GEOMORPHOLOGY

Geomorphology is the scientific study of landforms and the processes that

shape them. Geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look
the way they do, to understand landform history and dynamics, and to
predict future changes through a combination of field observations,
physical experiments, and numerical modeling.
The surface of Earth is modified by a combination of surface processes
which sculpt landscapes, and geologic processes that cause tectonic uplift
and subsidence.
Surface processes comprise the action of water, wind, ice, fire, and living
things on the surface of the Earth, along with chemical reactions that form
soils and alter material properties, the stability and rate of change of
topography under the force of gravity, and other factors, such as human
alteration of the landscape. Many of these factors are strongly mediated
by climate.
The Earth surface and its topography therefore are an intersection of
climatic, hydrologic, and biologic action with geologic processes. Because
geomorphology is defined to comprise everything related to the surface of
Earth and its modification, it is a broad field with many facets.
Practical applications of geomorphology include hazard assessment (such
as

landslide

prediction

and

mitigation),

river

control

and

stream

restoration, and coastal protection.

GEOMORPHOLOGICAL PROCESS:
Geomorphological processes are natural mechanisms of weathering,
erosion and deposition that result in the modification of the surficial
materials and landforms at the earth's surface. Thus Geomorphically
relevant processes generally fall into:
1. The production of regolith by weathering and erosion,
2. The transport of that material, and
3. Its eventual deposition.

Although there is a general movement of material from uplands to

lowlands, erosion, transport, and deposition often occur in closely spaced
tandem all across the landscape.

Fluvial Processes
Eolian Processes
Glacial processes
Tectonic processes
Igneous processes
Biological processes
Hillslope processes

A. FLUVIAL PROCESSES:
Fluvial process, the physical interaction of flowing water and the natural
channels of rivers and streams. Such
processes

play

an

essential

and

conspicuous role in the denudation of land

surfaces and the transport of rock detritus
from higher to lower levels.
The water, as it flows over the channel
bed, is able to mobilize sediment and transport it downstream, either as
bed load, suspended load or dissolved load. The rate of sediment
transport depends on the availability of sediment itself and on the river's
discharge.
Rivers are also capable of eroding into rock and creating new sediment,
both from their own beds and also by
coupling to the surrounding hillslopes. In
this way, rivers are thought of as setting
the base level for large scale landscape
evolution

in

nonglacial

environments.

Rivers are key links in the connectivity of

different landscape elements.
As rivers flow across the landscape, they generally increase in size,
merging with other rivers. The network of rivers thus formed is a drainage

system and is often dendritic (tree-like), but may adopt other patterns
depending on the regional topography and underlying geology.

B. EOLIAN PROCESS
Wind

erodes

the

Earth's

surface

by

deflation, the removal of loose, finegrained particles by the turbulent eddy

action of the wind, and by abrasion, the
wearing down of surfaces by the grinding
action and sand blasting of windborne
particles.
Winds may erode, transport, and deposit materials, and are effective
agents in regions with sparse vegetation and a large supply of fine,
unconsolidated sediments. Although water and mass flow tend to mobilize
more material than wind in most environments, eolian processes are
important in arid environments such as deserts
Deflation

basins,

called

blowouts,

are

hollows formed by the removal of particles

by wind. Blowouts are generally small, but
may

be

up

to

several

kilometers

in

diameter.
Wind-driven grains abrade landforms. Grinding by particles carried in the
wind creates grooves or small depressions. Ventifacts are rocks which
have been cut, and sometimes polished, by the abrasive action of wind.
Sculpted landforms, called yardangs, are up to tens of meters high and
kilometers long and are forms that have been streamlined by desert
winds.
C. GLACIAL PROCESS

Glaciers, while geographically restricted, are

effective agents of landscape change. The
gradual movement of ice down a valley
causes

abrasion

and

plucking

of

the

underlying rock. Abrasion produces fine

sediment, termed glacial flour. The debris
transported by the glacier, when the glacier recedes, is termed a moraine.
Glacial erosion is responsible for U-shaped valleys, as opposed to the Vshaped valleys of fluvial origin.
Environments that have been relatively recently glaciated but are no
longer may still show elevated landscape change rates compared to those
that have never been glaciated. Nonglacial geomorphic processes which
nevertheless have been conditioned by past glaciation are termed
paraglacial processes. This concept contrasts with periglacial processes,
which are directly driven by formation or melting of ice or frost where
many geomorphic processes that don't require freezing conditionsfor
example fluvial erosion, transport and depositionare typically involved in
paraglacial change.
D. TECTONIC PROCESSES
Tectonic effects on geomorphology can range from scales of millions of
years to minutes or less. The effects of
tectonics on landscape are heavily dependent
on the nature of the underlying bedrock
fabric that more or less controls what kind of
local morphology tectonics can shape.
Earthquakes

can,

in

terms

of

minutes,

submerge large areas of land creating new wetlands. Isostatic rebound

can account for significant changes over thousand or hundreds of years,
and allows erosion of a mountain belt to promote further erosion as mass
is removed from the chain and the belt uplifts. Long-term plate tectonic
dynamics give rise to organic belts, large mountain chains with typical
lifetimes of many tens of millions of years, which form focal points for high

rates of fluvial and hillslope processes and thus long-term sediment

production.
E. IGNEOUS PROCESS
Both volcanic (eruptive) and plutonic (intrusive) igneous processes can
have important impacts on geomorphology. The action of volcanoes tends
to rejuvenize landscapes, covering the old land surface with lava and
tephra, releasing pyroclastic material and forcing rivers through new
paths. The cones built by eruptions also build substantial new topography,
which can be acted upon by other surface processes. Plutonic rocks
intruding then solidifying at depth can cause both uplift and subsidence of
the surface, depending on whether the new material is denser or less
dense than the rock it displaces.
F. BIOLOGICAL PROCESS
The interaction of living organisms with landforms, or biogeomorphologic
processes, can be of many different forms, and is probably of profound
importance for the terrestrial geomorphic system as a whole. Biology can
influence very many geomorphic processes, ranging from biogeochemical
processes controlling chemical weathering, to the influence of mechanical
processes like burrowing and tree throw on soil development, to even
controlling global erosion rates through modulation of climate through
carbon dioxide balance.
G. HILLSLOPE PROCESS

Soil, regolith, and rock move downslope under the force of gravity via
creep, slides, flows, topples, and falls. Such mass wasting occurs on both
terrestrial and submarine slopes, and has been
observed on Earth. Ongoing hillslope processes

can

change the topology of the hillslope surface,

which in turn can change the rates of those
processes. Hillslopes that steepen up to certain
critical

thresholds

are

capable

of

shedding

extremely large volumes of material very quickly, making hillslope

processes an extremely important element of landscapes in tectonically
active areas.
CLASSIFICATION OF LANDFORMS
In order to understand the landforms systematically in the context of the
origin of landforms, a genetic classification is generally accepted as most
appropriate. Table 1 shows the major natural processes, which result in
various forms with a few typical examples at local

and
regional
scale.

Mapping of Geomorphology:
Geomorphological maps may be synthetic or analytic, depending on the degree of generalization
and on the method of representing geomorphological indicators. On synthetic maps natural
morphological complexes or morphogenetic types of relief may be distinguished, depicted by
means of color backgrounds and characterized by synthetic geomorphological backgrounds.
Analytical maps depict relief elements or elementary surfaces having the same origin and age. On
these maps morphographic and morphometric relief features are represented by isohypses, point
and line symbols, and height marks, genesis is indicated by a color background, and age is shown
by the intensity of the color background. Each genetic relief element category is represented by its

own particular color. Relief elements and forms not expressed on the maps scale, as well as relief
elements and forms of structural-denudational and tectonic origin, are represented by color point
and line symbols and by different hachuring patterns. An analytic map is appended as an
illustration; the principal morphographic and morphometric relief features are included in the maps
legend. Geomorphological maps serve as the basis for the compilation of maps dividing territories
into morphological subdivisions such as geomorphological regions, provinces, areas, and districts.
Examples of survey geomorphological maps are the 1:4,000,000 Geomorphological Map of the
USSR (1960), the 1:5,000,000 Geomorphological Map of the USSR (1961), and the 1:2,500,000
Geomorphological Map of European Russia and the Caucasus (1970).

geomorphological

must

give

map

information

about

morphology

(appearance),
morphometry
and

(dimensions

slope

values),

morphogen (origin/genesis)
and morphochronology (the
age)

of

each

Representation

of

form.
these

details is an involved and

complicated

matter

on

single

map.

The

most

comprehensive

geomorphological survey method is the one evolved by ITC (Verstappen

1977) which resulted in three different kind of maps: Analytical
geomorphological map, synthetic geomorphological map and pragmatic
(applied) geomorphological map. Analytical geomorphological maps are
applicable for mapping at all scales and serve as a basis for applied
geomorphological mapping. The informations contained in these maps
include:
1. Morphogenesis i.e. the terminology should indicate the process/
gneisses (e.g. alluvial fan, piedmont);
2. Morphostructure/lithology. Usually the underlying bedrock and
structure will have a profound influence on the landform (e.g. structural
hill, granitic residual hill etc.);

3. Morphometry i.e. quantitative information about relief e.g. height of

terrace, slope angle etc;
4. Morphochronology i.e. different ages of landforms whenever such
information is available.
Synthetic geomorphological maps contain, in addition to four levels of
terrain mapping units, also contain additional environmental information
required of every terrain mapping unit gathered subsequently on the basis
of number of site observations in every unit.
Landform:a geomorphological unit, and is largely defined by its surface form
and location in the landscape, as part of the terrain, and as such, is typically an
element of topography. Landform elements also include seascape and oceanic
waterbody interface features such as bays, peninsulas, seas and so forth,
including sub-aqueous terrain features such as mid-ocean ridges, volcanoes, and
the great ocean basins.

Remote sensing application

Remote sensing as described earlier is sensing from a distance. The
electro magnetic energy after interacting with matter can be recorded by
a sensor and the recorded data can be seen as an image or photo
depending upon the sensor. The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuum
of energy that ranges from meter to nanometers in wavelength and
travels at the speed of light. The spectrum has several windows through
which reflected or emitted radiation is recorded in sensors (Sabins 1997).
Among the sensors are aerial cameras, which employ a film for recording
in visible (B&W and color) and near infrared band. Data from visible, near
infrared and other optical windows are
recorded by multispectral scanners. Thermal scanner records thermal
(emitted) radiation. Active microwave sensors (SLAR or SAR) record data
from microwave region of spectrum and have the advantage of recording
day and night as well as through clouds. Thus technologically it is possible
to record terrain information by various sensors.
Microwave remote sensing in geomorphic analysis

In contrast to optical remote sensing, radar being an active sensor

provides all weather capability including day and night observation. Radar
backscatter is sensitive to a different set of properties like surface
roughness, slope and dielectric property of surface material. Radar image
has unique characteristics of its own. The shadow effect, for example, is
useful for terrain analysis. The subtle elevation differences, which are not
directly perceived in optical remote-sensing image, are highlighted in
radar image. Such subtle relief changes may have significance in
neotectonics or may represent a boundary condition. The interpretation,of
radar image is based on form, topographic texture and pattern,
topographic position, pseudo-3D presentation of of form (slope) and
regional geomorphic context.
SCALES IN GEOMORPHOLOGY
Different geomorphological processes dominate at different spatial and
temporal scales. Moreover, scales on which processes occur may
determine the reactivity or otherwise of landscapes to changes in driving
forces such as climate or tectonics. These ideas are key to the study of
geomorphology today.
To help categorize landscape scales some geomorphologists might use the
following taxonomy:
1st - Continent, ocean basin, climatic zone (~10,000,000 km2)
2nd - Shield, e.g. Baltic Shield, or mountain range (~1,000,000 km2)
3rd - Isolated sea, Sahel (~100,000 km2)
4th - Massif, e.g. Massif Central or Group of related landforms, e.g.,
Weald (~10,000km2)
5th - River valley, Cotswolds (~1,000 km2)
6th - Individual mountain or volcano, small valleys (~100 km2)

7th - Hillslopes, stream channels, estuary (~10 km2)

8th - gully, barchannel (~1 km2)
9th - Meter-sized features

Geomorphometry:
Geomorphometry is the science of quantitative land surface analysis. It
gathers

various

mathematical,

statistical

and

image

processing

techniques that can be used to quantify morphological, hydrological,

ecological and other aspects of a land surface.
In simple terms, geomorphometry aims at extracting (land) surface
parameters (morphometric, hydrological, climatic etc.) and objects
(watersheds, stream networks, landforms etc.) using input digital land
surface

model

(also

known

as

digital

elevation

model)

and

parameterization software. Extracted surface parameters and objects can

then be used, for example, to improve mapping and modelling of soils,
vegetation, land use, geomorphological and geological features and
similar.
ATEGORIES OF PUBLISHED PAPER MAPS

Geological Quadrangle Maps (GQM)

Geological Quadrangle Maps are the basic

source of information, referred frequently
by
academicians,
government
departments, planners, entrepreneurs, etc.
Each map covering 1o by 1o area depicts
the lithology, mineral resource, geological
history and potential zones for natural
hazards. This series of maps represent the
most detailed geological information
published till date. India is covered by 392
numbers of 1 degree x 1 degree
quadrangle sheets. Out of which 300
sheets are amenable for data collection
and publication on scale 1cm = 2.5 km.
About 282 Geological Quadrangle Maps
have been published so far.
District Resource Maps (DRM)
This series provides multithematic spatial
information
to
the
planners,
for
development and policy decisions on
districts. The maps comprise detail
geological history of the districts including
mineral resources, irrigation projects,
ground water resources and hazard
mitigation etc. The main geological map is
accompanied by inset maps depicting
geomorphological,
geohydrological,
geotechnical
and
natural
hazard
characteristics of the district along with an
explanatory note. About 250 District
Resource Maps have been published so far.
Geological and Mineral Map of States
and Regions (GMSR)
These series of maps normally comprise
detail geological history of the states along
with mineral resource information. Each
map is accompanied by an explanatory
brochure.
State Geology and Minerals maps are also
published
along
with Miscellaneous
Publication No. 30

Maps covering entire India

Maps covering entire India are available on

different themes such as geology,
geomorphology, tectonics, metallogeny
etc. Some of these maps are accompanied
by an explanatory brochure and are
generally printed at scales 1: 2 million or
1: 5 million.

Coalfield Maps
Coalfield maps portray the tectonic and
sedimentological domains of the area /
basin with location of boreholes and
alignment of regional coal seams. Marginal
information include stratigraphy, lithology
and borehole sections

Marine Maps
Marine maps of Exclusive Economic Zone
(EEZ) and territorial water of India display
the surficial sediment distribution in a
2o by 2oformat. This series of maps also
show
bathymetry,
sample
location,
offshore mineral resource potential, deep
borehole logs accompanied by magnetic
anomaly maps, seismological section, etc.

Mineral belt Maps

Geology of important and promising
mineral belts are depicted in these maps.
This series of maps are targeted primarily
towards mining sector entrepreneurs.
These maps are published at a scale
1:50,000 and can be used for planning of
exploration targets.

International Maps
This series of maps depict information about geology, mineral and tectonics of
Southeast Asia, Bhutan and some parts of Antarctica. Basic purpose of the maps is
dissemination of geological knowledge about the surrounding regions and is targeted
towards all interested users.
Atlases
Geological Survey of India has published few Atlases on themes like seismotectonics
and mineral resources. These atlases comprise several sheets which depict compiled
multi-thematic information which are results of years of scientific survey and research.
SOME IMPORTANT MAPS PUBLISHED BY GSI

Geological map of India (1:5 / 1:2

million)

This map depicts the standardized

stratigraphic classification and correlation
of lithostratigraphic units of India. Major
rock units are clubbed under geological
Formations / Groups. The Formations and
Groups have been represented by
distinctive colour following the CGMW
standard, indicating different geological
ages. This standardized authenticated
geological map is the basic source of
information for geoscientists, different
user agencies and academicians.

Tectonic Map of India and adjoining

countries (1: 7.5 million)
The map provides a coherent view of
broad tectonic elements of India (e.g.
faults, shear zones, thrusts etc) and its
contiguous
terrain
comprising
Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and
parts of Pakistan, South China and
Sumatra. The map includes magnetic
anomaly, sediment thickness and location
of DSDP holes in Bay of Bengal, Arabian
Sea and part of Indian Ocean. It also
incorporates one inset map of India
exhibiting
the
contemporary/recent
tectonic and geodynamic setting.
Geotechnical
million)

Map

of

India

(1:2

The map has been compiled and published for benefit of planning and locating major
civil projects. The rock units have been classified into engineering geological provinces
depicted by colours on which patterns have been superimposed to depict both
geological and engineering properties. Besides, the map also demarcates the natural
hazard prone areas as well as shows location of major river valley projects and thermal
power plants.
Geomorphological Map of India (1:2
million) with brochure

India is classified into nine geomorphic

landscape domains of regional dimension
in this map. This map depicts the relief of
India containing thematic information on
morphology,
morphogenesis
and
morphochronology of geometry, gross
lithology, structural fabric, dominant
morphodynamic processes and their
influence.

Metallogenic map of
million) with brochure

India

(1:2

This map is an effort to collate and

present the current status of metallogenic
information, which have distinct relation
to the evolution of different tectonic units.
The map also presents information on the
mineral
resources
including
the
geographical
location,
mineral
association, host rock association and
morphogenic signature, reserve and grade
of each mineral occurrence.

Geological map of Himalaya (1: 1

million)

Himalayas occupies a large area with

diverse
history
of
sedimentation,
deformation and metamorphism. The map
covers entire Himalayan Range and is
published in four sheets. Sheet 1
comprises states of Uttar Pradesh,
Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab and
J&K; sheet 2 consists of Nepal and sheet 3
consists of Bhutan and states of Sikkim,
West Bengal and Arunachal Pradesh. The
sheet 4 contains a legend with a
correlation chart.

Mineral Map of India (1: 5 million)

This map provides locations of important mineral deposits with different colour symbols
on a generalized geological base (nominal point symbols on a chorochromatic base).
Besides, the map also includes the locations of strategic and precious minerals under
investigation. The locations are numbered commodity wise and a locality index has
been provided in the body of the map.
Aeromagnetic
image
map
Peninsular India (1 : 2 million)

of

The aeromagnetic image map at scale

represents
aeromagnetic
anomaly
features for the land area of Peninsular
India covering a total area of 12,72,000 sq
km between 8 and 25 N and longitudes
74 and 89 E prepared from the data
flown at a height 7000 feet above mean
sea level. The data includes all magnetic
signals coming from a depth of about 25
km to those near the earth's surface.