion between 2003-2007 to $38.8 billion between
2008-2012 an increase of 19%. The total length of crude
pipelines installed over these respective periods is expected
to increase from 31,516km to 35,034km an increase of
11%. The 3,500-km Keystone project from Canada to USA
and the long-awaited 4,000-km-plus ESPO pipeline from
East Siberia to the Far East (that has already started) will
make up almost 20% of the total installed pipelines over
the forecast period. This emphasizes the impact that one or
two key projects can have on the total global installed
length and associated Capex over any given five-year period.
In spite of a strong forecast growth in Capex in the
downstream market, both installed length and Capex for
product pipelines are expected to remain steady, for the
forecast, relative to the historic five-year period. Total
length installed is set to increase slightly from 26,195km to
26,611km for the respective periods, with total associated
Capex increasing by $36 million to $18.3 billion. The main
reason for this lack of growth is that between 2003 and
2007 many large product pipelines were installed,
particularly in China and India, which offsets the increased
number of shorter product pipelines expected to be installed
over the forecast period. Furthermore, the underlying
reason for the lack of Capex growth, in the face of rising
costs of labour and raw materials, is the fact that the average
product pipeline diameter installed over the forecast period
is significantly smaller than for the historic period.
4th Quarter, 2007
Key regional projects

Asia, Eastern Europe and the FSU, and North America are
expected to account for 74% of global forecast Capex. So,
it should be of no surprise that many key projects will occur
in these regions. Export pipelines from Eastern Europe and
the FSU to Asia, in particular, will make up a significant
proportion of Capex in both of these regions.
The 7,000km Turkmenistan to China gas pipeline, which
started construction in August 2007 and is expected to be
completed by the end of 2009, is by far the longest pipeline
expected to be installed in the world between 2008-2012
and is likely to account for as much as 20% of total Asian
Capex over the period. The project has been under
consideration for over a decade, with little progress.
However, driven by a growth in energy demand and a desire
for diversification of energy supply among other strategic
benefits, China has pushed the project forward in spite of
poor project economics. The project is expected to cost in
the region of $8-10 billion. Like the Turkmenistan to
China gas pipeline, the Kovykta gasfield international
development scheme, with 1,943km of pipelines to be
installed in Russia, 1,427km in China, and a 649-km
onshore section in South Korea, has also been under
consideration for a decade and is now set to be installed by
2012. The project is part of a wider desire from Russia to
develop its East Siberian resources, which includes a variety
of tax incentives to stimulate development.
The 4,000-km-plus East Siberian oil pipeline (ESPO),
mentioned above, forms a key part of the development of
East Siberias resources exporting oil from the region to
China and possibly other Asian markets. The first phase of
the project started in April 2006 a 1,100-km pipeline
linking Taishet in West Siberia to the Talakan oilfield in
East Siberia. An additional 1,500-km section is expected to
be installed from Talakan to Skovorodino, on the Chinese
border, which is expected to be in operation by 2010. The
total cost of these two Russian sections of the ESPO
pipeline is expected to be more than $10 billion
emphasizing the capital-intensive nature of building
pipelines in such harsh environments.
Though there is much talk in Western Europe about
developing supply security, this does not translate into
much investment in onshore pipelines in the region, owing
largely to the fact that the current pipeline network is
already well integrated. Consequently, the important gas
export pipelines to the region from Russia, Middle East,
and Africa i.e. Nord Stream, Nabucco, and Medgaz do
not require significant onshore investment to link with
current infrastructure.
North America is also set for some key pipeline developments
over the forecast period. The $5.2-billion 3,500-km Keystone
oil pipeline from Alberta to Oklahoma, the 1,158-km
Gateway oil pipeline from Alberta to British Columbia,
and the 800-km Midcontinent Express gas pipeline, are
253
among the largest planned for the period 2008-2012. The

1,220-km Mackenzie Valley gas pipeline, along with the
proposed Alaska Highway pipeline, will be crucial in bringing
Arctic gas to market and is also expected to start construction
before the end of the forecast period, though it is unlikely
to be operational before 2013-14.
Issues for the industry

As mentioned previously, supply/demand security is one
of the key drivers for growth within the industry,
underpinning many of the large export pipelines expected
to be built. However, it is the security of the pipelines
themselves that is becoming an increasingly-big issue for
the industry. Pipelines represent a significant and obvious
target for insurgents, both military and terrorist. The
remoteness and length of many overland pipelines means
that they can be easily approached and potentially damaged.
There are many instances of pipelines being deliberately
targeted in Africa, Eastern Europe and the FSU, Middle
East, and Latin America. Consequently, investment in
security for the protection of pipelines is becoming
increasing common. For example, the Russian government
has allowed Gazprom to set-up an armed force to protect its
pipelines and over $170 million has been invested in
safeguarding the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (BTC) pipeline with
measures including setting up a 700-person strategic pipeline
protection department in Georgia to help support BPs
field-security teams.
Furthermore, political instability in some of these regions
is likely to have an impact on the timing of some projects,
in particular export pipelines like the Iran-Pakistan-India
pipeline, which have to overcome many convoluted political
issues as well as project economics and competing solutions,
such as LNG.
Another significant issue that the onshore pipelines industry
is likely to have to address is the capacity of the industry to
meet the strong growth in demand. That is to say, as the
market is moving to a higher level of activity it raises
concerns both over the capacity of the industry supply
chain, from linepipe mills to construction companies, to
meet demand and also the effect this will have on pipeline
costs.
The authors
Adrian John is an analyst with Douglas-Westwood Ltd
(DWL). As well as his work on the World Onshore Pipelines
Report, he has also contributed to the World Deepwater
Report and is lead author of the LNG & GTL Report. Adrian
has conducted market analysis for a variety of DWLs
clients in the oil and gas sector as part of commissioned
research, commercial due-diligence, and published market
studies. This has included many geographic areas worldwide,
in both the upstream and downstream sectors. He has a
254
background in the engineering and construction industry

and graduated with an honours degree from Cambridge.
Steve Robertson is assistant director and manager of oil
and gas at DWL. He has previously authored a number of
The World series of market reports including The World
LNG & GTL Report and is editor of the latest edition.
Within the LNG sector, Steve has led DWLs work for a
variety of commissioned engagements ranging from small
technology players to major oil companies. In the wider oil
and gas sector, Steves analysis has included all facets of
LNG, oil- and gasfield development, the subsea production
sector, floating production, MMOs, etc. Steve has managed
market due-diligence studies on deals totalling $2.2 billion

in 2006, working for numerous investment banks and PE
houses, both in the UK and abroad.
Douglas-Westwood Ltd is a leading provider of business
research and strategy services in the international energy
and marine industries. For further information about The
World Onshore Pipelines Report, please visit www.dw-1.com,
e-mail publications@dw-1.com, or call the company on
+44 (0)1227 780999.
4th Quarter, 2007
255
Pipeline systems: control and

integrity management
by Saeid Mokhatab*1, Sidney P Santos2, and Greg Lamberson3
1 Tehran Raymand Consulting Engineers, Tehran, Iran
2 Petrobras Gas & Energy, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
3 International Construction Consulting, USA
IPELINE INTEGRITY has received significant attention over the last few years through a number of highprofile incidents and major regulatory changes in the USA. The US Department of Transportations
Research and Special Programs Administration, Office of Pipeline Safety, maintains a data bank of pipeline
accidents and related causes. Pipeline owners and operators have also started to realize the cost and longterm planning benefits provided by pipeline-integrity management as it applies to CFR Part 192, Subpart O:
Pipeline Integrity Management.
Consideration must be given to the location of the pipeline system and the increasing concerns for the
environment. It is imperative to consider all of the known system parameters in order that a reliable pipeline
integrity-monitoring system can be designed and implemented. The basic computer-aided software-based
technologies available include the following techniques: volume or mass-balance, rate-of-change in flow or
pressure, hydraulic modelling, pressure-point analysis, and statistical analysis. The focus of this paper is to
review the various elements of a pipeline integrity-management system that uses day-to-day operating data
as well as specialized inspection techniques for data collection from inside and outside the pipeline to ensure
the integrity of pipeline systems at an adequate level.
HE FUNDAMENTAL challenge to the pipeline

operator is to undertake all necessary planning and
actions to guarantee a required level of safety for the
transmission system in accordance with safety and
environmental regulations. Another responsibility of the
pipeline operator is cost-effectively to operate the pipeline
striking the right balance between operational costs and
performance. The planned investment schedule necessary
to provide the required level of safety must be considered
in the economic evaluation so as not to negatively affect the
feasibility of the project. The goal for the operator must be
along the lines of enough, but not too much, i.e. to
maintain and document the integrity of the pipeline for
safety but optimize the inspection, repair, and mitigation
requirements.
*Authors contact details:

email: saeid_mokhatab@hotmail.com
As pipeline infrastructures age, inspection and maintenance

programmes are even more necessary to maintain integrity
and promote longevity. However, the selection of
appropriate, yet cost-effective, methods is still widely
considered to be more of an art than a science. There are
numerous factors to consider in pipeline management:
design, construction, operation, protection, inspection,
maintenance, repair, and rehabilitation. Measurement and
evaluation of pipeline integrity also is critically important,
since many pipeline companies now require regular
inspections to confirm that integrity.
Pipeline integrity involves structural, operational, economic,
and environmental factors, among others. A key
management tool involves qualitative and quantitative or
probabilistic risk assessment (including both hazard
identification and evaluation), as well as risk control and
reduction (i.e. preventive and mitigation measures).
Performance monitoring and evaluation through periodic
reviews of the management system are also important. The
256
goal of such programmes is to use inspection, monitoring,

and maintenance to prevent structural-integrity problems,
especially those that jeopardize public safety, the
environment, or the business operation.
New pipeline design must include all costs associated with
the pipeline integrity-management system (PIMS), costs of
intervention, and projected pipeline unavailability
throughout the economic life of the project. By doing that
we may guarantee or mitigate the economic risks of not
achieving the expected results for the project. A specification
should be developed by the owner that covers the minimum
technical requirements relating to the instrumentation
and control system necessary to operate and maintain the
pipeline system. It should serve to define the required
instrumentation and control necessary to handle normal
and upset conditions for the pipeline system.
For existing or already-depreciated pipelines, a feasibility
study is necessary to evaluate the impact of the incremental
investment and operating costs in the PIMS on the economic
result of the project so as not to impact negatively the
competitiveness of the transportation service.
A determination regarding the system availability should
be made. The following formula will provide guidance:
Availability % = (mean time to failure x 100)
(mean time to failure + mean time to repair)
Typically, a 99.95% availability is used by operating
companies.
In order to develop a best-in-class integrity-management
system or programme which is used to reduce the risks of
pipeline and pipeline system, the following information
must be gathered or developed:
develop inventory of current pipeline data/practices

identify current mitigation practices
evaluate operational risks of each pipeline
identify and prioritize risk-reduction activities
establish a maintenance programme
In the following sections, a wide range of pipeline-integrity

services that ensure the integrity and efficient operation of
the pipeline systems are presented.
Safety and environmental

considerations
During the design of the pipeline system, the National
Electrical Code (NFPA 70) should be followed to avoid
potential electrical fire ignition sources and for general
electrical safety. For the classification of areas of potential
fire and explosion hazard the American Petroleum Institutes
Recommended practice for classification of location for electrical
installation at petroleum facilities (API-RP505) should be

consulted. This will enable the definition of certain
requirements (area classifications, wire sizes, electrical
insulation, equipment enclosures and locations) for the
instrumentation and control system. Local codes and
standards should be used where applicable.
Equipment controls that, if accidentally activated, could
result in harm to personnel or damage to equipment
should be clearly identified, and reasonable protections
installed. Protective measures normally include clearlyidentified push-buttons that are of the momentary type (i.e.
spring return), and have plastic covers for protection against
accidental pushing of the buttons, and interlocking
permissive logic in a controlling local programmable-logic
controller (PLC).
Instrumentation should be designed and built of appropriate
materials and equipped with appropriate safeguards. Typical
measures include the use of pressure instruments equipped
with a diaphragm, and pressure switches that have hermetic,
welded seals. Instrumentation located outside may be subject
to heavy rain or monsoons, fog, large temperature variations,
extreme wind speeds, etc., and it should be able to perform
well when exposed to all potential site conditions. Mainline
valve (MLV) locations are particularly vulnerable due to
their often-remote locations. At automated remote MLV
locations, a temperature-controlled shelter may be necessary
to enclose a battery, motor control centre,
telecommunications equipment, etc.
External corrosion monitoring

In the field of cathodic protection (CP), routine maintenance
inspection is undertaken, at designed intervals, to monitor
the effectiveness of all types of CP systems. Specialized overthe-line surveys and computer software systems are
developed specifically for the management of CP monitoring
data. A specialized pipeline survey capability is able to
accommodate the requirements of pipeline operators who
require detailed investigations into external pipeline coating
condition, levels of CP achieved on pipelines, and associated
problems on the pipeline-protection system. The techniques
available are as follows.
Close-interval potential survey

A survey is necessary to provide a detailed profile of the
potential level along the entire route of a pipeline. The
profile can include both system-on and instantaneousoff potentials, and is used to assess the performance of the
CP system, the condition of the pipeline coating system,
and the presence of interaction effects.
DC voltage-gradient survey
Using a pulsed direct current (DC) on the pipeline, the
survey investigates voltage gradients associated with external
4th Quarter, 2007
coating defects, using two earth-contact probes and a

sensitive centre-zero voltmeter. The severity of defects can
be assessed and effectiveness of the CP at the defect
determined.
Pearson coating survey

This is a technique to detect external coating defects, which
employs an alternating current (AC) signal injected onto
the pipeline and compares the potential gradients between
two mobile earth contacts. At coating defects, increases in
the voltage gradient occur which are recorded.
Signal-attenuation coating survey

An AC signal is applied to the pipeline and this signal will
gradually decrease as it leaks to earth through the capacitive
and resistive effects of the coating. At coating defects, the
signal loss will be greater, and the survey equipment is used
to measure this intensity at selected pipeline locations to
determine the coating condition.
Each survey technique has its particular attributes: in
general, Pearson and signal-attenuation coating surveys
directly examine the external coating, whereas close-interval
potential surveys investigate CP levels and thereby provide
an indirect report of coating condition. The DC voltagegradient survey is a hybrid approach, as the technique can
locate coating defects and is then able to evaluate whether
CP is achieved at that coating defect.
Internal corrosion is discussed below with regards to pigging
strategy.
Internal corrosion monitoring

and pigging strategy
A comprehensive listing of the services related to pigging
strategy and the assessment of the result of intelligent pig
inspection are: pipeline-inspection data analysis, pipelineinspection reviews and strategies, integrity management,
pipeline-defect analysis, hydrotest reviews and strategies,
pipeline-maintenance reviews and strategies, pipeline
revalidation, rehabilitation and uprating. The inspection
of pipelines using intelligent pigs is one of the key methods
that pipeline operators employ to monitor the integrity of
their pipeline assets.
Prior to any pigging activities one needs to determine the
piggability of the line. Such items as correctly-sized
launchers and receivers, in-line valve body port sizes and
shapes, line reductions, thermowells or other intrusive
hardware, branches, bend diameters, etc., require review
and resolution prior to moving on to the actual pigging of
the line. A review of flow rates, velocities, and pressures also
needs to be undertaken.
257
A typical cleaning and intelligent-pigging procedure is

made up of six basic stages, the first three of which are:
1. Launching a series of soft-foam pigs starting small
and working-up to larger sizes. These are run until
such time as there is no noticeable increase in the
volume of debris removed and a fairly-constant
pressure drop is observed during a pig run (a constant
pressure drop would imply a constant internal
diameter assuming all other process conditions, i.e.
flow rate, fluid velocity, etc., were to remain the
same). This result would indicate that the soft-foam
pigs were no longer effective in removing debris and
a harder pig would now be required. The use of softfoam pigs initially is also a relatively-safe procedure
as these pigs will break up if they encountered line
restrictions or become stuck.
2. Running a series of rigid-body foam pigs until the
result is similar to that obtained in the first stage.
These pigs can be equipped with cleaning discs or
blades that can break-up harder deposits, and
therefore have greater cleaning ability than the softfoam pigs.
3. Similar to stage two, except rigid steel-body pigs are
run with cleaning blades or discs to achieve similar
results to the previous stages. Additional pumping
facilities should be available as a contingency should
a pig get stuck.
The pipeline can now be considered clean enough to
obtain good results when running the intelligent pig in the
pipeline. The level of cleanliness of the pipeline required in
order to obtain optimum results from the intelligent pigging
run is substantially higher than required for normal
maintenance pigging. The next stages in the programme
are:
4. Introducing a caliper pig or gauging plate to
determine that the internal diameter is adequate for
the safe passage of the intelligent pig. Any dents or
damage to the caliper pig gauge plate could indicate
a problem. This pig may be run a few times and
visually inspected after each run.
5. Once the results of the caliper pig run are satisfactory,
the intelligent pig is prepared, calibrated prior to
launching, and launched. External receivers are
typically installed along the pipeline right-of-way to
receive signals from the tracking device installed in
order to monitor the pigs progress.
6. The final step is to obtain a report and
documentation of the data. This data requires expert
analysis in order to determine if the pipeline has
evidence of internal corrosion, if it is fit-for-purpose,
or if any remediation is required.
258
Emergency response
A pipeline operators priority is to prevent incidents. It is
vital that an operator has an established and approved
procedure to deal with an emergency such as a pipeline
rupture, should one occur. The accepted way to provide
emergency response is through the implementation of an
emergency plan. In the emergency-response centre a
dedicated team of people implement predetermined action
plans, guides, and checklists that have been prepared to
address and mitigate all foreseeable types of emergency.
Each member of an emergency-response team is well trained
and equipped to undertake their roles and responsibilities,
with state-of-the-art equipment and emergency-information
systems. Emergency-response plans and action checklists
can be developed to mitigate the risks identified. The plans
can be refined through training for all parties involved.
More specifically, this service can include:
Assistance with emergency planning including
quantified-risk analysis, process-hazard analysis, and
environmental-impact assessment.
Establishing emergency-response facilities through
the design and development of equipment and
systems customized to meet specific requirements.
Evaluating the effectiveness of existing emergencyresponse plans using a structured performance
approach, or preparing new emergency plans should
these be required.
The designer can determine specific and general data
requirements through study and implementation of exercise
scenarios relevant to the clients facilities. These are used to
identify and mark-up maps, charts, site diagrams,
engineering information, and databases with safety features,
and to show the risks to people, the environment, and plant
from hazardous substances.
An incident-command system (ICS) is an effective commandand-control methodology for managing incidents. The ICS
will include the chain of command for incident reporting
as well as detailed incident definitions with regard to
severity and agency reporting requirements.
In addition, a comprehensive external affairs plan should
be put in place in the case of a major incident. It is not
possible to prepare emergency plans for every contingency.
For this reason, key company personnel must be prepared
with a plan which is flexible enough to make decisions
based on the situation developing at the time.
For the plan to work, it is important that the principals and
employees know what is expected of them, and their duties
and responsibilities. Co-operation will be needed from
everyone for the plan, and decisions, to be effectively
carried out. The plan will assist in gaining and maintaining
key stakeholders trust and confidence in the integrity of
the system and operations through effective, benefit-driven

communications, and should include a system that contains:
Input processes (listening) for gathering, identifying,
and analysing the diverse expectations and significant
issues of concern to key audiences, in particular
those issues with potential business impact.
Action processes (communicating) for delivering
appropriate project messages to key stakeholders
that address/respond to identified issues, and/or
limit potential for escalation of issues to other
audiences.
Heuristic processes (learning) for evaluating the
effectiveness of the preceding two processes, and for
feeding the results into a continuous improvement
cycle optimized for net positive improvement to the
reputation of the pipeline system.
The plan may address any or all of the following major
areas, depending on the location and complexity of the
pipeline system:
issue management
government relations
media relations
community relations
NGO relations and activist response
Operational support services

These are services, which add value to existing and operating
pipelines throughout their lifetime, from the outset with
commissioning right through to decommissioning.
Overseeing pipelines, many of which carry dangerous or
polluting products at high temperatures and pressures, is a
complex business which requires a firm grasp, not only of
specialist engineering, but also in terms of the cost, safety,
and environmental aspects. Operational support work can
be undertaken in two ways:
discrete tasks that are normally carried out for
operators with smaller pipeline systems, or those
who perform much of their work in-house, and
call-on contracts, in which a pipeline engineer will
be assigned to support the operator and will often
work as an integral part of the operators own
engineering team or pipeline department. This type
of general-support role allows the operator to call on
the pipeline designer for small items of work without
necessitating expensive administration.
Pipeline repair
Pipelines can experience many forms of damage during
4th Quarter, 2007
their life, ranging from damage introduced at the time of

manufacture and construction, to in-service damage due to
corrosion or external interface. Therefore, pipelines need
planned pipeline section replacement and emergency repair,
and most require rehabilitation as they age, or are expected
to operate beyond their economic or design life. To establish
the short- and long-term integrity of damaged pipelines, it
is important to assess the effects of the damage on the
fitness-for-purpose of the pipeline under the given loading
conditions.
The detection of defects is the first stage of a repair and
rehabilitation programme. Fitness-for-purpose methods are
available for assessing defects in pipelines using fracture
mechanics as their technical basis. This means that when
defects are detected, their order of magnitude and
consequent impact on the pipelines safe operation can be
determined.
Before attempting to assess the significance of defects, it is
first necessary to ensure that the pipeline is safe. The
immediate response plan may include:
reduce pressure to a safe level and plan pressure
reductions or isolation for repair or rehabilitation
establish critical information for the engineering
assessment, and
assessment of damage location to define access
requirements and available repair and rehabilitation
methods.
The reported defects can be assessed using fitness-forpurpose methods. The urgency of the analysis and repair
depends upon the defect severity, any potential threat to
the environment, the regulatory, legal and insurance
considerations, and the potential for further failures that,
depending on their order of magnitude and the pipelines
financial and strategic value, could even recommend
decommissioning of the pipeline.
The last stage of a complete repair and rehabilitation
assessment is the method selection and fitness-for-purpose
assessment, to determine which defects to repair, and to
select an appropriate repair method. If the defects or
damage are extensive, a rehabilitation or repair programme
may be required.
Pipeline risk assessment

Risk-assessment methodologies have been used extensively
in other industries for a number of years, but it is only
recently that they are being applied to pipelines. A risk
assessment can be used for a wide variety of applications,
but the basic methodology is the same, irrespective of the
industry or the application. Applying risk-based
methodologies, which allow risks to be measured and
259
compared to acceptable levels, can provide considerable

benefits, such as:
saving money by justifying changes, and
improving safety by targeting resources.
The key benefit is that risk assessment allows decisions to
be made and resources to be allocated within a logical and
consistent framework.
Risk-based inspection
Inspection is one of the key ways in which risks can be
controlled, but for inspection to be effective it must be
carefully targeted. For some failure modes, such as corrosion,
inspection can monitor pipeline deterioration. For other
failure modes, such as impact damage, inspection can find
and locate damaged areas, but cannot prevent the damage
from occurring. Remember that inspection does nothing
to control risk by itself: appropriate remedial action must
be taken when required. Implementation of risk-based
inspection (RBI) requires consideration of all relevant
information, and significant effort in data management.
The better the available data, the less conservative the
assessments.
RBI is a relatively-new method for using risk as a basis for
prioritizing and managing the efforts of resources associated
with maintaining and inspecting equipment. A main
objective of RBI is to focus these efforts where they provide
the greatest impact in reducing overall risk. While it is clear
that some maintenance and inspection is needed, we need
to know exactly how much is needed to manage risk
properly. The systematic process of RBI leads to decisions
concerning how, where, and when to inspect and maintain
process equipment.
RBI is an analysis and planning process. It links the likely
failure mechanisms for the equipment items with the
consequences of the respective failures to develop relative
risk. Normally, there is a wide range of risk levels associated
with different types of processes and equipment which
allows for prioritizing them based on increasing risk. Often,
only a small percentage (5-20%) of the equipment is in the
higher-risk category, while the remainder is only at low to
medium risk. The RBI process combines the analyses of
two separate areas, the likelihood and the consequence of
failure, to achieve this prioritization.
The results are compared using a matrix. Once an RBI
analysis has established risk levels, inspection and
maintenance plans are developed with methods,
frequencies, and mitigating alternatives based on managing
the risks involved with the particular way equipment items
fail.
The first step of an effective mechanical-integrity programme
260
is to compile and categorize a list of process equipment and

instrumentation for inclusion in the programme. This list
would include pressure vessels, storage tanks, process piping,
and relief and vent systems1.
examine and compare all risks
In many countries, regulatory authorities now require

pipeline operators to demonstrate that the risk presented
by their pipelines have been identified and controlled.
Risk-based inspection can provide useful information that
will help in the decision process to mitigate the risk.
Relative-risk ranking highlights problem areas providing a
useful pipeline management tool: RBI eliminates
unnecessary inspections and therefore can provide a justified
cost saving, as it ensures that money invested in inspection
is efficiently spent.
define what policies and processes are in place to

achieve targets and goals
Pipeline integrity-management
systems
A pipeline integrity-management system (PIMS) uses riskmanagement methods, and management systems, and
combines these two approaches to produce a complete riskmanagement system, which includes emergency planning
and procedures.
At the core of the PIMS will be a risk analysis that may use
Monte Carlo simulation to play with random events based
on statistical distributions, and that will help quantifying
risk within established confidence intervals. This analysis
can be either quantitative or qualitative.
A quantitative analysis is usually the preferred step, and this
should show an operator the key risks, and they can be
quickly addressed. Quantitative analysis can follow this
first step, if necessary, but in both cases (quantitative and
qualitative) expert judgement and analysis will be required.
Temperature, pressure, valve position and flow rate at each
end of a pipeline, as well as temperature, pressure and valve
position at some of the MLV locations, are typically input
into the analysis program at frequent time intervals. Leak
detection is monitored by performing a statistical analysis
of the pipeline process parameters measured and compared
to previously-measured conditions. A detected leak will
then initiate an alarm.
A management system is a management plan that explains
to company staff, customers, regulatory authorities, etc.,
how the company and its assets are managed. Pipeline
management requires a delicate balance of many factors,
including technical and managerial skills, financial
resources, and environmental compliance. Within the
constraints imposed by this, the commercial success of the
pipeline must be maximized. In general the PIMS will:
identify all events that could lead to failure
examine the likelihood and consequences of
potential pipeline incidents
define who is responsible for each aspect of the asset

and its management
define how policies and processes are implemented

define how performance is measured
define how the system is reviewed and audited
The document would normally be agreed at a high
management level, and be constantly and systematically
reviewed and updated. All levels of management would
comply with its contents, although many companies operate
such a system in a piecemeal or unstructured manner. It is
the production of a single, detailed document that
encompasses all the above aspects that creates the system.
Audit
The whole risk-management system (organization, plan,
implementation, processes utilized, and performance
measures in place) should be regularly reviewed against
specified criteria. Where deficiencies are identified,
procedures must be in place and implemented to ensure
rectification. The whole system and all its elements should
be subject to regular audit. This audit should be a critical
audit that appraises both the system in place, and each
element, to ensure it is performing its stated function
effectively.
Data management
The long-term storage and retrieval of pipeline data is an
essential part of any PIMS. Pipeline companies advocate
the use of formal data-management systems separate from
applications using third-party software such as Oracle or
Microsoft SQL. They can provide data-management
solutions with value-added partners.
Pipeline-integrity reviews
Pipelines are often required to supply more product, for
example by uprating, or can deteriorate during service.
Additionally, operators are sometimes faced with lines that
have either poor documentation, are due hydrotesting/
smart pigging, or need a thorough audit. In all these cases,
there is a need to conduct a review of the pipelines
integrity. This engineering-integrity review may reveal the
need for changes to operation, management, or maintenance
and inspection of the pipeline. Inspections, such as smart
pigging, may subsequently be needed.
Integrity reviews fall into three categories:
4th Quarter, 2007
audit (new owner, regulatory need, following failure,

etc.)
change of duty (within code)
change of duty (outside code)
These reviews must be conducted by independent bodies
that can cover:
design, construction and commissioning
operation, inspection and maintenance
defect assessment, repair and rehabilitation
261
Upgrade or redesign: must an upgrade or redesign

prevent the failure?
Ultimately, pipelines will fail. Integrity cannot be guaranteed
100%, but careful monitoring, inspection, and maintenance
programmes greatly reduce the risk of failures that could
cause disastrous consequences to human life, properties,
environment, business operations, and operator company
goodwill. Ensuring that risks are as low as is reasonably
practicable (ALARP) remains the guiding principle.
Assuming that all industrial activities are intrinsically
associated with risk, the role of the project sponsor is to take
the required actions that will control and mitigate risks by
applying proven procedures, standards, regulatory
requirements, and a well-planned pipeline-integrity
management system.
risk and safety assessments

management consultancy
The authors
technical audit
Saeid Mokhatab is an internationally-recognized gasengineering expert specializing in design and operations of

oil and gas transmission pipelines and processing plants.
He has participated as a senior consultant in various
international pipeline projects and has published numerous
academic and industry oriented papers.
These reviews start with extensive data collection at the

clients sites, and field visits may be necessary. An overall
view of the condition of the pipeline is first put forward.
Following discussions with the client, the pipeline may be
modified, repaired, etc., to meet future operational
requirements.
Conclusion
Inspection and maintenance depend on the historical and
predicted failure mechanisms involved. Usually the best
approach is to list the failure problems, determine the
available methods and strategies and their effectiveness to
deal with them, and then choose the best action to
implement based on both cost- and risk-reduction
effectiveness. The following hierarchy is recommended to
guide the selection based on most-desirable and least-cost
methods to deal with preventing a failure:
Condition monitoring: will condition-monitoring
actions detect the failure pattern and allow other
actions to be performed to prevent the failure?
Preventive tasks: will scheduled on-condition or
restoration prevent potential failures?
Scheduled replacement: will complete replacement
at a scheduled time prevent the failure?
Sidney Pereira dos Santos is a senior consultant at Petrobras

Gas & Energy, Rio de Janeiro, with 19 years experience in
the design of oil and gas transmission pipelines. He has
been deeply involved in most gas pipeline projects at
Petrobras such as the Bolivia-Brazil gas pipeline project and
the ongoing gas pipeline expansion projects in Brazil, and
has conducted technical-economic studies and basic/
conceptual design for the upcoming pipeline projects. He
is a member of the Pipeline Simulation Interest Group
(PSIG) and author/co-author of several technical papers in
international pipeline conferences.
Greg Lamberson is the principal consultant of International
Construction Consulting with over 25 years experience in
all phases of the business, project, engineering, and
construction management for upstream and midstream
oil, gas, products, and energy-related facilities, including
pipelines. He is accomplished at working within integrated
environments with multi-discipline and multi-cultural staffs
to ISO, US, and similar international standards, procedures,
and specifications in a variety of geopolitical situations.
262
4th Quarter, 2007
263
Design guidelines for the bending

radius for large-diameter HDD
by Ir H J Brink1, Dr H M G Kruse2, Dipl-Ing H Lbbers3,
Ir H J A M Hergarden4, and Ir Jan Spiekhout*5
1
2
3
4
5
Senior Pipeline Engineer N.V. Nederlandse Gasunie, Groningen, Netherlands

Specialist Geotechnics GeoDelft, Delft, Netherlands
Member of Management Board Directional Drilling Contractors Association (DCA)
Senior Consultant Underground Infrastructure GeoDelft, Delft, Netherlands
Project Manager and Interim Manager Pipeline and Mechanical Engineering Department,
Nederlandse Gasunie, Groningen, Netherlands
N IMPORTANT parameter in the design of a crossing by means of horizontal directional drilling (HDD)
is the bending radius. A new formula has been developed for calculating this bending radius, taking into
account the stiffness of the pipe in relation to the soil reaction pressure during the pull-back operation. This
formula can be considered as an extension to the rev. 2 DCA guidelines formula. In the DCA guidelines,
the magnitude of the bending radius is merely related to the diameter of the pipe, while in the new formula
the influence of the wall thickness on the bending stiffness of the pipe is also taken into account.
N NO-DIG design practice, the design of a horizontal

directional drilling (HDD) for small diameter steel pipes
is often based on R > 1000De, where:
R = design bending radius (m)
De = outside pipe diameter (m)
opinions among contractors concerning the approach to

obtain the best design bending radius. In the various
opinions put forward, the design radii ranged from <
1000D to 2000D. In the period before the inventory was
compiled, there where serious problems with large-diameter
HDDs which had been designed with a relatively-small
bending radius.
Theoretically, the formula is as follows:
E
R
De
2 y
(1)
in which:
R = design radius (m)
E = modulus of elasticity (N/mm2)
y = minimum specified yield strength (N/mm2)
= partial safety factor for the bending moment
If E = 210,000N/mm2, y = 240N/mm2, and = 1.1,
it can be seen that R > 1000De.
An inventory of the design of large-diameter HDD crossings
(such as in Fig.1) found that there were widely-differing
tel no: +31 50 521 2190
email: j.spiekhout@gasunie.nl
Advice on calculating the design bend radius is found in

the DCA guidelines. These rules are empirical and do not
take into account the influence of the wall thickness on the
bending stiffness of the pipe. A greater wall thickness
results in a stiffer pipe which is less easy to bend when
pulled in, and causes a higher soil reaction pressure.
Exceeding the allowable soil pressure may lead to failure of
the pipe (coating) or the pull-back equipment, or to the
pipe becoming stuck.
The following formulas are given in the current DCA
guidelines:
For De < 400mm: R = 1000De
For 400mm < De <700mm: R = 1400 De3
and for De > 700mm: R = 1250 De3
This paper describes calculation guidelines for determining
the design bending radius, in order to arrive at a better
264
Fig.1.A typical large-diameter HDD

pipe launch.
design for an HDD crossing and to avoid the pipe getting
stuck.
where:
Qr = soil reaction pressure (kN/m2)
De = outside diameter (m)
M = the bending moment (kNm)
= characteristic length (1/m)
Strength
The design bend radius from the point of view of achieving
strength is R > 1000De. A detailed strength analysis may
show that a smaller radius can be permitted, and EN 1594
can be applied for the strength evaluation. This code
permits higher stresses during the installation phase of the
pipe.
and
2 =
kDe
4 Es I
(3)
where:
Soil reaction pressure

Based on the theory put forward by Hetnyi [1], the
following expression can be derived for the maximum soil
reaction:
Qr = 0.322
2
M
De
(2)
Es = modulus of elasticity of the steel pipe (kN/m2)

I = moment of inertia (m4)
K = modulus of subgrade reaction (kN/m3)
The relationship between the bending moment and the
bending radius is expressed by the formula:
M=
Es I
R
(4)
4th Quarter, 2007
265
where R is the bending radius (m).

If we substitute the expressions for and the bending
moment, and rearrange the expression for the bending
radius, we obtain the following:
R=
0.322 KEs I
Qr
4 De
(5)
This expression can be simplified by substituting the formula

for the moment of inertia of the plane area of a pipe:
I=
1
1
4
De4 ( De 2d n ) De3d n
64
8
(6)
Qr = soil reaction pressure (kN/m2)

k = modulus of subgrade reaction (kN/m3)
y = displacement of the pipe into the soil (m)
Formula for the design of the

bending radius
The determination of the allowable radial displacement of
the pipeline during the pull-back operation at the moment
of disengagement of a drilling pipe is based on experiential
data. Since no displacement measurements of the head of
the product pipe are available, the allowable displacement
is determined by regression analysis on successful HDDs.
The maximum allowable displacement during the pullback operation is related to the soil stiffness and the
diameter of the pipeline, and can be determined empirically
as follows:
where dn is the nominal wall thickness (m).
yal = 0.23
This gives the next basic expression:
R=
0.322 kEs
De d n
Qr
32
(7)
In this expression, the first part depends on the modulus of

subgrade reaction (k) and the allowable soil reaction (Qr).
The modulus of subgrade reaction for pipelines in boreholes
(k) can be described using Schleichers formula:
k=
Eg
(10)
where:
Eg = modulus of elasticity of the soil (kN/m2)
The combination of the allowable displacement and the
formula for R leads to the following equation:
6
De
m (1 2 )
(8)
where:
Eg = modulus of elasticity of the soil (kN/m )
= characteristic length (1/m)
K = modulus of subgrade reaction (kN/m3)
= Poissons ratio (approx. 0.35)
m = shape coefficient
R=
(11)
(9)
0.54 ( Es d n )14 ( De )14

E
If the shape coefficient m is assumed to be 0.7, which is an

average value for most pipelines, Schleichers equation can
be combined with the basic equation. This combination
leads to the following formula:
0.1( Es d n )14 ( Es De )14

R=
Qr
0.1( Es d n )14 ( Es De )14

R=
Dk
0.23 0e.485
Eg
This equation can be rewritten by substituting Schleichers

equation for k:
and
De
Eg0.485
3
35
g
(12)
Since the above equation is partly empirical, the following

dimensions should be used in calculations:
R = minimum bending radius (m)
dn = nominal wall thickness (m)
Eg = modulus of elasticity of the soil (kN/m2)
Es = modulus of elasticity of the steel pipe (kN/m2)
The empirical equation can be simplified as follows for
design purposes:
Qr = ky
where:
R = C De d n
(13)
266
3000
soft clay C = 12500
medium stiff clay C = 11500
D=1,0 m
d=16 mm
loose packed sand C = 10200

2500
medium packed sand C = 9400
D=0,7 m
d=11 mm
dense packed sand C = 8500

Former DCA
R [m]
2000
D=0,5 m
d=7 mm
D=0,6 m
d=9 mm
D=0,2 m
d=5 mm
1500
D=0,4 m
d=6 mm
1000
D=1,4 m
d=26 mm
D=1,2 m
d=18 mm
500
D=0,8 m
d=12 mm
Former DCA
subdivision
1000 D
0
0
0,02
0,04
1400 D3/2
0,06
0,08
1250 D3/2
0,1
0,12
0,14
0,16
0,18
0,2
0,22
v (De dn) [m]
Fig.2. Values for the soil-dependent constant, alongside the DCA guidelines.
Use of the formula
where:
R = minimum bending radius (m)
dn = nominal wall thickness (m)
C = a soil-dependent constant
For a series of pipelines and soils, calculations were carried
out to determine the values for the soil-dependent constant.
The results of these calculations are shown in Fig.2, which
also shows the former DCA guidelines. The calculations
are based on average values for the modulus of the elasticity
of the soil (Eg). Moduli were selected for a series of
sedimentary soil types, the values of which are:
Soil type
Soft clay
Medium-stiff clay
Loosely-packed sand
Medium-packed sand
Densely-packed sand
Eg (kN/m2)
1,000
2,500
10,000
25,000
75,000
The following values for the soil-dependent constants can

be extrapolated from the calculation results:
Densely-packed sand:
C = 8,500
Medium-packed sand: C = 9,400
Loosely-packed sand: C = 10,200
Medium-stiff clay:
C = 11,500
Soft clay and peat:
C = 12,500
Based on the actual soil parameters, it may of course be

proven by special analysis that a smaller design radius can
be permitted.
For very-soft soils or in situations involving layered soils
and large differences in soil stiffness, it may be necessary to
carry out a detailed evaluation of soil-bearing capacity and
deformability in relation the expected soil reactions.
In case of layered soils, with layers of equal thickness, a
weighted interpolation in between the values of the soildependent constants of the individual layers can be used to
determine the overall constant for design. The subsequent
weighting function should be used:
Hi
Cdesign = Ci
H total
(14)
For hard soils such as rock, and soils with gravel and stones,
it may be necessary to verify the coating strength.
Conclusions
The formula given is in fact an extension of the rev. 2 DCA
recommendations on this subject. In the rev. 2
recommendations, no wall thickness was included. The
4th Quarter, 2007
guideline on the bending radius in these rev. 2

recommendations was based on experience and is
consequently empirical. This guideline has now been
extended to take into account the wall thickness for thicker
walled pipes, which increases the bending stiffness. The
new formula with the factor C gives a similar soil reaction
as the rev. 2 DCA recommendations.
The above guideline on the design bend radius for steel
pipes from a viewpoint of soil pressure will be used in the
rev. 3 DCA guidelines, which are expected soon.
The author
Jan Spiekhout is a project manager for Nederlandse Gasunie.
He was awarded a masters degree in Civil Engineering by
the University of Delft in 1981, and began his career with
Shell in the area of storage tanks for LNG and LPG. He
later joined Gasunie as a material and construction
consultant. In Gasunie he subsequently undertook
management functions in research, engineering, inspection,
267
materials, HSE, and quality assurance, and is now a project

manager for pipeline and compressor station projects. He
has been involved in onshore as well as offshore projects.
He has authored a number of technical papers in the areas
of fracture mechanics, no-dig techniques, pipeline
construction, and pipeline integrity management, and has
chaired and co-chaired several working groups and technical
committees in this area.
Mr Speikhout is also a lecturer in fracture mechanics in a
course for postgraduates. He is a member of the Dutch
Safety Board (former Dutch Transportation Safety Board),
as well as being a member of the founding Board of the
Professional Institute of Pipeline Engineers.
Reference
1. Hetnyi, 1946. Beams on elastic foundation.
268
Editorial announcement
53"*/*/($0634&4t'&#36"3:
NEW! Excavation Inspection & Applied NDE for
ILI/DA Validation and Correlation
NEW! Optimizing ILI Inspection Scheduling
tStress Corrosion Cracking in Pipelines
tPipeline Mapping, GIS and Data Integration
*/5&3/"5*0/"-$0/'&3&/$&t'&#36"3:
The pipeline industrys premier forum devoted exclusively
to pigging for pipeline maintenance and inspection, as
well as integrity evaluation and repair, this event will draw
engineering management and field operating personnel from
both transmission and distribution companies concerned
with improved operations and integrity management.
tPigging & In-line Inspection
5)&&9)*#*5*0/t'&#36"3:
tDefect Assessment in Pipelines
Visit one-on-one with the worlds top providers of

pigging, ILI, and integrity management services
more than 50 companies will be represented.
See inside for details!
tPipeline Repair Methods/In-Service Welding

tDirect Assessment Methods for Pipeline Integrity
Topics: Risk, Engineering Critical Assessment, Data collection and

evaluation, In-Line Inspection, Tools, Direct Assessment, Direct
examination, Hydro Testing, Remediation & Repair Technologies,
Developmental and new application NDE Techniques, Mitigation and
Fitness for Purpose, Case studies.
Jim Marr is currently technical integrity specialist with Baker

Hughes Pipeline Management Group. He is also president of
the pipeline consulting firm Marr Associates. Jim has worked in
pipeline integrity for the past 20 years, focusing on SCC, external
corrosion, direct assessment, direct examination, ILI development
and correlation, data management, and the characterization of
the environment around the pipe. He has published numerous
papers related to SCC, investigative procedures, and environmental
relationships related to time-dependent pipeline threats.
James Pennie is an advanced NDT consultant with Eclipse Scientific
Inc. which develops specialized products and techniques for the
NDT industry, specifically in the advanced ultrasonic (UT) discipline.
James has been in the Non Destructive Testing industry for 10 years,
and has spent that time working within pipeline integrity field.
James provides Advanced UT Expertise to clients worldwide, to assist
with implementation of new technologies, training of personnel,
and procedure and technique development for both the onshore and
offshore industry.
Topics: Introduction, corrosion rates, introduction to inspection

timing, deterministic approach, reliability approach, risk approach,
assessing ILI uncertainty, methods of assessing corrosion rates,
assessment of failure pressure, miscellaneous topics, OPIS software
tutorial
Guy Desjardins is president of Desjardins Integrity, a consulting

firm in Calgary, AB. He has more than 25 years experience in the oil
and gas industry and 12 years with pipelines. In 1997, he became
a principal co-owner of Morrison Scientific and became Morrisons
president in 1998. He has been an independent consultant since
2005, offering services of data analysis, research, and software
development.
LECTURER
The course is especially designed for pipeline integrity engineers

and inspection specialists, ILI data analysts, and technical personnel
responsible for pipeline integrity assurance and corrosion control.
WHO SHOULD ATTEND
his new one-day course presents methods for dealing with

inherent uncertainties about corrosion growth rates as well as
ILI tool measurements, with the object of improving the reliability
of ILI inspections, and the interpretation of the inspection results
into maintenance decisions. It examines methods of determining
corrosion rates, timing of inspections, and deterministic-,
reliability-, and risk-based approaches to dealing with uncertainties
and establishing failure criteria. The course is intended for those
with basic familiarity with ILI tools and their capabilities.
The comprehensive syllabus for each course may be viewed

online at www.clarion.org
Upon completion, each course participant will be eligible to

receive 1.2 Continuing Education Units (CEUs) for each course,
except Course 2, which awards .4 CEUs.
Course times are from 8am to 4:45pm each day. (Course 2

is 8:00am - 3:00pm). Lunch and refreshments are included.
Participants will receive an extensive and detailed set of the
lecture notes for long-term reference after the course.
All courses are February 11-12 except Course 2 which is

February 12th only.
$0634&'&#36"3:
NEW! OPTIMIZING ILI INSPECTION SCHEDULING
The course is specifically designed for project managers, engineers

and technical personnel responsible for the management,
implementation and reporting of pipeline integrity inspection
activities.
WHO SHOULD ATTEND
On completion of the course, participants will have a solid

understanding of the minimum requirements to ensure maximum
correlation with ILI and Direct assessment results during an
excavation program. In addition, each participant will walk away
with a general understanding of the available technology and
procedures to implement contracts, increase quality, and reduce
overall project costs.
$0634&0#+&$5*7&
he course is designed around the critical step of Excavation

Inspection and Documentation, which has recently been
termed the 3rd step in Direct Assessment. The focus will be on
the validation and correlation of both ILI results and/or Direct
Assessment techniques through non- destructive testing in the
excavation.
LECTURERS
$0634&
NEW! EXCAVATION INSPECTION & APPLIED NDE FOR
ILI/DA VALIDATION AND CORRELATION
Topics: Data Storage. Data models. What is GIS? Spatial Data Overview. Pipeline data in GIS.
GIS vendor options. Pipeline mapping. Geocoding. Spatial analysis (geoprocessing). Topology.
Establishing the data framework. Asset data. Off-pipe spatial data. Links to external systems.
Integrating new data. Asset data. GPS. Field surveys. Applications to analyze data. Delivering data
and analyses.
Nick Park has 12 years of software product management experience with more than six
years specifically in the pipeline industry. As a Consultant and, most recently, Vice President
of Technology for GeoFields Inc., Mr. Park is involved in the design and implementation of
data management systems for complex pipeline operations, which are currently being used
by thousands of individuals across a diverse client base. Mr. Park has an MS in Geographic
Information Systems and continues to provide support to a range of mapping and GIS projects.
LECTURER
Pipeline integrity managers, pipeline engineers involved in assessment activities including risk
assessment, and anyone requiring a general knowledge of pipeline data management.
WHO SHOULD ATTEND
his course is designed for pipeline company personnel in need of either a refresher or
introduction to data management for pipeline integrity support and to support the risk
analysis process. It will review data model types, where to locate data, how to integrate data from
different sources, and how to best make this data work for you. On completion of this course
attendees will have an understanding ways data can be stored, including a review of industry
standard data models; will be able to identify possible data sources and will have learned methods
for review and acquisition of data. In addition attendees will have powerful insight into getting
the most out of the vast amounts of data available to make better-informed decisions regarding
risk and integrity management.
$0634&
PIPELINE MAPPING, GIS AND DATA INTEGRATION
Topics: Description of SCC. History of SCC in pipelines. Stages of SCC. Test techniques to study
SCC. Environmental factors. Stress factors. Metallurgical factors. Mechanisms of SCC. Likely
locations for SCC. SCC detection and integrity assurance. Mitigating SCC. Integrity management
plans.
Dr. Raymond R. Fessler worked on the Pipeline Research Committee project on SCC since its
inception in 1965. He personally conducted most of the early field investigations of SCC, from
which he identified the major factors that cause high-pH SCC in pipelines. For the past several
years, he has been the SCC consultant for GRI and PRCI.
John Mackenzie is a senior pipeline specialist with Kiefner & Associates, focusing on the
areas of Integrity Management Plans and Stress Corrosion Cracking. John was previously
with TransCanada Pipelines for 25 years, where he was responsible for the companys original
investigation into SCC (1986-1990). This work led to the discovery of near-neutral pH SCC and
identified the conditions under which it occurs. He also served as Chair of the PRCIs SCC
Subcommittee for two years.
LECTURERS
Pipeline engineers, designers, and service professionals who are involved with the maintenance,
inspection, and repair of pipelines. Researchers and regulatory personnel who want to be aware
of the current understanding of SCC in pipelines.
WHO SHOULD ATTEND
tress-corrosion cracking (SCC) continues to be a safety concern to pipeline operators and

government regulatory agencies, and it must be addressed in integrity management plans.
This course will provide a detailed description of what is known about the appearance and causes
of SCC, and it will discuss various approaches to mitigating and managing the problem. Practical
information on recognizing and dealing with SCC will be presented along with descriptions
of research results that have led to our current understanding of causes and methods of
management.
$0634&
STRESS CORROSION CRACKING IN PIPELINES
Topics: Utility and maintenance

pigging. Metal loss in-line inspection.
Other in-line inspection tools. Crack
detection pigs. Mapping. Geometry and
bend-detection pigs. Wax deposition
measurement. Spanning pigs. Semiintelligent pigs. Designing and
implementing an in-line inspection (ILI)
program. Post in-line inspection issues.
Gary Smith is president of Inline

Services, specializing in pigging
equipment and services. He has 27
years experience in the pipeline pigging
industry, working in services such as
commissioning and maintenance of
pipelines as well as with designing and
manufacturing pigging equipment.
Dr. Martin Phillips is a Senior Engineer
with CC Technologies Services, Inc.
He has more than 20 years experience
with ILI and pipeline integrity services,
including management of multi-pipeline
inspection programs using different ILI
tools and development of ILI tools for
metal loss and cracking.
George Williamson has 25 years of
experience in pipeline and oil and
gas field operations, maintenance,
and engineering. He is a registered
professional engineer.
LECTURERS
The course is especially designed

for project managers, engineers,
maintenance and technical personnel
responsible for pipeline integrity
assurance, flow assurance, corrosion
control, and safety.
WHO SHOULD ATTEND
he use of in-line tools for inspection

and cleaning is accepted as essential
for the safe and profitable operation
of all pipelines. Now, Regulations
require internal inspections using
geometry pigs for detecting changes in
circumference and MFL or ultrasonic
pigs for determining wall anomalies, or
wall loss due to corrosion in onshore
pipelines in the US. Offshore, pipeline
operators wage a constant battle for flow
assurance against paraffin, hydrate, and
asphaltene formation in deepwater lines,
and pigging technology combined with
chemical treatment is their primary
weapon.
COURSE 5
PIPELINE PIGGING AND
IN-LINE INSPECTION
4th Quarter, 2007
269
Topics: Regulatory issues. NACE Standard. INGAA. ASME B31.8S. External Corrosion Direct
Assessment (ECDA). NACE Standard RP0502-2002. Internal Corrosion Direct Assessment
(ICDA). Stress Corrosion Direct Assessment (SCCDA).
Kurt Lawson is Vice President of CC Technologies Systems, Inc., a corrosion engineering and
research firm specializing in corrosion, corrosion control methods, research, failure analysis,
and cathodic protection monitoring, design and construction. He has more than 17 years
of field experience in the corrosion testing and evaluation of buried structures, including
reinforced soil structures, pilings, reinforced concrete structures, and cathodically protected
tanks and pipelines. Work on these structures has covered a wide range of techniques
including basic potential surveys, application of advanced AC and DC electrochemical
methods, advanced potential surveys utilizing digital storage oscilloscopes, and complex finite
element computer modeling of cathodic protection systems and their effectiveness.
LECTURER
Pipeline engineers, designers and service professionals who are involved with the
maintenance, inspection, and repair of pipelines.
WHO SHOULD ATTEND
n completion of the course, participants will have a solid understanding of the procedures,
strengths, limitations, and applicability of various Direct Assessment technologies and
methods as they relate to pipeline inspection and integrity assessment for compliance with
DOT regulations, and of the related industry codes and standards which will be reviewed and
explained.
COURSE 8
DIRECT ASSESSMENT METHODS
FOR PIPELINE INTEGRITY
Topics: Defect assessment prior to repair. Selecting an appropriate repair method.

Burnthrough and related safety concerns. Hydrogen cracking concerns. Full-encirclement
repair sleeves. Hot tap branch connections. Pipeline repair by weld deposition. Nonwelded
repairs. Code and regulatory requirements. Procedure selection for hot tap and repair sleeve
welding. Practical aspects of hot tap and repair sleeve welding. Lessons learned.
OPENING REMARKS
$PGGFFBOE&YIJCJUJPO
Black powder, a mix of iron sulfides

and oxides, can represent a serious
threat to the integrity of gas pipelines by
plugging pipelines, eroding compressor
components, plugging pipeline drips,
preventing valid inspection by In-Line
Inspection (ILI) pigs, and causing damage
to customer equipment. The velocity to
cause movement of dry black powder in
gas pipelines can be calculated, and is in
the range of 12 ft/sec for 24-inch pipelines.
Once black powder starts to move, it
will continue to move until the flow rate
is reduced or the gas is re-compressed.
Examples of black powder problems in the
field are presented, and rules of thumb
about cleanliness in gas pipelines are
discussed. Black powder can be partially
controlled by using corrosion inhibitors,
by using slug catchers or cyclones, or by
cleaning the line by pigging. Suggested
criteria for monitoring black powder
movement are discussed.
DR JOHN S SMART, JOHN SMART CONSULTING

ENGINEERS, HOUSTON, TX, USA, AND
ROBERT WINTERS, SR PIPELINE SPECIALIST,
CHAMPION TECHNOLOGIES, LAFAYETTE, LA, USA
#-"$,108%&3.*(3"5*0/*/("4
1*1&-*/&4"/%"440$*"5&%130#-&.4

PETER FRETWELL, PIPELINE ENGINEERING,

CATTERICK, UK
PIG TRAP DESIGN: RECENT

*//07"5*0/4"/%5)&*.1035"/$&
0'1-"//&%."*/5&/"/$&"/%
INSPECTION PROCEDURES
8.50

8&%/&4%": 'FCSVBSZ
COCKTAIL RECEPTION, EXHIBITION OPENS
5.00 7.00PM
56&4%": 'FCSVBSZ
Over time, pipelines lose efficiency

and therefore transportation capacity.
This is one of the reasons why TGS keeps
an updated pipeline simulation model
that identifies inefficient operations in the
system. One such simulation detected a
DANIEL FALABELLA AND DULCE GOMEZ,

OPERATIONS DEPARTMENT, TRANSPORTADORA DE
GAS DEL SUR, BUENOS AIRES, ARGENTINA
&/)"/$*/(1*1&-*/&&''*$*&/$:
THROUGH CHEMICAL CLEANING

In high-CO2, wet and/or multiphase

gas production subsea pipelines, top of
line (TOL) corrosion has been a significant
problem experienced by many pipeline
operators. The TOL corrosion mechanism
has in some cases led to premature failure
and/or early retirement of operational
pipelines. TOL corrosion costs not only
losses in production but, more important, it
presents a serious threat to environmental
contamination should a through-wall failure
occur. It is estimated that TOL corrosion
may cost the industry in excess of $500
million within the next five to ten years. To
control TOL, many operators have adopted
recently-developed specialized spray
pig technology in an attempt to improve
the distribution of corrosion inhibitor
to the top of the pipeline. As part of an
industry-wide R&D program, a semi-smart
pig has been developed using existing
smart-pig technology to aid in obtaining
evidence of the spray pigs ability to deliver
the corrosion inhibitor to the top of the
pipeline. In addition, information was also
obtained to increase understanding of
the tools performance parameters under
various operating conditions.
This paper will discuss development
and testing of the tool, and how the semismart pig technology may assist operators
in understanding, planning and executing
treatment programs to mitigate TOL
corrosion.
ROBERT J WATERHOUSE, SR PRINCIPAL ASSET

INTEGRITY ENGINEER, IONIK CONSULTING,
HOUSTON, TX, USA; ALBERT VAN ROODSELAAR,
SR RELIABILITY ENGINEER, CHEVRON, HOUSTON, TX,
USA; ERIC N FREEMAN, ENGINEERING MANAGER,
AND RICK D PRUETT, SR ENGINEERING DESIGNER,
TD WILLIAMSON, TULSA, OK, USA
%&7&-01.&/54*/413":1*(
*/)*#*503"11-*$"5*0/

Note: this program is subject to change

In-depth abstracts may be viewed online at www.clarion.org
PIPELINE PIGGINGBOE*/5&(3*5:."/"(&.&/5
$0/'&3&/$&130(3".
A newly constructed pipeline requires

pigging to ensure overall safety and
fitness for purpose as well as removal of
construction blockages. Contingency plans
like hot tapping, etc., are tools to clear the
line path, but they substantially increase
cost, and above that there are future safety
concerns when the transported fluid is
Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG).
The worlds longest LPG transmission
pipeline, the Jamnagar-Loni Pipeline
(approx. 800 miles/1298 km), is the lifeline
of north India, the most densely populated
part of the country, and where LPG is used
as a major fuel for cooking. This paper
reports on the commissioning of this
pipeline and various safety practices in
handling LPG. It was observed that nitrogen
gas (as an inert media) and LPG columns
were found much ahead of commissioning
pigs. However, a sufficient N2 column was
maintained ahead of the LPG column
PARTHA JANA, DEPUTY GENERAL MANAGER,

GAIL (INDIA) LTD, JAMNAGAR, INDIA
COMMISSIONING THE WORLDS

LONGEST LPG PIPELINE, AND
3&53*&7"-0'456$,1*(4
"$"4&456%:

-VODIBOE&YIJCJUJPO
decrease in the efficiency of one of the San

Martn Pipeline sections. TGS conducted
field pressure and flow measurements on
the section, which were later compared
to the data obtained in the simulation
model, corroborating its accuracy. Later,
conventional mechanical cleaning tasks
were conducted without satisfactory results.
This led TGS to explore several alternatives.
Chemical cleaning was preferred as it
allowed us to conduct the cleaning process
while the transportation system remained
in service.
Through several simulations conducted
by means of the Gregg program, both
the efficiency enhancement and its result
were determined. One of the challenges
of the project was to keep in service,
during cleaning tasks, the Cerri Complex
liquid processing plant. For this, a further
process simulation tool was required: Hysys,
which allowed us to define critical project
variables, such as solvent to be used, flow
management to keep delivered gas within
quality specifications, and dew point
calculation.
This work reflects the simulation tasks
conducted and results achieved in the
implementation of this cleaning method,
which had never been used on an in-service
pipeline in Argentina.
Topics: Defect failure relationships.

Corrosion defects. Workshop: corrosion
assessment using fitness for purpose.
Gouges. Dents. Cracks. Weld defects. Limitstate design. Fracture mechanics. Fatigue.
Setting intelligent pig inspection levels.
Pipeline repair and rehabilitation. Risk and
integrity management and analysis.
Workshop: setting priorities.
Professor Phil Hopkins has more than 26

years experience in pipeline engineering,
and is Technical Director with Penspen
Integrity and Visiting Professor of
Engineering at the University of Newcastleupon-Tyne. He has worked with most of the
major oil and gas companies and pipeline
companies around the world, providing
consultancy on management, business,
design, maintenance, inspection, risk
analysis and safety, and failure investigations.
He is the immediate past-chairman of the
Executive Committee of the ASME Pipeline
Systems Division and has served on many
other professional committees, including
the British Standards Institution, European
Pipeline Research Group, the American Gas
Associations Pipeline Research Committee,
and the DNV Pipeline Committee. More than
1700 engineers and technical personnel
around the world have attended his Pipeline
Defect Assessment and Pipeline Integrityrelated courses.
LECTURER
Pipeline engineers, designers and service

professionals who are involved with the
maintenance, inspection, and repair of
pipelines.
WHO SHOULD ATTEND
Chris Alexander is a Staff Consultant at Stress Engineering Services, Inc. He has been
integrally involved in assessing the effects of dents and mechanical damage on the
structural integrity of pipelines. Mr. Alexander has also been involved in assessing the use of
composites in repairing pipelines and has published numerous papers and made international
presentations on this subject.
Bill Bruce is director of welding technology with CC Technologies. Prior to joining CCT,
he was a technology leader at Edison Welding Institute and a senior engineer at Panhandle
Eastern Pipeline Co. He is a member of the American Petroleum Institute API 1104
Committee and is the chairman of the Maintenance Welding Subcommittee.
LECTURERS
Pipeline engineers, Operations and Maintenance personnel, inspectors, and welders.
WHO SHOULD ATTEND
his course will cover the various aspects of pipeline repair using weld and non-weld
methods, as well as the concerns for welding onto in-service pipelines and the approaches
used to address them.
he increasing use of inline inspection

methods is helping pipeline owners to
assess the condition of their lines, and if
these methods are combined with modern
defect-assessment methods, they can provide
a very powerful, and cost-effective, tool.
This course will present the latest defectassessment methods, which range from
simple, quick, assessment methods, to moredetailed fitness for purpose analysis. It will
cover assessment of internal and external
corrosion, dents and gouges, cracks (e.g.
SCC), weld defects, and fatigue. The course
is highly interactive and takes the form of
lectures, workshops, and case studies.
COURSE 7
PIPELINE REPAIR METHODS/
IN-SERVICE WELDING
COURSE 6
DEFECT ASSESSMENT
IN PIPELINES
270
The OCP Pipeline (Oleoducto de Crudos

Pesados - Heavy Crude Oil Pipeline) in
Ecuador crosses regions with of very
dynamic geology and which feature many
unique characteristics. Along its route, the
pipeline crosses the Andes Mountains,
reaching an altitude of 12,000 feet
(4,060m). Within this regional geological
context, OCP emphasizes the need for a
Pipeline Integrity Management Plan that
addresses and evaluates the areas that
could be potentially vulnerable to certain
ANDRS MENDIZBAL, OPERATIONS AND

MAINTENANCE DIRECTOR, OCP, QUITO, ECUADOR,
AND FABIN SANCHEZ, ENGINEERING MANAGER,
OCP, QUITO, ECUADOR
*/5&(3*5:."/"(&.&/50'"
PIPELINE CROSSING THE
ANDES MOUNTAINS

Pigging to mitigate corrosion, scaling,

or flow-assurance issues most frequently is
done well into the lifecycle of the pipeline.
For new or early-life deepwater pipelines,
where future repair and retrofit are likely to
be very expensive or virtually impossible,
far greater assurance is demanded for
design performance. Recent studies
have shown that up-front attention to
conceptual Integrity Management at the
project FEED stage is paramount. The paper
shows, through deepwater subsea tieback
case examples, that team-based Inherently
Safe Design methods, good materials
selection, and sound predictive corrosion
assessment can lead to far better integrity
management and life-cycle performance.
This in turn facilitates better planning and
implementation of more cost-effective
pigging regimes. The paper describes how
these disciplines are related and must
be deployed in combination rather than
individually. The presentation follows
some case histories developed in the GOM,
where it is critical to eliminate, prevent, or
greatly minimize any predictable corrosion
problems.
DR BINDER SINGH AND SYED HUSSAIN,

IONIK CONSULTING, HOUSTON, TX, USA
.",*/(5)&-*/,#&58&&/
*/)&3&/5-:4"'&%&4*(/ */5&(3*5:
MANAGEMENT, AND PIGGING

to avoid formation of an explosive

mixture, resulting in successful and safe
commissioning of the pipeline.
The paper also provides a case study
of retrieval of four pigs stuck in the
commissioning phase of the pipeline in
a section where the line passed through
difficult terrain.
$PGGFFBOE&YIJCJUJPO
ASSESSING, LOCATING, AND

&9$"7"5*/("/0."-*&4
Pipeline integrity programs carry with

them inherent legal issues and exposures.
A meaningful integrity program will
by its very nature be self-critical, and the
processes involved in evaluating pipeline
systems may not only result in the positive
outcome of increasing pipeline safety,
but also in the creation of data and
documentation that, if misused or viewed
with the wisdom critics find in hindsight,
CHRIS A PAUL, JOYCE & PAUL, TULSA, OK, USA
."/"(*/(*/5&(3*5:130(3".4
*/"-*5*(*06440$*&5:

Knowledge of anomaly assessment

allows more accurate prediction and
location of anomalies. Proper analysis of the
geometry inspection data requires careful
attention to several criteria, including pig
speed, wall thickness, weld indications, and
bend indications. This paper will review
the key steps in planning and analysis
of geometry inspection data prior to
excavation of anomalies. It also discusses
the decision-making process concerning
pipeline repair or replacement after
geometry inspection.
SCOTT COATS, PRESIDENT, PRECISION PIGGING,

BIXBY, OK, USA

This paper provides an overview of

how through-wall radiography using
variable densitometry analysis can be used
to accurately assess corrosion networks
and quantify remaining pipe strength.
The cost effectiveness and potential
technical advantages are discussed for the
application of through-wall radiography to
ILI follow-up line dig inspections.
GEORGE C WILLIAMSON AND

JOSEPH M GALBRAITH, BP AMERICA PRODUCTION
CO, HOUSTON, TX, USA
5)306()8"--3"%*0(3"1):'03
1*1&-*/&*/5&(3*5:"44&44.&/5"5
-*/&&9$"7"5*0/4*5&4

geodynamic phenomena such as: volcanic

(12 volcanoes), seismic (28 geological
faults), and slope instability (landslides),
etc., in order to define monitoring and
control measures that allows it to maintain
the integrity of the pipeline.
This paper discusses the Integrity
Management Plan that was executed for
a pipeline subject to these extraordinary
conditions and threats.
$-04&0'%":
$PDLUBJM3FDFQUJPO&YIJCJUJPO
could provide a roadmap for plaintiff

attorneys or government investigators to
question an operators decisions in the
event of an accident. These issues are
all the more problematic when one also
recognizes the need for involving third
parties in consulting arrangements and
contracts for internal inspections, thus
making data and documentation control
more challenging. Also, management of
documents provided to the government
are subject to release to the public,
raising security issues as well as putting
information at increased risk of being
misconstrued or taken out of context.
Building upon the presentation at
the 2007 Conference, which was a broad
discussion of legal issues in pipeline
integrity programs, this paper will
review data integration and recordsretention requirements of the regulations
and discuss how these could result in
misinterpretation and misuse of data and
documents. The bases for management
and company exposure will be discussed,
as will government criteria for determining
whether or not information known by the
company might result not only in simple
liability, but also the possibility of criminal
exposure.
The presentation will also take an
updated look at how companies are
dealing with improved ILI tools providing
tremendous amounts of data that must
be captured and integrated with other
information on the operators pipeline
systems. It will be emphasized that while
companies want to do the right thing, they
need to understand the legal risks involved
so that they can do the right thing in the
right way. Companies that are legitimately
and thoroughly trying to identify, qualify,
quantify and manage risks must understand
how to handle documentation associated
with their integrity programs to minimize
the potential for data and information
to be taken out of context and used to
imply deficiencies in programs, whether
this is done by government agencies or
by private plaintiffs. This paper will discuss
solutions to these issues along with a focus
on specific language to include in the
drafting of consulting and ILI contracts, and
suggestions on how to manage documents
that are made available to the government
regarding integrity issues.
5)634%": 'FCSVBSZ
Subsea pipeline inspection traditionally

employs the same technologies used for
onshore pipelines. One such technology
is the instrumented pig, which usually
runs under the same parameters and
procedures as those used for onshore
inspections. However, its very common
to find subsea pipelines with special
characteristics, such as varying diameters
and small-radius bends, that prevent the
use of conventional instrumented pigs.
Other factors that make the inspection
difficult are increased wall thickness, which
significantly limits the use of magnetic
instrumented pigs. An alternative currently
available is the ultrasonic pig. But this
method has limitations, such as the need
for a homogeneous liquid with good
acoustic properties, to serve as a couplant.
In crude oil pipelines this couplant is not
always available, as these lines often carry
multi-phase fluids.
A new method has been developed to
detect and size loss of wall thickness due
to internal corrosion. A special pig was
designed to deal with large variations in
diameter, with no practical limit of wall
thickness to be inspected, and to navigate
through curves and geometric accessories
with small-radius bends. The tool is called
the Feeler Pig, as it consists of several
feeler-type sensors that measure internal
corrosion. The system was field tested
and had its performance compared to
a standard ultrasonic instrumented pig.
Excellent defect correlation was observed
between the Ultrasonic and Feeler Pig data,
both in geometry and depth of internal
corrosion. With this high confidence, other
prototypes of Feeler Pigs were developed.
A new design, named the Feeler Snake
Pig, was implemented, mounting the
feeler-type sensors over a flexible support,
yielding a tool with ultra-high tolerance to
geometric restrictions. The excellent results
of the prototype and its robustness against
line geometric restrictions immediately
open a wide range of opportunities for
the Feeler Snake Pig technology in field
applications.
WINNER OF THE ASME GLOBAL

PIPELINE AWARD, 2007
CLAUDIO CAMERINI, PETROBRAS CENPES, RIO DE
JANEIRO, BRAZIL; AND
JEAN PIERRE VON DER WEID, MIGUEL FREITAS,
AND THIAGO SALCEDO, PUC-RIO-CETUC/CPTI, RIO
DE JANEIRO, BRAZIL
5)&'&&-&34/",&1*(
"4*.1-&8":50%&5&$5"/%
SIZE INTERNAL CORROSION

$PGGFFBOE&YIJCJUJPO
While ILI technology has solved many

problems in inspecting long-distance
pipelines, it often cannot be satisfactorily
used in many non-piggable situations,
such as may occur in the pipeline network
of a gas processing facility. These networks
are complex in design, featuring pipes
of many diameters, many bends, valves,
and short-length segments. Ultrasonic
guided wave technology has been used
successfully to inspect such systems. The
inspection process is fast, convenient,
and especially fit for inspecting plant
pipeline networks. This paper describes
the application of this technology at a gas
processing facility in China.
WENQIANG TONG, WEIBIN WANG,

GUANGWEN LIU, AND YUQIN WANG,
PETROCHINA PIPELINE COMPANY, RESEARCH &
DEVELOPMENT CENTER, INTEGRITY INSTITUTE,
LANGFANG, HEIBEI, CHINA
ULTRASONIC GUIDED
8"7&*/41&$5*0/*/
("4130$&44*/(1-"/51*1&803,

A new eddy current inspection method

has been developed that enables the
internal inspection of pipelines that
currently cannot be examined using
established methods such as magnetic flux
leakage and ultrasonics. Specifically, the
method induces electrical current in the
pipe wall by rotating pairs of high-strength
permanent magnets around a shaft. Recent
advances in high-strength permanent
magnet technology have made the
concept practical. The rotating permanent
magnet system has the potential for
broader application because the sensor
configurations can be small in size, allowing
them to pass obstructions that currently
prevent inspection using available pigs. This
paper will review the theory of operation of
the method and will present detection and
sizing data from corrosion defects.
DR J BRUCE NESTLEROTH AND RICK DAVIS,

BATTELLE, COLUMBUS, OH, USA
ROTATING PERMANENT MAGNET

*/41&$5*0/'03
6/1*(("#-&1*1&-*/&4
9.05
The ultimate objective of MFL data

analysis is to predict the maximum safe
operating pressure of the pipe. This analysis
takes into account the defects depth and
also its length-to-width ratio. The most
critical defects associated with pipelines are
crack-like defects (welding cracks, fatigue
cracks, stress corrosion cracks, hydrogeninduced cracks, and sulfide corrosion
cracks). For these surface-breaking cracks,
the length and the depth are typically
much larger than the crack width, such that
the variation of the MFL signal with respect
to the width is negligible. It is also assumed
that the investigated cracks are straight
along their lengths and the crack walls are
perpendicular to the metal surface.
This paper reports a direct examination
methodology to estimate the crack
parameters only from the y-component
of the leakage field. The proposed
inversion procedure involves estimation of
orientation, length, and depth.
The proposed method for crack sizing
can be easily implemented on a personal
computer using mathematical packages
such as MATLAB or MathCAD, or even
programmable ICs such as microcontrollers.
Time and memory requirements are
negligible. The authors examine the
accuracy of the proposed inversion
procedure via simulations based on the
finite element method (FEM) and MFL
measurements.
REZA KHALAJ AMINEH, NATALIA K NIKOLOVA,

AND JAMES P REILLY, ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, MCMASTER
UNIVERSITY, HAMILTON, ON, CANADA, AND
JAMES R HARE, INTRATECH INLINE INSPECTION
SERVICES LTD, MISSISSAUGA, ON, CANADA
$)"3"$5&3*;"5*0/0'
463'"$&#3&",*/($3"$,4

This paper presents the results from a

case study that illustrates the detection
limits for some long-range guided wave
technologies. The authors have generated
unique charts that are pipe-size specific.
The charts translate cross-sectional
detection criteria into corrosion features
with different aspect ratios ranging from
general corrosion to isolated pitting,
thereby allowing a pipeline operator to
determine the likelihood of detecting
different corrosion anomalies.
JOSEPH M GALBRAITH AND

GEORGE C WILLIAMSON, BP AMERICA
PRODUCTION CO, HOUSTON, TX, USA
"44&44.&/50'
5)&$"1"#*-*5*&40'
-0/(3"/(&(6*%&%8"7&
ULTRASONIC INSPECTIONS

4th Quarter, 2007
271
The complexities of the various

cracking processes that can occur on a
pipeline have made accurate and reliable
crack detection a great challenge. Different
conditions give rise to different cracking
mechanisms, which result in different
crack types. Although we tend to talk
of pipeline cracks as a uniquely defined
type of structural feature, in reality we are
talking about a whole class of features that
can range from a single, small and isolated
crack running axially along the pipe, to
single, very large cracks, or even colonies
of small structurally-interacting cracks that
behave like one or more large features. The
different physical morphologies of various
crack types lead to different demands on
any inline inspection tool designed to
find them, thereby making the inspection
challenge much more difficult. Add to this
the enormous intrinsic difficulties of crack
detection to begin with, and we begin to
see why it has taken so long to produce
truly effective inline inspection solutions.
This paper summarizes the different
types of cracks that commonly affect
pipelines and describes progress being
made to detect and measure these
flaws accurately using inline inspection
technology. The tool in question is
based on a customized, high-resolution
configuration of the ElectroMagnetic
Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) principle.
Recent tests of this technology in
transmission pipelines in Saudi Arabia and
Germany are described, together with the
results obtained.
While detecting and sizing cracks are
clearly desirable capabilities for any crackdetection tool, the tool and subsequent
data analysis processes must also be
competent to recognize and reject cracklike signals arising from non-crack features
such as laminations. This paper will discuss
this aspect of discrimination performance.
In particular, the use of multiple-parameter
analysis to investigate the numerous
properties of the inspection signals will be
explained, leading to an exciting prospect
for true high- performance discrimination
between cracks and non-crack features in
the future.
The presentation will also address
the capabilities of EMAT inspection
technology to measure the bond quality
HAMAD AL-QAHTANI, SAUDI ARAMCO PIPELINES

DEPARTMENT, DHAHRAN, SAUDI ARABIA
ACCURATE DETECTION AND

4*;*/(0'1*1&-*/&$3"$,4
$0"5*/(%*4#0/%.&/5

-VODIBOE&YIJCJUJPO
RESPONDING TO
CRACK DETECTION ILI
$PGGFF
$-04&0'$0/'&3&/$&
7*4*564"5
WWW.CLARION.ORG

Pipeline operators require both depth

and burst pressure as measures of the
severity of corrosion and other types
of anomalies from ILI data. For an MFL
run, depth and length are derived from
the magnetic signals using proprietary
software. Burst pressure is then calculated
using depth and length using standard
formulas or procedures such as B31G or
RStreng. Each step in the calculation of
burst pressure contributes some error or
uncertainty to the final calculation. This
paper investigates an alternative method
of deriving burst pressure directly from the
MFL magnetic data signals. The advantage
of this approach is that the burst pressure
is calculated in one step and thus
reduces the sources of uncertainty in the
calculation.
STEPHEN WESTWOOD, BJ PIPELINE INSPECTION

SERVICES, CALGARY, AB, CANADA, AND
GUY DESJARDINS, DESJARDINS INTEGRITY LTD,
CALGARY, AB, CANADA
"44&44.&/50'#634513&4463&
'30.*-*%"5"

larger than the anomaly that caused

it, greatly improving the likelihood of
detection.
ILI methods are chosen based on
the specific threat identified by a preinspection risk analysis. Two typical threats
are Microbiological Corrosion (MIC) and
Top of Line Corrosion (TOL), which require
careful selection of a suitable inspection
technology. The combination of MFL and
UT on a single tool has a broader range of
application than either method alone, and
the risk assessment effort can be reduced
significantly with regard to the inspection
strategy.
Combining two inspection
technologies is also beneficial in reducing
the operational risk and the cost of an
in-line inspection. If both technologies
were to be applied separately, the
additional launching, receiving, and
tracking would create additional risks
associated with safe operation and cost.
In addition a reduction in flow rate or
pressure may be required during the
inspection.
&9)*#*5*0/)0634
Tuesday, February 12, 2008 - 5:00pm to 7:00pm
Wednesday, February 13, 2008 - 9:00am to 6:30pm
Thursday, February 14, 2008 - 9:00am to 1:30pm
503&4&37&&9)*#*5*0/41"$&
Visit www.clarion.org or call (713) 521-5929.
507*4*55)&&9)*#*5*0/
Its included free if you are attending the
conference and/or courses; otherwise only $25!
See the reservation form on the following page.
&9)*#*5*0/'-0031-"/
key feature of the conference is the

opportunity to visit one-on-one with the
leading technology suppliers in this fast-evolving
field. Exhibiting company representatives will
be available to discuss the latest technologies
for pipeline integrity management, including
ILI; pigging for cleaning, geometry, sealing, ILI
prep, and other utility applications; validation
digs, NDE and Direct Assessment; hydrotesting,
data management, leak detection, mapping,
emergency response, and repair.
$"/5"55&/%5)&$0/'&3&/$& %0/5.*445)&&9)*#*5*0/
Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL)

technology is known to be versatile and
robust for determining the geometry of
metal loss in both liquid and gas pipelines,
while the ultrasonic method allows a
highly accurate direct measurement
of pipeline wall thickness. The paper
presents a solution that combines both
technologies on a single in-line inspection
tool.
It turns out that the two methods
complement their respective limitations.
Furthermore, the overall scope of the
inspection is greater. General wall
thinning and largely corroded areas are
accurately and reliably scanned with the
UT unit, while very detailed information
about pitting corrosion is obtained from
the MFL measurement. Blind spots of
echo loss, occasionally observed in UT
data, are overcome by the more robust
measurement from the MFL sensors. This
is because a magnetic pattern is typically
T. BEUKER, J. PALMER, DR. M. QUACK,

ROSEN TECHNOLOGY AND RESEARCH CENTER
GERMANY
$0.#*/*/&%.'-"/%6-53"40/*$
5&45*/('03&/)"/$&%
%&5&$5*0/0'.&5"--044"/%
1*1&-*/&8"--'&"563&4

This paper will discuss a technology

developed five years ago and its evolution
and recent improvement based on clients
requirements and their in-field experience.
The long-range EMAT technique will
be examined for seam weld and dent
inspection, and it will be compared to
other inspection techniques. Case studies,
complemented by dig data points, will
validate technology advances such as
sizing and reporting enhancements.
GE PII, CRAMLINGTON, UK
(AUTHORS TO BE ANNOUNCED)
'*&-%&91&3*&/$&%3*7&4
*.1307&.&/5*/
&."5*/41&$5*0/5&$)/0-0(:

DR MARTIN PHILLIPS, CC TECHNOLOGIES,

DUBLIN, OH, USA

of external coatings to the pipe surface.

Such information is useful not only for
defect risk assessments; it is also useful for
optimizing the cathodic protection on a
pipeline.
272
4th Quarter, 2007
273
3&(*453"5*0/'03.$0634&t$0/'&3&/$&t&9)*#*54
$0/'&3&/$&
O Conference Only , February 13-14, 2008: $895
$0634&$0/'&3&/$& (select course #)
O 1. NEW! Excavation Inspection & Applied NDE for ILI/DA Validation and Correlation: $2990
O 2. NEW! Optimizing ILI Inspection Scheduling: $1590
O 3. Stress Corrosion Cracking: $2990
Note: If you decide to
O 4. Pipeline Mapping, GIS Systems and Data Integration: $2990
register for an additional
O 5. Pigging and In-Line Inspection: $2990
event (course or
O 6. Defect Assessment in Pipelines: $2990
conference) separately,
or at a later date, the
O 7. Pipeline Repair Methods: $2990
combined rate will apply.
O 8. Direct Assessment: $2990
$0634&0/-: (select course #)
O 1. NEW! Excavation Inspection & Applied NDE for ILI/DA Validation and Correlation, February 11-12: $2195
O 2. NEW! Optimizing ILI Inspection Scheduling, February 12: $795
O 3. Stress Corrosion Cracking, February 11-12: $2195
O 4. Pipeline Mapping, GIS Systems and Data Integration, February 11-12: $2195
O 5. Pigging and In-Line Inspection, February 11-12: $2195
O 6. Defect Assessment in Pipelines, February 11-12: $2195
O 7. Pipeline Repair Methods, February 11-12: $2195
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For information about joining PIPE, please visit www.pipeinst.org
OASME Members: 10% discount (may not be combined with other discounts) "4.&.FNCFS/P____________
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For fastest registration, register online now at
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OR FAX or mail this form to:
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CLARION 5FDIOJDBM$POGFSFODFT
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HOW TO CONTACT US: see box at right
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Integrity Management Conference and Courses to take
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December, 2007

4. Back issues: Single issues from the current volume (and

4th Quarter, 2007

The Journal of Pipeline

The Journal of Pipeline Integrity

The Journal of Pipeline Engineering

Rio conference: a hugelyencouraging pipeline outlook

HE Journal of Pipeline Engineering (JPE) was pleased

Petrobras pipeline investment is

ETWEEN NOW and 2012, Petrobras will construct

manager of the companys planning and implementation

Pipeline Opportunities Forum:

ERHAPS MORE-importantly than the construction

4th Quarter, 2007

in 2030. We have to invest in modernization since the

has required a significant research programme, he affirmed.

Global Pipeline Award

HE GROWTH of ethanol production in Brazil and

RELATIVELY-new and increasingly-important aspect

During his lecture, Mr Gomes replied to the point raised by

One of the very encouraging aspects of this years

Pipelines will transport 30% of

opinion of the judging panel, has been responsible for the

CPTI - Center for Research in Inspection Technology

BP fined for Alaskan leaks

HE US Department of Justice reports that British

The Journal of Pipeline Engineering

which $12 million is criminal fine, $4 million is community

continued on page 249

4th Quarter, 2007

An analysis of significant SCC

N RESPONSE TO numerous stress-corrosion cracking

attributed to SCC, as reported by the company, on federallyregulated pipelines.

*Authors contact details:

In Canada, the SCC failure mode has not produced as

The Journal of Pipeline Engineering

Length inspected (m)

Table 1. Historical SCC

commonly known as high-pH SCC. While the only

in reporting; unfortunately the significant SCC data

The NEB SCC inquiry report made 27 recommendations

Recommendation 6-10 (page 114 of the NEB inquiry

The extent of SCC

Fig.1. Number of ruptures on NEBregulated pipelines [3].

4th Quarter, 2007

Table 2. Reported significant SCC to

significant SCC reported

Table 3. Comparison of CEPA SCC

colonies reported on gas pipelines may be attributable to

The Journal of Pipeline Engineering

Fig.2. Range of depth of significant

> 25% to 40%

companies, four of which found significant SCC on

depth, significant length criteria, location on the

Analysis of the data:

The data in Table 2 was compiled by the NEB and illustrates

Fig.3. Comparison of significant SCC crack depth versus length.

4th Quarter, 2007

The Journal of Pipeline Engineering

Fig.5. Comparison of significant SCC crack length versus time.

reported cracks are between 30 and 150mm, long while

The data presented in Table 4 shows the location on the