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Q.1 Explain in detail meaning of cost-effective

construction?
Answer:- The important need and everyone's dream to have there own home with individual
needs.
Since India is a developing country, the economy haves importance. The housing is so
impacted with the cost based construction.
So, there are various cost effective techniques of construction. Lots of them are also energy
efficient and easily adoptable.
Essential requirement to human existence is a HOME next only to food and clothing. A
breakthrough for application of sustainable and cost effective technologies for better housing
in rural and urban areas is an urgent need considering spiraling construction costs.
There is a need for the adoption of strong, durable, environment friendly, ecologically
appropriate, energy efficient and yet cost effective materials and appropriate technologies in
construction.
ar. Laurie baker is one who worked on cost effective construction techniques as its best.
Baker showed, in fact, that sustainable technologies when adopted with care and creativity,
could lead to a unique architectural expression, one that moved the expert and the layman
alike.
Proper materials is the basic need to develop any construction technique.
Brick, wood, stone are three major materials which can be used in India for any type of
construction.
Factors Affecting Cost Estimation:

Building type
Size
Building cost
Special Construction
Project accessibility
Labor Rates
Material Costs
General Economic Pressures
Time of Year

Q.2 What do you understand by eco-friendly

construction?
Answer:- Eco-friendly, or ecological, construction is building a structure that is beneficial or
non-harmful to the environment, and resource efficient. Otherwise known as green building,
this type of construction is efficient in its use of local and renewable materials, and in the
energy required to build it, and the energy generated while being within it.
Eco-friendly construction has developed in response to the knowledge that buildings have an
often negative impact upon our environment and our natural resources. This includes

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transporting materials hundreds or thousands of miles, which has a negative impact in the
energy required to transport them, and also in emissions of hazardous chemicals from a
poorly designed building that creates, and traps them.
The ecofriendly construction included:

Rooftop solar panels

Increased insulation
Custom energy efficient windows
Programmable thermostats
Low VOCs in paints, carpets and other building materials
Water efficient plumbing fixtures
Compact florescent lighting
Landscaping with native plants and water conservation measures
Protected green space

Benefits of Eco-Friendly Building

Conservation of natural resources

Enhancement and protection of the propertys natural surroundings
Improved indoor air quality
Improved health and comfort of residents
Minimized impact on the local infrastructure
Reduction of construction waste sent to landfills

Q.3 Explain National and International standards for ecofriendly construction.

Answer :National Green building codes :1.LEED INDIA along with other IGBC rating systems administered by the Indian Green
Building Council (http://www.igbc.in)
2. Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment, or GRIHA conceived by The Energy
Resources Institute and developed jointly with the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy,
Government of India. (http://www.grihaindia.org/)
International green building codes :1. IPCC Fourth Assessment Report
Climate Change 2007, the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the United Nations
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), is the fourth in a series of such reports.
The IPCC was established by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to assess scientific, technical and socio-economic
information concerning climate change, its potential effects and options for adaptation and
mitigation
2. UNEP and Climate change

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United Nations Environment Program UNEP works to facilitate the transition to low-carbon
societies, support climate proofing efforts, improve understanding of climate change science,
and raise public awareness about this global challenge.
3. GHG Indicator
The Greenhouse Gas Indicator: UNEP Guidelines for Calculating Greenhouse Gas Emissions for
Businesses and Non-Commercial Organizations
4. Agenda 21
Agenda 21 is a programme run by the United Nations (UN) related to sustainable
development. It is a comprehensive blueprint of action to be taken globally, nationally and
locally by organizations of the UN, governments, and major groups in every area in
which humans impact on the environment. The number 21 refers to the 21st century.
5. IPD Environment Code
The IPD Environment Code was launched in February 2008. The Code is intended as a good
practice global standard for measuring the environmental performance of corporate buildings.
Its aim is to accurately measure and manage the environmental impacts of corporate
buildings and enable property executives to generate high quality, comparable performance
information about their buildings anywhere in the world.

Q.4 Explain Properties and uses of Following materials.

(1) Flyash :Fly ash closely resembles volcanic ashes used in production of the earliest known hydraulic
cements about 2,300 years ago. Those cements were made near the small Italian town of
Pozzuoli which later gave its name to the term pozzolan. A pozzolan is a siliceous/aluminous
material that, when mixed with lime and water, forms a cementitious compound. Fly ash is
the best known, and one of the most commonly used, pozzolans in the world.
Instead of volcanoes, todays fly ash comes primarily from coal-fired, electricity-generating
power plants. These power plants grind coal to powder fineness before it is burned. Fly ash
the mineral residue produced by burning coal is captured from the power plants exhaust
gases and collected for use.
The difference between fly ash and portland cement becomes apparent under a microscope.
Fly ash particles are almost totally spherical in shape, allowing them to flow and blend freely
in mixtures. That capability is one of the properties making fly ash a desirable admixture for
concrete.
Properties :-

the spherical shape of fly ash creates a ball bearing effect in the mix, improving
workability without increasing water requirements.
Fly ash also improves the pump-ability of concrete by making it more cohesive and less
prone to segregation. The spherical shape improves the pump-ability by decreasing the
friction between the concrete and the pump line.
fly ashes have been shown to significantly decrease heat generation as the concrete
hardens and strengthens. Fly ash, as do all pozzolanic materials, generally provide
increased concrete strength gain for much longer periods than mixes with portland
cement only.
The biggest reason to use fly ash in concrete is the increased life cycle expectancy and
increase in durability associated with its use.
During the hydration process, fly ash chemically reacts with the calcium hydroxide
forming calcium silicate hydrate and calcium aluminate, which reduces the risk of
leaching calcium hydroxide and concretes permeability.
Fly ash also improves the permeability of concrete by lowering the water-to-cement
ratio, which reduces the volume of capillary pores remaining in the mass. The spherical
shape of fly ash improves the consolidation of concrete, which also reduces
permeability.
Other benefits of fly ash in concrete include resistance to corrosion of concrete
reinforcement, attack from Alkali-silica reaction, sulfate attack and acids and salt
attack.

Uses :

Concrete production, as a substitute material for Portland cement and sand

Embankments and other structural fills (usually for road construction)
Grout and Flow able fill production
Waste stabilization and solidification
Cement clinkers production - (as a substitute material for clay)
Mine reclamation
Stabilization of soft soils
Road sub base construction
As Aggregate substitute material (e.g. for brick production)
Mineral filler in asphaltic concrete
Agricultural uses: soil amendment, fertilizer, cattle feeders, soil stabilization in stock
feed yards, and agricultural stakes
Loose application on rivers to melt ice[15]
Loose application on roads and parking lots for ice control

(2)- Ferro cement :Ferro cement or Ferro-cement (also called thin-shell concrete or Ferro-concrete) is a system of
reinforced mortar[1] or plaster (lime or cement, sand and water) applied over layers of metal
such as chicken wire or woven or expanded metal (iron) mesh or fibres and possibly closely
spaced small-diameter steel rods such as rebar. It is used to form relatively thin, hard, strong
forms in many shapes for such applications as hulls for boats, shell roofs, and water tanks.
Ferro cement originated in the 1840s in France and is the origin of reinforced concrete. It has
a wide range of other uses including sculpture and prefabricated building components. The
term "Ferro cement" has been applied by extension to other composite materials, including
some containing no cement and no ferrous material.
Properties:-

a wider range of elasticity

greater resistance to extension
better behaviour at dynamic stress
increased value of the breaking effort out of extension

Uses :

Housing
Marine
Agricultural
Rural Energy
Anticorrosive Membrane Treatment.

(3)- Red Mud :Red mud or red sludge is a waste product generated in the industrial production of aluminium.
Red mud is one of the most important disposal problems in the mining industry. Red mud is a
side-product of the Bayer process, the principal means of refining bauxite en route to alumina.
The resulting alumina is the raw material for producing aluminium by the HallHarold process.
A typical bauxite plant produces one to two times as much red mud as alumina. This ratio is
dependent on the type of bauxite used in the refining process and the extraction conditions.
Properties:

brick red in colour and slimy

having average particle size of <10um, about 35% by weight of solids have size less
than 5 micrometer and 80% less than 8 micrometer
It is alkaline and thixotropic
high surface area in the range of 13-16 with a true density of 3.30g/cc.

Uses :

Metallurgical Uses (iron and steel production, titania, alumina and alkali, minor
constituents recovery)
Production of building materials (constructional brick, light weight aggregates, bricks
roofing and flooring tiles, cements etc)
Catalysis
Ceramics (pottery, sanitary ware, special tiles and glasses, glazes, ferrites)
Miscellaneous direct uses (in waste treatment, as a filler, as a fertiliser, etc)

(4)- Rice husk ash :Rice husk ash is obtained by burning rice husk in a controlled manner without causing
environmental pollution. Rice husk ash (RHA) is about 25% by weight of rice husk when burnt
in boilers. When properly burnt it has high SiO2 content and can be used as a concrete
admixture. Rice husk ash exhibit high pozzolonic properties and contribute to high strength
and high impermeability or concrete.
Properties :

RHA is a carbon neutral green product

RHA is a good super-pozzolan
Flame retarder

Good absorbent
Water Proofing

Uses :

green concrete
high performance concrete
refractory
ceramic glaze
insulator
roofing shingles
specialty paints
carrier for pesticides

(5)- Soil :Soil is the mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids, and the countless organisms
that together support life on Earth. Soil is a natural body known as the pedosphere and which
performs four important functions: it is a medium for plant growth; it is a means of water
storage, supply and purification; it is a modifier of Earth's atmosphere; it is a habitat for
organisms; all of which, in turn, modify the soil.
Properties :

Flocculated and dispersed Structure

Density of typical soil particle is 2.60 to 2.75 grams per cm3
Porosity which is open space occupied by either gases or water
Consistency is the ability of soil resist deformation and rupture
Soil temperature which depends on the ratio of the energy absorbed to that lost
Color and texture

Uses :

it is used in agriculture to nourish plants

Soil is an important part of the building process
Clay soil is used in making ceramics, or pottery
Soil is commonly used in antibiotics because Microbes created in the soil are harmful to
bacteria.
Beauty products where used soil is used in the production include blush and foundation.

(6)- Lime :Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the minerals calcite and aragonite,
which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Most limestone is composed
of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral, forams and molluscs.
Properties :

Hardness
Density
Compressive Strength
Water Absorption

-3 to 4 on Moh's Scale
-2.5 to 2.7 Kg/cm3
-60-170 N/mm2
-Less than 1%

Porosity
Weather Impact

-Quite low
-Resistant

Uses :

Flooring
Wall cladding
Vanity tops
Furniture
Cement Production
RefiningMetals
Blackboard chalk

Q.5 Give the design specification of the house using

locally available materials lime stone, soil, wood,
country/Mangalore tiles. Explain various components
used in foundation, plinth, flooring, walling, roofing,
plaster, door and windows. Also give energy and water
requirement.
Answer :-

Materials used in house construction :Stone :- Limestone, marble, granite, sandstone and other durable rocks are used for
construction. These rocks are altered and polished for specific needs and come in almost any
shape imaginable. They are load bearing and durable often lasting thousands of years or
more. Stone is used as facing, for internal support and augments or is augmented by brick
and timber constructions.
Soil :- Soils with high clay contents are pulverized moistened and dumped into frames or
formed into walls. Compaction is created by ramming. These buildings are allowed to sun dry.
Structurally sound and weather resistant, these buildings survive for several hundred years or
more.
Wood :- Wood is a product of trees, and sometimes other fibrous plants, used for construction
purposes when cut or pressed into lumber and timber, such as boards, planks and similar
materials. It is a generic building material and is used in building just about any type of
structure in most climates. Wood can be very flexible under loads, keeping strength while
bending, and is incredibly strong when compressed vertically.
Mangalore Tiles :- Mangalore tiles (also Mangalorean tiles) are a type of tile native to the
city of Mangalore, India. They provide excellent ventilation especially during summer and
aesthetically as well. Some of them are especially made to be placed over kitchen and
bathroom for the smoke to escape. Over a period of time, these tiles become dark to black
from constant exposure to soot and smoke. These red colored clay tiles, unique in shape and
size are so famous and export to all the corners of world.

Low cost housing elemensts :-

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Foundations :

Random rubble masonry in mud/cement mortar placed in excavation over thick sand
bed. Rubble pointing above ground level in stabilized cement mortar.
Use of lean cement concrete mix 1:8:16 for base with brick masonry in 1:6 cement
mortar footings.
Use of lean cement concrete mix as above for base and over burned bricks masonry in
cement lime mortar (1:2:12) footings.
Arch foundations in place of spread foundations
Normally the foundation cost comes to about 10 to 15% of the total building .
It is recommended to adopt a foundation depth of 2 ft.(0.6m) for normal soil like
gravely soil, red soils etc.
It is suggested to adopt arch foundation in ordinary soils.
In case of black cotton and other soft soils, it is recommend to use under ream pile
foundation which saves about 20 to 25% in cost over the conventional method of
construction.
Arch foundation This type of foundation was used in olden times where in spread foundation is
replaced by inverted arch
It reduces the construction cost up to 40%
Advantage of this is-In soft soils that the depth of foundation can be greatly
reduced; disadvantage is that the end piers have to be specially strengthened by
buttresses so as to avoid the thrust to arch action tending to rapture the piers
junction.

Plinth :

It is recommended to adopt 1 ft. height above ground level for the plinth and may be
constructed with a cement mortar of 1:6.
The plinth slab of 4 to 6 which is normally adopted can be avoided and in its place
brick on edge can be used for reducing the cost.
By adopting this procedure the cost of plinth foundation can be reduced by about 35 to
50%.

Walling :Wall thickness of 6 to 9 is recommended for adoption in the construction of walls all-round
the building and 41/2 for inside walls. It is suggested to use burnt bricks which are immersed
in water for 24 hours and then shall be used for the walls
1. Rat trap bond wall
It is a cavity wall construction with added advantage of thermal comfort and reduction in the
quantity of bricks required for masonry work. By adopting this method of bonding of brick
masonry compared to traditional English or Flemish bond masonry, it is possible to reduce in
the material cost of bricks by 25% and about 10to 15% in the masonry cost. By adopting rattrap bond method one can create aesthetically pleasing wall surface and plastering can be
avoided.
2. Concrete block walling
In view of high energy consumption by burnt brick it is suggested to use concrete block (block
hollow and solid) which consumes about only 1/3 of the energy of the burnt bricks in its

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production. By using concrete block masonry the wall thickness can be reduced from 20 cms
to 15 Cms. Concrete block masonry saves mortar consumption, speedy construction of wall
resulting in higher output of labour, plastering can be avoided thereby an overall saving of 10
to 25% can be achieved.
3. Soil cement block technology
It is an alternative method of construction of walls using soil cement blocks in place of burnt
bricks masonry. It is an energy efficient method of construction where soil mixed with 5% and
above cement and pressed in hand operated machine and cured well and then used in the
masonry. This masonry doesnt require plastering on both sides of the wall. The overall
economy that could be achieved with the soil cement technology is about 15 to 20%
compared to conventional method of construction.
Roofing : Domes and vaults in brick or stabilized mud block with appropriate mortar.
Upgraded thatch roof on appropriate frame work.
Pre-cast RCC L panel
Precast RCC cored units in M15 concrete.
Precast RCC channel units in M15 concrete
Precast Waffle units in M15 concrete
Burnt clay tube roofing in vault form.
Other Methods :1. Filler slabs (Refer Q.29)
2. Jack arch roof/floor
They are easy to construct, save on cement and steel, are more appropriate in hot climates.
These can be constructed using compressed earth blocks also as alternative to bricks for
further economy.
3. Ferrocement channel/shell unit
Provide an economic solution to RCC slab by providing 30 to 40% cost reduction on floor/roof
unit over RCC slabs without compromising the strength. These being precast, construction is
speedy, economical due to avoidance of shuttering and facilitate quality control.
Doors and windows :It is suggested not to use wood for doors and windows and in its place concrete or steel
section frames shall be used for achieving saving in cost up to 30 to 40%.Similiarly for
shutters commercially available block boards, fibre or wooden practical boards etc., shall be
used for reducing the cost by about 25%.By adopting brick jelly work and precast components
effective ventilation could be provided to the building and also the construction cost could be
saved up to 50% over the window components
Cost effective door, windows and chajjas :

Ferro cement chajjas

Precast RCC frames with wood insert
Resin bonded saw dust frame
Polyvinyl chloride frame
Fiber reinforced plastic frame
Plantation timber styles with particle board inserts.

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Medium density fiber board doors.

Cement bonded particle board
Plantation timber style with rice husk board inserts
Red mud polymer panel doors.
Ferrocement doors
Polyvinyl chloride doors panels.

Finishing Works :The cost of finishing items like sanitary, electricity, painting etc., varies depending upon the
type and quality of products used in the building and its cost reduction is left to the individual
choice and liking

Q.9 Describe various technologies for water and soil

conservation
Subsistence farmers suffer not only from depleted soils but from challenges with water: too
little water, too much water, and erosion from water. This field guide looks at different ways of
managing water and conserving soil by developing barriers on farm fields for stopping the
flow of water so that it can percolate into the soil and build up soil moisture. The barriers also
reduce the loss of soil from erosion.
Barriers to Water Movement
On sloping farm fields, creating barriers reduces the speed of water movement so that it can
be absorbed into the soil rather than simply running off the land. These barriers also catch
topsoil that the water carries preventing the loss of this valuable resource and offer the added
benefit of creating level planting areas behind the barriers as the soil accumulates. Barriers
can be terraces, stone or earth walls called bunds, or living barriers such as hedges and grass
strips.
Building terraces and stone retaining walls can be very labor intensive. Less formal
constructions such as soil bunds, hedgerows or rows of grass can be less labor-intensive and
potentially more attractive to farmers. Construction can be spread out over several years.
One thing that all barriers have in common is that they run horizontally along a level contour
across the falling slope of a field. An A-frame leveling device is used to determine the level
contour lines which are marked with stakes or with stones.
Here are four techniques for farmers to consider. The technique chosen by each individual
farmer will be based upon how steeply a farmer's field slopes, how big their field is, whether
they are in a high rainfall or low rainfall region, and how much time they have available for
investing in the technique.
Contour Ridges.
Ridges with furrows on the uphill side are formed approximately 1.5m to 2m apart. This 2m
area is the catchment area for rainwater. The ridges are only 15 to 20 cm highsimply high
enough to contain the run offwhich collects in the furrow. Crops with higher water
requirements can be planted close to the side of the furrow. Contour ridges represent the
least time investment of these four techniques and can be developed, maintained and
improved during preparation for each planting season.

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Soil Bunds
Soil bunds are a method for both containing water and reducing erosion using on-site
materials. After marking the horizontal contour line on the sloping field, a ditch 60 cm deep
and 60 cm wide is dug. The soil is placed on the downhill side of the ditch creating the soil
wall. The base of the wall is typically twice as wide as the wall is high. The soil is well
compacted by hand.
Soil bunds are placed from between 5m apart on steep land to 20m apart on more gently
sloping land. To determine spacing between the bunds, one rule of thumb is that the top of
one bund is level with the base of the adjacent uphill bund. However farmer preferences and
the size of the farmers field are other determinants.
Fodder grasses, trees and crops are planted on the bund to stabilize it. Water collects in the
ditch during rainstorms and can slowly percolate into the soil increasing soil moisture. As
rainwater erodes soil uphill of the bund, the soil will accumulate above the bund and begin
creating an increasingly level planting strip. Soil bunds will need annual maintenanceand
will need to be checked after heavy rainfall and breaches repaired immediately.
Hedgerows.
Hedgerows can also be planted along the contour lines of a hillsidein similar spacing as soil
bunds depending on the steepness of the slope of the field. Hedges are usually chosen from
nitrogen fixing plants, and from plants that when pruned can be used as fodder for farm
animals. Initially, these cuttings can be laid at the base of the hedges on the uphill side to
trap eroded topsoil. After two or three years, sufficient topsoil will have accumulated to form a
terrace uphill of the hedgerow. Hedgerows represent substantially less time investment than
soil bundsand use less space making more land available for planting.
Vetiver Grass Strips.
An inexpensive alternative, vetiver grass can be planted along the contour line of a sloping
field to prevent the loss of topsoil, and to reduce the rate at which water runs downhill
enhancing infiltration. Topsoil builds up on the uphill side and over time creates level planting
areas. Grass strips represent substantially less time investment than soil bundsand use less
space. Grass strips need to be maintained over time to keep them from encroaching into the
cropping areas. Grass trimmings can be used as fodder. Vetiver grass is very popular, but
check with farmers for local favorites.

Q.10 What are the various methods for ground water

recharge.
Answer :- The various methods for ground water recharge areReused plastic barrels method
This cost effective and simple method has been developed by A.R. Shiva Kumar. In this
method, Overflow of rainwater from the storage structure and water from the roof other than
the roof connected to the storage structure may be allowed to flow through a Popup Filter.
This filter will filter floating elements and to some extent the silt coming in the water.
Relatively cleaner water comes out of the filter and is allowed to flow into ground water
recharge gallery.

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Direct recharge through open wells and bore wells
Rainwater from the roof may be allowed to flow through PopUp filter and recharge ground
water from an existing open well or a bore well. In case of an open well, filtered rainwater may
be directly let in to the well through pipe from any one side of the well. It is advised not to
allow the filtered rainwater from the PopUp filters in to the bore well (live or failed). Fine silt or
dust from the roof may pass through the filter and block the micro pores or aquifers in the
bore well causing permanent damage to the bore well
Infiltration Gallery for large buildings
Infiltration Gallery is to store rainwater temporarily and allow the stored water to infiltrate into
underground aquifers. When the rainwater from the roof is allowed to flow on the ground
infiltration (water percolating into the ground) is less, causing more of runoff, thereby majority
of rainwater quickly reaches drains or storm water drains or streets and flows away from the
building. To artificially increase infiltration, two parameters are important:
(a) increasing the surface area of the soil / earth in contact
(b) creating water head on the soil / earth
Increase in any of the above or both will influence greater infiltration of rainwater into ground.
The level of infiltration also depends on the structure of the soil.
Spreading Methods
This method consists in spreading the water over the surface of permeable open lands and
pits. From where it directly infiltrates to rather shallow aquifers. In this method, the water is
temporarily stored in shape ditches or is spread over an open area by constructing life earth
dykes called percolation bunds

Q.11 Describe in detail green energy concepts.

Answer :Green Energy :Green energy comes from natural sources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, plants, algae and
geothermal heat. These energy resources are renewable, meaning they're naturally
replenished. In contrast, fossil fuels are a finite resource that take millions of years to develop
and will continue to diminish with use.
Renewable energy sources also have a much smaller impact on the environment than fossil
fuels, which produce pollutants such as greenhouse gases as a by-product, contributing to
climate change. Gaining access to fossil fuels typically requires either mining or drilling deep
into the earth, often in ecologically sensitive locations.
Green energy, however, utilizes energy sources that are readily available all over the world,
including in rural and remote areas that don't otherwise have access to electricity. Advances
in renewable energy technologies have lowered the cost of solar panels, wind turbines and
other sources of green energy, placing the ability to produce electricity in the hands of the
people rather than those of oil, gas, coal and utility companies.
Green energy can replace fossil fuels in all major areas of use including electricity, water and
space heating and fuel for motor vehicles.

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Types of green energy
Research into renewable, non-polluting energy sources is advancing at such a fast pace, it's
hard to keep track of the many types of green energy that are now in development. Here are
6 of the most common types of green energy:
Solar Power - The most prevalent type of renewable energy, solar power is typically
produced using photovoltaic cells, which capture sunlight and turn it into electricity. Solar
energy is also used to heat buildings and water, provide natural lighting and cook food. Solar
technologies have become inexpensive enough to power everything from small hand-held
gadgets to entire neighbourhoods.
Wind Power - Air flow on the earth's surface can be used to push turbines, with stronger
winds producing more energy. High-altitude sites and areas just offshore tend to provide the
best conditions for capturing the strongest winds. According to a 2009 study, a network of
land-based, 2.5-megawatt wind turbines in rural areas operating at just 20% of their rated
capacity could supply 40 times the current worldwide consumption of energy.
Hydropower - Also called hydroelectric power, hydropower is generated by the Earth's water
cycle, including evaporation, rainfall, tides and the force of water running through a dam.
Hydropower depends on high precipitation levels to produce significant amounts of energy.
Geothermal Energy - Just under the earth's crust are massive amounts of thermal energy,
which originates from both the original formation of the planet and the radioactive decay of
minerals. Geothermal energy in the form of hot springs has been used by humans for
millennia for bathing, and now it's being used to generate electricity. In North America alone,
there's enough energy stored underground to produce 10 times as much electricity as coal
currently does.
Biomass - Recently-living natural materials like wood waste, sawdust and combustible
agricultural wastes can be converted into energy with far fewer greenhouse gas emissions
than petroleum-based fuel sources. That's because these materials, known as biomass,
contain stored energy from the sun.
Biofuels - Rather than burning biomass to produce energy, sometimes these renewable
organic materials are transformed into fuel. Notable examples include ethanol and biodiesel.
Biofuels provided 2.7% of the world's fuels for road transport in 2010, and have the potential
to meet more than 25% of world demand for transportation fuels by 2050.

Q.12 What is the role of fly ash in present construction

scenario.
Answer :1. Advantage of fly ash in concrete applications : Better workability
Reduced Permeability
Reduced Heat of Hydration
Improved pump ability
Improved Sulphate and Chloride Resistance
Reduced Risk of Alkali Aggregate Reaction
Increased Long term Strength
Better Concrete Finish
Reduced Bleeding and Segregation

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Reduced Shrinkage and many more

2. Advantage of fly ash in masonry applications : Reduces drying shrinkage cracks

Good Bonding, less rebound hence reduces the wastage during
plastering
Better coverage area in plaster
Excellent permeability resistant
Improves labour productivity
Smooth finish
Eco friendly
Cost saving and many more

3. Fly ash utilization in Agriculture :Fly Ash also holds potential to improve the physical health of agriculture soil,
provide micro nutrients and as a result increase the yield of cereals, oil seeds, pulses,
cotton, and sugarcane etc. by 10-15%, vegetables by about 20-25% and root
vegetable by about 30-40% waste lands, degraded lands as well as problematic soils
such as Saline Alkali soils, Alkali saline impermeable (salt pane) as well as eroded
soils even in arid zones can be successfully reclaimed by application of fly ash.

4. Application of Fly ash in Zeolite synthesis :Fly ash is oxide-rich and can be used as the raw material for different industries. For
the first time fly ash is used as a combine source for alumina and silica for
hydrothermal crystallization of commercially important zeolites beta and ZSM-12.
Until now no report is available on direct conversion of fly ash to commercially
important zeolite of type beta.

Q.13 What is the role of water cement ratio in the

strength of concrete.
Answer :the water/cement ratio is defined as the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of cement
used in a concrete mix. Let us consider the following two cases :Case 1 : When the water/cement ratio is high.
If the w/c ratio is high, a large amount of water is available per unit weight of cement in the
concrete mix. So if a fixed volume of concrete is poured into a cube of formwork, there are a
large number of water-filled voids in the cube. So when the hydration reaction starts on the

15
surface of the cement particle, the gel-like products of hydration get precipitated in the water
- away from the surface of cement particles.
The gels formed in such a case are termed as Outer Products of Hydration. Now there are two
reasons why the strength of concrete is low in this case, namely Since there is a large space for them to develop, the outer products of hydration are large in
size. And we know, from the size effect, that larger sized particles have lower strength
compared to particles of smaller size.
No matter how high the water consumption rate of the reaction is, due to the large amount of
water present in the mix, some water will still be left when the concrete hardens and is ready
for use. This trapped water will gradually evaporate, leaving some voids in the concrete block.
The presence of voids results in greatly reduced strength.
Case 2 : When the water/cement ratio is low.
In this case, there will be very less amount of water in the block of formwork when the
concrete is poured into it, and hence lesser voids. When the hydration reaction proceeds, the
gels formed do not have enough space to migrate out and precipitate in the voids. So they get
deposited on the surface of the cement particle itself. Such products of hydration are termed
as Inner Products of Hydration. The space available for the crystals to grow is limited, so they
remain much smaller in size compared to the outer products of hydration.
The strength of concrete is more when the w/c ratio is low, because of the following reasons As per the law of size effect, the smaller sized gels formed in this case have much greater
strength as compared to those formed when the w/c is high.
Since the water available for hydration is very less, almost all of it is utilized during the
reaction. So no water is left to get evaporated later, and hence the strength-reduction due to
subsequent void formation is also much lower when the w/c ratio is low.

Q.14 What do you understand by leaching pit. Also define

the working.
Answer :- Leach pits hold solid fecal material in the same way as the pit of a pit latrine, while
allowing wastewater to percolate into the ground. When the ground is free of cracks, the soil
is reasonably permeable, and the groundwater table does not reach within about 2 meters of
the bottom of the pit. Under these conditions, natural microbiological processes in the ground
should ensure that pathogens do not reach the groundwater (these requirements may be
relaxed where the groundwater is not used for drinking water supply).
Advantages:
Where applicable, leach pits provide a simple means of disposing of wastewater without
harming the environment or public health.
Disadvantages:
There may be a risk that high concentrations of leach pits in urban areas may increase levels
of nitrates, bacteria and other groundwater contaminants. However, the resultant risks are
likely to be less than those of disposal above ground, and will depend on whether the
groundwater is used for water supply. Pits have to be desludged from time to time and there

16
are costs and health risks associated with this. As water use rises, separate provisions
normally have to be made for the disposal of sullage. If attempted wastewater percolation
into the soil exceeds its capacity, surface flooding of sewage will result.

Q.15 Give short note on soil stabilization.

Answer :1. Soil Stabilization with Cement:
The soil stabilized with cement is known as soil cement. The cementing action is believed to
be the result of chemical reactions of cement with siliceous soil during hydration reaction. The
important factors affecting the soil-cement are nature of soil content, conditions of mixing,
compaction, curing and admixtures used. Lime, calcium chloride, sodium carbonate, sodium
sulphate and fly ash are some of the additives commonly used with cement for cement
stabilization of soil.
2. Soil Stabilization using Lime:
Slaked lime is very effective in treating heavy plastic clayey soils. Lime may be used alone or
in combination with cement, bitumen or fly ash. Sandy soils can also be stabilized with these
combinations. Lime has been mainly used for stabilizing the road bases and the subgrade.
Lime changes the nature of the adsorbed layer and provides pozzolanic action. Plasticity index
of highly plastic soils are reduced by the addition of lime with soil. There is an increase in the
optimum water content and a decrease in the maximum compacted density and he strength
and durability of soil increases.
3. Soil Stabilization with Bitumen:
Asphalts and tars are bituminous materials which are used for stabilization of soil, generally
for pavement construction. Bituminous materials when added to a soil, it imparts both

17
cohesion and reduced water absorption. Depending upon the above actions and the nature of
soils, bitumen stabilization is classified in following four types:

Sand bitumen stabilization

Soil Bitumen stabilization
Water proofed mechanical stabilization, and
Oiled earth.

4. Chemical Stabilization of Soil:

Calcium chloride being hygroscopic and deliquescent is used as a water retentive additive in
mechanically stabilized soil bases and surfacing. The vapor pressure gets lowered, surface
tension increases and rate of evaporation decreases. The freezing point of pure water gets
lowered and it results in prevention or reduction of frost heave.
Sodium chloride is the other chemical that can be used for this purpose with a stabilizing
action similar to that of calcium chloride.
Sodium silicate is yet another chemical used for this purpose in combination with other
chemicals such as calcium chloride, polymers, chrome lignin, alkyl chlorosilanes, siliconites,
amines and quarternary ammonium salts, sodium hexametaphosphate, phosphoric acid
combined with a wetting agent.
5. Electrical Stabilization of Clayey Soils:
Electrical stabilization of clayey soils is done by method known as electro-osmosis. This is an
expensive method of soil stabilization and is mainly used for drainage of cohesive soils.
6. Soil Stabilization by Grouting:
In this method, stabilizers are introduced by injection into the soil. This method is not useful
for clayey soils because of their low permeability. This is a costly method for soil stabilization.
This method is suitable for stabilizing buried zones of relatively limited extent. The grouting
techniques can be classified as following:

Clay grouting
Chemical grouting
Chrome lignin grouting
Polymer grouting, and
Bituminous grouting

7. Soil Stabilization by Geotextiles and Fabrics:

Geotextiles are porous fabrics made of synthetic materials such as polyethylene, polyester,
nylons and polyvinyl chloride. Woven, non-woven and grid form varieties of geotextiles are
available. Geotextiles have a high strength. When properly embedded in soil, it contributes to
its stability. It is used in the construction of unpaved roads over soft soils.
Reinforcing the soil for stabilization by metallic strips into it and providing an anchor or tie
back to restrain a facing skin element.

Q.17 What is the role of Ferro cement drains in the waste

water disposal system

18
Answer :- Advantages of ferrocement drains are as follow:

The components of ferrocement drains, covers and storage tank are machine made
having assured quality. These are brought to site and placed manually or using small
crane.
There is no phenomena of any plaster application. The manufactured surfaces are
smooth, better than plaster surfaces.
The ferrocement has unparallel feature of waterproof quality. There are no leakages
through ferrocement drains as well as the tanks. The joints are very much leak proof.
Ferrocement drains and water storage tank consist of thin ferrocement plates about 25
mm thick. There is very much large quantum of space saving.
The ferrocement drains and water storage tanks construction saves space to a very
large extent. This is most significant in cities where there is a shortage of space
No manhole cover is required for ferrocement drains. Covers to the ferrocement drains
are removable for cleaning. These are 2.5 mtr. long and can be easily handled.
Thus the cleaning of drains is most convenient at reasonably low cost.

Q.19 How fibre change the property of concrete

Answer :Fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) is concrete containing fibrous material which increases its
structural integrity. It contains short discrete fibers that are uniformly distributed and
randomly oriented. Fibers include steel fibers, glass fibers, synthetic fibers and natural fibers
each of which lend varying properties to the concrete. In addition, the character of fiberreinforced concrete changes with varying concretes, fiber materials, geometries, distribution,
orientation, and densities.
Fibers are usually used in concrete to control cracking due to plastic shrinkage and to drying
shrinkage. They also reduce the permeability of concrete and thus reduce bleeding of water.
Some types of fibers produce greater impact, abrasion, and shatterresistance in concrete.
Generally fibers do not increase the flexural strength of concrete, and so cannot replace
momentresisting or structural steel reinforcement. Indeed, some fibers actually reduce the
strength of concrete.
Polypropylene and Nylon fibers can:

Improve mix cohesion, improving pumpability over long distances

Improve freeze-thaw resistance
Improve resistance to explosive spalling in case of a severe fire
Improve impact resistance and abrasionresistance
Increase resistance to plastic shrinkage during curing
Improve structural strength
Reduce steel reinforcement requirements
Improve ductility
Reduce crack widths and control the crack widths tightly, thus improving durability

Steel fibers can:

Improve structural strength

Reduce steel reinforcement requirements
Improve ductility
Reduce crack widths and control the crack widths tightly, thus improving durability

19

Improve impact and abrasionresistance

Improve freeze-thaw resistance

Q.20 Give a short note on sisal fibre.

Answer :Sisal fibre is derived from the leaves of the plant. It is usually obtained by machine
decortications in which the leaf is crushed between rollers and then mechanically scraped.
The fibre is then washed and dried by mechanical or natural means. The dried fibre represents
only 4% of the total weight of the leaf. Once it is dried the fibre is mechanically double
brushed. The lustrous strands, usually creamy white, average from 80 to 120 cm in length and
0.2 to 0.4 mm in diameter.
Sisal fibre is fairly coarse and inflexible. It is valued for cordage use because of its strength,
durability, ability to stretch, affinity for certain dyestuffs, and resistance to deterioration in
saltwater. Sisal is used by industry in three grades:

The lower grade fibre is processed by the paper industry because of its high content of
cellulose and hemicelluloses.
The medium grade fibre is used in the cordage industry for making: ropes, baler and
binders twine. Ropes and twines are widely employed for marine, agricultural, and
general industrial use.
The higher-grade fibre after treatment is converted into yarns and used by the carpet
industry.

Q.21 Explain Manufacturing of Ferro-cement shell roof?

Answer :- The building system uses pre-cast ferrocement roofing channels of a segmental arch
profile which are placed adjacent to each other and spanning over two supports. After partly
filling the valley between channels with concrete, the channels form an idealized T-beam and
are able to carry the load of a roof / floor. Ferrocement comprises of a uniform distribution of
reinforcement by use of chicken wire mesh and welded mesh encapsulatedin rich cement
mortar, thereby achieving significant reduction in both steel reinforcement and dead weight of
roof. This composition provides a more uniform distribution of strength as compared to RCC.
Pre-cast Ferrocement Channels
FC Channels are pre-cast shell units made with rich cement mortar (1:2 to 1:3) and
reinforcement consisting of a continuous layer of chicken mesh with steel bars provided at
two ends of the channel. These shell units are cast either manually on a masonry mould or
mechanically on steel moulds mounted on table vibrator. The channels are supported on ends
either on load bearing masonry or on a frame structure (RCC or steel).
Restraining Beams
Any lateral moment and deflection of FC Channel gets balanced by thrust of adjacent channel.
In order to balance the channel movement at ends, restraining beams must be provided to
prevent differential movement of FC roof in case of any instability in the support structure.
The restraining beam will be a part of RCC bands required for structural strengthening,
specially in disaster prone areas.
Concrete Filling

20
After the Channels have been placed side by side, they are joined together with a concrete
infill of at least M15 grade (1:2:4) laid to 150 mm thickness. This concrete completes the Tbeam structural action of the FC Channels and creates a basic roof. In case of an intermediate
floor, the remaining portion of the valley can be filled the with lean concrete, brick jelly lime
concrete or light-weight material and finished with a floor.

Q.22 What is energy efficient roofing? Explain.

Answer :Energy-efficient roofing materials can dramatically reduce household energy use, thereby
decreasing greenhouse gas emissions and significantly lowering utility bills. Though the initial
price of an energy-efficient roof can be slightly higher, the investment is made up for in
reduced utility bills over the life of the building. Many Energy Star-rated roofs are also eligible
for tax credits.
Cool Roofs
"Cool roofs" is an umbrella term for several different roofing systems. In short, a cool roof is a
roof designed to reflect sunlight and heat. Conventional roofing materials reflect only 5 to 15
percent, which means they absorb 85 to 95 percent of the energy and heat from the sun. The
coolest roofing materials reflect more than 65 percent, absorbing 35 percent or less of the
energy from the sun. Thermal emittance determines how readily a surface gives up heat.
Ideally, a roof will have a high percentage of reflectance and a high percentage of emittance.
Low-Sloped Roofs
Low-sloped roofs are normally found on commercial buildings, industrial buildings and
multifamily homes. They can be made more efficient through the application of cool coating
or single-ply membrane. Cool coating is the consistency of thick paint and can be applied to
existing surfaces, such as asphalt, gravel, metal and various single-ply materials. Cool
coatings have additional benefits, including improved adhesion, durability, suppression of
algae growth and an ability to self-wash under normal rainfall. Single-ply membranes come in
prefabricated sheets and are generally glued or mechanically fastened in place over the entire
surface of the roof.
Steep-Sloped Roofs
Steep-sloped roofs are generally found on residential homes. The most common types of cool
roofing systems for steep-sloped roofs include tiles and painted metal. Typical tiles, made of
clay or concrete, reflect only 10 to 30 percent. "Cool-colored" tiles contain pigments that
reflect 25 to 70 percent of solar energy, depending upon the color. Cool-colored metal roofing
also contains pigments that reflect 20 to 90 percent. Metal roofing is more common than tile,
as it is highly durable.
Heat Islands
Heat islands are urban areas that are hotter than nearby rural areas. A city with 1 million
people or more can be 1.8 to 5.4 F warmer than its surroundings. Heat islands affect
community-wide energy demands, air-conditioning costs, air pollution, greenhouse gas
emissions and water quality. Cool roofs play a vital role in reducing the environmental and
economic impact of large cities.
Green Roofs

21
Although green roofs fall into their own category, they provide similar benefits as cool roofs.
Green roofs are gardens or mini-ecosystems that cover an existing roof with the aid of special
planters. The greenery essentially shades the roof, reducing heat transfer and thereby
keeping the building cool. (See References 4, page 4) Green roofs also act as insulators in cold
weather and have a host of other benefits, such as absorbing rainfall for better stormwater
management, reducing air pollution and providing garden space in densely populated areas
where parkland is rare.

Q.24 Explain manufacturing of MCR tiles.

Answer :The roofing tiles developed through a technique called Micro Concrete Roofing, is a result of
worldwide research and is being extensively used in South America, African and South East
Asian countries. M.C.R tiles are widely used in India too.
Speciality of M.C.R Tiles
M.C.R tiles are better than other traditional forms of roofing like tin sheet, asbestos sheets or
khaprail for the following characteristics:

These have more strength as cement is added to them.

These are lighter than other tiles.
Manufacturing process of these tiles is very simple and any individual can master the
art in seven days.
White washing of roof is not required when these tiles are used.
These tiles are warmer in winters and cool in summers.
They donot make noise when it rains.
Colours can be added for attractive look.

The M.C.R tiles are certified by Building Material Technology Council, Housing Ministry,
Government of India.
Manufacturing :The manufacturing process of M.C.R. tiles is very simple. First a balanced mixture of cement,
concrete stones, sand and water is prepared. In this mixture cement, stone chips (6 mm) and
sand/ stone dust are mixed in 1:1:2 ratio. This mixture is put in a vibrating machine and
adequate amount of vibrations are given. These mixture is poured in plastic/ fiber moulds and
left in it for at least 24 hours. After 24 hours, these tiles are put in water tank for curing. The
tiles are put in water tank for seven day period. This strengthens the tiles. After curing, the
tiles are painted with cement paint or plastic paint. Mostly cement paint is used for this
purpose. After painting the tiles they are sent for marketing.

Q.25 What is non-erodible mud plaster? Explain process

of its preparation and its application.
Answer :Most of the houses in villages are built either with kachha (Sun Dried) bricks or blocks, or with
lumps of mud stacked over one another (cob technique). Mud walls are protected against
damage from rain by applying mud plaster, consisting of local soil or mud collected from
village pond mixed with bhusha (wheat straw) on outer walls, rendering with gobri (Cow dung

22
slurry). This traditional method of application of mud plaster of course is cheap; however it
cannot with sand continuous rainfall.
During continuous rain, moisture penetrates through the plaster and softens the surface of
the wall in contact with the plaster, thereby weakening the bond between the wall face and
the plaster. Normally on drying out, the adhesion between the wall surface and the plaster
should be fully restored, but due to the differential shrinkage between plaster and wall, local
stresses develop, which are too high for the weakened bond between the plaster and the
softened wall face to overcome. A partial separation thus occurs, and by repeated cycles of
wetting and. drying, the plaster ultimately comes off in flakes and is eroded. As a result,
considerable damage is done to the walls and consequently, the house. Thus a waterproof
mud rendering on mud walls can save the walls from frequent damage and substantially
increase its durability to more than 25 years years with normal annual maintenance.
The Central Building Research Institute Roorkee has developed a "Non-erodible mud plaster"
based on bitumen cutback, and have been successfully adopted on several houses to prove
its effectiveness. In this technique, a bitumen cutback is prepared with bitumen having
80/100 penetration & kerosene oil this is mixed with ordinary mud mortar (having bhusa)
and applied on the mud wall, providing a non-erodible and water proof plastered surface.
Preparation and application :

Mix mud with water and knead it thoroughly

Add measured quantities of cement to mud
Add measured quantity of lime to the mud mix
Mix the mud thoroughly and knead
Sprinkle water and apply prepared mud plaster
Apply mud plaster upto 150cm height from the ground
Allow the plaster to dry for 2 days and apply mud and cowdung mix as plaster

Q.26 Explain in details how effective planning and

selection of proper construction material reduces
construction cost.
Answer :Importance of planning :It is the process of selecting a particular method and the order of work to be adopted for a
project from all the possible ways and sequences in which it could be done. It essentially
covers the aspects of What to do and How to do it
Importance of construction project planning :

Planning helps to minimize the cost by optimum utilization of available resources.

Planning reduces irrational approaches, duplication of works and inter departmental
conflicts.
Planning encourages innovation and creativity among the construction managers.
Planning imparts competitive strength to the enterprise.

Importance of construction material selection :-

23
The selection of building materials and products represents one important strategy in the
design of a building. Building materials offer specific benefits to the building owner and
building occupants and are follows:

Reduced maintenance/replacement costs over the life of the building.

Energy conservation.
Improved occupant health and productivity.
Lower costs associated with changing space configurations.
Greater design flexibility.

Q.29 Explain Filler slab.

They are normal RCC slabs where bottom half (tension) concrete portions are replaced by filler
materials such as bricks, tiles, cellular concrete blocks, etc.These filler materials are so placed
as not to compromise structural strength, result in replacing unwanted and nonfunctional
tension concrete, thus resulting in economy. These are safe, sound and provide aesthetically
pleasing pattern ceilings and also need no plaster
Technique :

The filler slab is based on the principle that for roofs which are simply supported, the
upper part of the slab is subjected to compressive forces and the lower part of the slab
experience tensile forces. Concrete is very good in withstanding compressive forces
and steel bears the load due to tensile forces. Thus the lower tensile region of the slab
does not need any concrete except for holding the steel reinforcements together.
Therefore in a conventional RCC slab lot of concrete is wasted and it needs extra
reinforcement due to added load of the concrete which can otherwise be replaced by
low-cost and light weight filler materials, which will reduce the dead weight as well as
the cost of the slab to 25% (as 40% less steel is used and 30% less concrete)

Mechanism :

The filler slab is a mechanism to replace the concrete in the tension zone. The filler
material, thus, is not a structural part of the slab. By reducing the quantity and weight
of material, the roof become less expensive, yet retains the strength of the
conventional slab. The most popular filler material is the roofing tile. Mangalore tiles
are placed between steel ribs and concrete is poured into the gap to make a filler slab.
The structure requires less steel and cement and it is also a good heat insulator.
Conventional tests by different institutions and laboratories has proved the load bearing
capacity of filler slab and found it no less in performance from the conventional R.C.C.
slab. Since filler roof tiles are firmly bonded to and covered by concrete, it does not
collapse under the impact of say, a coconut falling on the roof.

Benefits :

Saving on cost
The savings on cost can be from 15 per cent to 25 per cent. But designing a filler slab
requires a structural engineer to determine the spacing between the reinforcement
bars.
Thermal insulation
The air pocket formed by the contours of the tiles makes an excellent thermal insulation

24
layer. The design integrity of a filler slab involves careful planning taking into account
the negative zones and reinforcement areas.

Q.6 Describe various cost effective techniques for

building/house construction (residential building
construction)
Answer :- Refer Q.5

Q.7 Plan and design cost effective and eco-friendly road

construction using locally available material for light
traffic.
Q.8 Describe cost effective sanitation for rural and urban
areas including basic structure and disposal system
Answer :-

Rural Areas :1. Plinth level toilet with temporary superstructure

This is one of the simplest designs and it is best suited where space is a constraint. It is quite
easy to empty filled pits, can be constructed within a day and cost investment is definitely on
the lower side. The total cost of construction comes to about Rs. 1500. Superstructure can be
made from locally available materials such as banana leaves, bamboo sticks and gunny bags.
It can be a simple solution for sanitation around festival places and during emergencies.
Estimated cost of 1 toilet: Rs. 1500
2. Toilet only model with hollow bricks
The superstructure here is made of hollow bricks. This model is suitable for all purposes, it is
comparatively low cost and is most suitable where space is limited. Estimated cost of 1 toilet:
Rs. 5500
3. Toilet attached bathroom (w/ hollow bricks and no roof)
A multifunctional low cost structure, this toilet and bathroom design accommodates provision
for water storage, bathing and washing facilities inside the toilet. Additionally, using water
waste for kitchen garden is possible and most importantly it provides privacy for ablution,
especially keeping in mind women and adolescent girls. Estimated cost of 1 toilet: Rs. 7257
4. Toilet only model (w/ concrete rings pit and roof)
It is a low cost design, especially suited for small areas, and provides privacy and safeguards
during rainy season. Estimated cost of 1 toilet: Rs. 6875
5. Twin pit Pour flush latrine
Slightly larger space may be needed to construct this toilet but the cost is still low. Having two
pits is certainly an advantage as when the first pit gets filled up, the flow of excreta has to be
diverted to the second pit. In this design, two leach pits are connected to one single pour-flush

25
toilet. Twin-pit toilets have a high convenience when emptying one pit, people use second
pit. Estimated cost of 1 toilet: Rs. 7257

6. ECO-SAN toilets
This toilet design might be costly but prevents contamination of water sources and soil.
Human waste can be composted and used as a natural fertilizer. Unlike other designs,
emptying pits is not a requirement. This design is great in the areas where water logging and
scarcity is a concern. It is most effective in coastal and rock areas, as it promotes soil fertility
and crop production. Historically, such ecological methods of sanitations were utilized by the
Romans, Chinese, in Mexico, Peru and Yemen. Some places which have excelled in this
technology in the current age are Guangxi province, China; KfW, Frankfurt, Germany where
they use vacuum toilets with provisions of grey water treatment and Tanum Municipality in
Sweden. Ecosan was implemented in Haiti as part of the emergency relief effort following the
2010 earthquake. In India, these designs are notably used in Tamil Nadu where the Tamil Nadu
State Government provides subsidies. Estimated cost of 1 toilet: Rs. 10,747
7. Bio-gas linked toilets
Talk about alternate energy alternatives and here is one. This design offers support to convert
waste matter to Bio-gas, a non-conventional energy source. The fuel generated can be used
as local source for electricity, heat and light. Also, the waste can be composted to Biomanure which increases productivity and catalyses soil conservation. In 2012, UNICEF chose
two districts in West Bengal to pilot this kind of design in India and approximately 19,000 Kg
of methane gas that was produced from waste alone each day was converted to produce
biogas. UNICEF successfully piloted this program with a local NGO Ramakrishna Mission
Lokashiksha Parishad to implement this program at Medinipur district. Look at the Banka bioloo model. Estimated cost of 1 toilet: Rs. 21, 167

26

Urban Areas :1 Simple Pit Latrine

The simple pit latrine is found almost everywhere in the world. It is a pit dug into the ground,
covered with a slab with a drop hole in it, and usually has some sort of structure around it for
privacy. Smells, flies and other vectors will be reduced if the simple pit latrine is well
maintained, the slab is kept clean and the hole is kept covered. The latrines components can
be made out of local materials such as wood, brick, metal, thatch or concrete.
2 Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine
The ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine is an improved version of the simple pit latrine. The
main differences are:

A ventilation pipe is incorporated. Fresh air flows into the superstructure through a vent
that can be made from plastic, concrete or brick. The air travels through the drop hole
and the smelly air and gases from the pit are drawn out through the vent pipe. The pipe
is covered at the top with a fine mesh (often mosquito mesh) to prevent flies and other
insects that may be attracted by the smell from entering the pit.
The superstructure is built so that it is always dark inside. Flies that do get in the pit by
coming in through the vent or door will be attracted to the light at the top of the vent
pipe but will get stuck in the mesh and die.
The drop hole is not covered. It needs to stay open so that the air can flow into the pit
and then up and out of the vent.

3 Pour Flush Pit Latrine

A pour flush latrine is a version of the simple pit latrine that requires water to move excreta
into the pit. A pour flush pan is built into the slab and is used instead of a drop hole. The pan
is designed so that there is a water seal created in the pipe. This stops smells from escaping
from the pit and flies and rodents from entering the pit. Well designed, smooth pour flush
pans require as little as 2-3 litres to flush; however inefficient pans may need 5-6 litres to
flush properly. Pour flush pans can be made from concrete, ceramics, plastics or enamelled

27
steel. Plastic pans tend to be cheapest as they are quite smooth and easy to clean, but they
are often less robust than other materials. The pit can be offset from the superstructure with a
short section of pipe or covered channel connecting it to the pour flush pan. This allows
simpler and lighter slabs to be used to cover the pit. It also means that the superstructure can
be built out of heavier materials such as brick and block because it will be better supported by
the earth. Pour flush latrines are particularly appropriate for people who use water for anal
cleansing. Soft wiping materials (e.g. toilet paper) can be flushed, but those who use solid
materials will need a separate sanitary method for disposing of the soiled material.
4 Twin-Pit Latrines
The twin-pit latrine is made of two lined pits dug side by side. When one pit is full, the other
pit is then used. When the second pit it full, the first pit is emptied and re-used. The pits are
lined to stop them from caving in when they are emptied. The type of latrine used with twinpits can be a simple pit, VIP, or a pour flush latrine. Composting and dehydrating latrines also
use a twin pit system, but they require special operation that will be discussed further in the
ecological sanitation section. A twin-pit latrine is used where it is necessary to empty latrines
and dispose of the contents elsewhere once they are full. This includes places where there is
limited space or where more permanent structures are desired. The pits should be sized so
that each pit fills up over the course of one or two years. This way the pit contents can sit
while the other pit fills up. A two year period is recommended in most climates for the pit
contents to decompose and for the pathogens to die off. The pit contents can then be
removed safely (WHO, 2006).

Q.16 How will you construct a national highway using

plastic. Take both flexible and rigid pavement
Answer :The following types of waste plastic can be used in the construction of rural roads:

Films ( Carry Bags, Cups) thickness up to 60micron (PE, PP and PS)

Hard foams (PS) any thickness
Soft Foams (PE and PP) any thickness.
Laminated Plastics thickness up to 60 micron (Aluminum coated also) packing materials
used for biscuits, chocolates, etc.
Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) sheets or Flux sheets should not be used in any case.

Process Of laying :Process Step 1:

Plastics waste (bags, cups, thermo Cole) made out of PE,PP and PS cut into a size
between 2.36mm and 4.75mm using shredding machine, (PVC waste should be
eliminated).
Process Step 2:
The aggregate mix is heated to 165c (as per the HRS specification) and transferred to
mixing chamber.
Process Step 3:

28
Similarly the bitumen is to be heated up to a maximum of 160c (HRS Specification) to
have good binding and to prevent weak bonding. (Monitoring the temperature is very
important).
Process Step 4:
At the mixing chamber, the shredded plastics waste is to be added. It get coated
uniformly over the aggregate within 30 to 60 seconds, giving an oily look.
Process Step 5:
The plastics waste coated aggregate is mixed with got bitumen and the resulted mix is
used for road construction. The road laying temperature is between 110c to 120c.
The roller used is 8-ton capacity.
Advantages of Plastic Tar Road :A well constructed Plastic Tar Road will result in the following advantages.

Strength of the road increased (Increased Marshall Stability Value)

Better resistance to water and water stagnation
No stripping and have no potholes.
Increased binding and better bonding of the mix.
Increased load withstanding property( Withstanding increased load transport)
Overall consumption of bitumen decreases.
Reduction in pores in aggregate and hence less rutting and raveling.
Better soundness property.
Maintenance cost of the road is almost nil.
The Road life period is substantially increased.
No leaching of plastics.
No effect of radiation like UV.

Q.18 Give the brief comparison of a G+1 residential

building with locally available conventional material and
with cost effective construction material.
Answer :- Following are the advantages of Low cost housing over Conventional Methods :Economic benefits:

Reduce operating costs

Enhance asset value and profits
Improve employee productivity and satisfaction
Optimize life cycle economic performance
Qualifying for various tax rebates, zoning allowances and other incentives in many
cities
Become a selling point to potential buyers
Increase the market for an engineers or contractors skills
Lowering a buildings overall life cycle cost

Environmental benefits:

Improve air and water quality

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Reduce solid waste

Conserve natural resources
Enhance and protect ecosystems and biodiversity

Health and community benefits:

Improve air, thermal, and acoustic environments

Enhance occupant comfort and health
Possibly limiting growth of mold and other airborne contaminants that can affect worker
productivity and/or health

Q.23 Explain working of Concrete block manufacturing

machine.
Q.27 Give rate analysis of solid concrete block of size
300x200x150 Cubic mm.
Q.28 Workout plastering rates for plastering 10sqm wall
surface with non-erodible mud plaster?