89

APPENDIX 1
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF GENETIC ALGORITHM

In the genetic algorithm a solution, i.e., a point in the search space

is represented by a finite sequence of zeros and ones, called a chromosome.
First, a population of strings representing the decision variables is randomly
generated. The size of the population depends on the string length and the
problem being optimized. Each string is then evaluated using the objective
function value. In GA terminology, the objective function value of a string is
known as the fitness of the string. This evaluation function acts as a pseudo
objective function, since it is a raw measure of the solution value. For
constrained optimization problems, the evaluation function typically
comprises a weighted sum of the objective and penalty functions to consider
the constraints. This approach allows constraints to be violated, but a penalty
depending on the magnitude of the violation is incurred. A highly infeasible
individual has a high penalty value and will rarely be selected for next
generation, allowing the GA to concentrate on feasible or near-feasible
solutions. Once the strings are evaluated, the three genetic operatorsreproduction, crossover and mutation are applied to create a new population.
Pseudo-code of working of GAs
Initialize a population of strings at random
Evaluate each string in the population
Repeat
Reproduction

90

Crossover
Mutation
Evaluation of the population
Until (termination criterion)
A1.1

Reproduction
The selection of individuals to produce successive generations

plays an important role in GA. Reproduction comprises forming a new

population, usually with the same total number of chromosome, by selection
from members of the current population, following a particular scheme. The
higher the fitness, the more likely it is that the chromosome will be selected
for the next generation. There are several strategies for selecting the
individuals (e.g) roulette wheel selection, ranking methods and tournament
selection.
In tournament selection, n individuals are selected in random from
the population, and the best of the n is inserted into the new population for
further genetic processing. This procedure is repeated until the mating pool is
filled. Tournaments are often held between pairs of individuals (n=2),
although larger tournaments can be used.
Though this scheme selects good individuals for the next
generation, it can not guarantee that the best solution obtained survives
through out the optimization process. In other words, the best solution
obtained from the GA may not be included in the final solutions, which are
clustered towards a solution. To avoid this, the GA is modified such that once
an individual with highest fitness among the current generation is found; it
will be kept unchanged into the next generation. This process is called
elitism.

91

A1.2

CROSSOVER OPERATION
After the reproduction phase is over, the population is enriched

with good strings. Reproduction makes copies of good strings, but does not
create any new string. A cross over operator is used to recombine with the
hope of creating a better string. An overall crossover probability is assigned to
the crossover process, which is the probability that given two parents, the
crossover process will occur. This probability is often in the range of 0.6 to
0.9. The method of crossover used in GA is BLX-

crossover which is

explained in chapter 2.5.3.2.

A1.3

MUTATION
Mutation acts as a background operator and it is used to search the

unexplored search space by randomly changing the values at one or more

positions of the selected chromosome. This is often carried out with a
constant probability between 0.001 to 0.01 for each element in the population.
In this thesis, non-uniform mutation operator is applied to the mixed variables
with some modifications. After mutation, the new generation is complete and
the procedure begins again with the fitness evaluation of the population.
Stopping Criteria
These are the conditions under which the search process will
terminate. In this study, the search will terminate if one of the following
criteria is satisfied: the number of iterations since the last of the best solution
is greater than a pre-specified number; or the number of iterations reaches the
maximum allowable number.

92

APPENDIX 2
MULTI-OBJECTIVE OPTIMIZATION PROBLEM

A general multi-objective design problem is expressed by

equation (A 2.1)
Min F ( x)

[ f1 ( x), f 2 ( x),..... f k ( x)]

(A 2.1)

Subject to x S
x=(x1,x2,xn)T
where

f1(x), f2(x ).. fk( x) are the k objective functions , (x1,x2,.xn) are

the n optimization parameters, and S Rn is the solution or parameter space.

Obtainable objective vectors, {F(x)| x S} , are denoted by Y, so S is mapped
by F onto Y. Y Rk is usually referred to as the attribute or criteria space,
where Y is the boundary of Y. For a general design problem, F is non-linear
and multi-modal, and S might be defined by non-linear constraints and may
contain both continuous and discrete member variables. f1* , f 2* ,......., f k* will be
used to denote the individual minima of each objective function respectively.
The utopian solution is defined as F *

f1* , f 2* ,......., f k* .

As F* minimizes all objectives simultaneously, it is an ideal

solution, however it is rarely feasible. In this formulation, minimize F(x),
lacks clear meaning as the set {F(x)} for all feasible x lacks a natural
ordering, whenever F(x) is vector-valued. In order to determine whether F(x1)

93

is better then F(x2), and thereby order the set {F(x)}, the subjective judgment
from a decision-maker is needed. One property commonly considered as
necessary for any candidate solution to the multi-objective problem is that the
solution is not dominated. Considering a minimization problem and two
solution vectors x, y S. x is said to dominate y, denoted x > y, if:
i

1,2,...k : f1 ( x)

f1 ( y )

and

1,2,.....k : f j ( x)

f j ( y)

The Pareto subset of Y contains all non-dominated solutions. The

space in Rk formed by the objective vectors of Pareto optimal solutions is
known as the Pareto optimal front, P.
If the final solution is selected from the set of Pareto optimal
solutions, there would not exist any solutions that are better in all attributes. It
is clear that any final design solution should preferably be a member of the
Pareto optimal set. If the solution is not in the Pareto optimal set, it could be
improved without degeneration in any of the objectives, and thus it is not a
rational choice. This is true as long as the selection is done based on the
objectives only. Pareto optimal solutions are also known as non-dominated or
efficient solutions. Figure A2.1 provides a visualization of the presented
nomenclature.

94

Figure A2.1 Solution and attribute space nomenclature for a problem

with two design variables (x1 and x2) and two objectives
(f1 and f2), which should both be minimized
Solution and attribute space nomenclature for a problem with two
design variables (x1 and x2) and two objectives (f1 and f2), which should both
be minimized. The attribute space, Y, looks the same regardless of how the
objectives are aggregated to an overall objective function. Depending on how
the overall objective function is formulated, the optimization will result in
different points on the Pareto front.

95

APPENDIX 3
Table A3.1 Line Data for IEEE 30-bus System

Line
From Bus To Bus
Number Number Number

Line
flow
Limit

Line Impedance

0.0192

0.0575

130

0.0452

0.1852

130

0.0570

0.1737

65

0.0472

0.1983

130

0.0581

0.1763

65

0.0132

0.0379

130

0.0119

0.0414

90

12

0.0000

0.2360

65

0.0460

0.1160

70

10

0.0267

0.0820

130

11

0.0120

0.0420

32

12

0.2080

0.2080

65

13

10

0.5560

0.5560

32

14

28

0.0599

0.0599

32

15

28

0.2000

0.2000

32

16

11

0.0000

0.2080

65

17

10

0.0000

0.1100

65

18

10

20

0.0936

0.2090

32

19

10

17

0.0324

0.0845

32

20

10

21

0.0348

0.0749

32

21

10

22

0.0727

0.1499

32

22

12

13

0.0000

0.1400

65

23

12

14

0.1231

0.2559

32

96

Table A3.1 (Continued)

Line Impedance

Line

Line

From Bus

To Bus

Number

Number

Number

24

12

15

0.0662

0.1304

32

25

12

16

0.0945

0.1987

32

26

14

15

0.2210

0.1997

16

27

15

18

0.1070

0.2185

16

28

15

23

0.1000

0.2020

16

29

16

17

0.0824

0.1932

16

30

18

19

0.0639

0.1292

16

31

19

20

0.0340

0.0680

32

32

21

22

0.0116

0.0236

32

33

22

24

0.1150

0.1790

16

34

23

24

0.1320

0.2700

16

35

24

25

0.1885

0.3292

16

36

25

26

0.2544

0.3800

16

37

25

27

0.1093

0.2087

16

38

27

29

0.2198

0.4153

16

39

27

30

0.3202

0.6027

16

40

28

27

0.0000

0.3960

65

41

29

30

0.2399

0.4333

16

flow
Limit

97

Table A3.2 Generator data for IEEE 30-bus system

Bus data

Pg

min

Pg

max

Qg

min

Sg

max

50

200

-20

250

20

80

-20

100

15

50

-15

80

10

35

-15

60

11

10

30

-10

50

13

12

40

-15

60

Table A3.3 Generator cost data and ramp rate operating limits
F(PG ) PG3 bi PG2 ci PG d i

Ramp Rate
(MW/30min)

Bus data
ai

bi

ci

di

Up

Down

0.0010

0.092

14.5

-136

15

20

0.0004

0.025

22

-3.5

10

15

0.0006

0.075

23

-81

10

0.0002

0.1

13.5

-14.5

11

0.0013

0.12

11.5

-9.75

13

0.0004

0.084

12.5

75.6

10

98

Table A 3.4 Line Data for IEEE 57-bus system

Line no
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29

line
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
4-6
6-7
6-8
8-9
9-10
911
9-12
9-13
13-14
13-15
1-15
1-16
1-17
3-15
4-18
4-18
5-6
7-8
10-12
11-13
12-13
12-16
12-17
14-15
18-19

R p.u
0.0083
0.0298
0.0112
0.0625
0.043
0.02
0.0339
0.0099
0.0369
0.0258
0.0648
0.0481
0.0132
0.0269
0.0178
0.0454
0.0238
0.0162
0
0
0.0302
0.0139
0.0277
0.0223
0.0178
0.018
0.0397
p.0171
0.461

X p.u
0.028
0.085
0.0366
0.132
0.148
0.102
0.173
0.0505
0.1679
0.0848
0.295
0.158
0.0434
0.0869
0.091
0.206
0.108
0.053
0.555
0.4
0.0641
0.0712
0.1262
0.0732
0.058
0.0813
0.179
0.0547
0.685

Bp.u
0.0645
0.0409
0.019
0.0129
0.0174
0.0138
0.0235
0.0274
0.022
0.0109
0.0386
0.0203
0.0055
0.0115
0.0494
0.0273
0.0143
0.0272
0
0
0.0062
0.0097
0.0164
0.0094
0.0302
0.0108
0.0238
0.0074
0

99

Table A 3.4 (Continued)

Line no

line

R p.u

X p.u

Bp.u

30

19-20

0.283

0.434

31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60

21-10
21-22
22-23
23-24
24-25
24-25
24-26
26-27
27-28
28-29
7-29
25-30
30-31
31-32
32-33
34-32
34-35
35-36
36-37
37-38
37-39
36-40
22-38
11-41
41-42
41-43
38-44
15-45
14-46
47-48

0
0.0736
0.0099
0.166
0
0
0
0.165
0.0618
0.0418
0
0.135
0.326
0.507
0.0392
0
0.052
0.043
0.029
0.0651
0.0239
0.03
0.0192
0
0.207
0
0.0289
0
0
0.0182

0.7767
0.117
0.0152
0.256
1.182
1.23
0.0473
0.254
0.0954
0.0587
0.0648
0.202
0.497
0.755
0.036
0.953
0.078
0.0537
0.0366
0.1009
0.0379
0.0466
0.0295
0.749
0.352
0.412
0.585
0.1042
0.0735
0.0233

0
0
0
0.0042
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.0016
0.0008
0
0.001
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.001
0
0
0

100

Table A 3.4 (Continued)

Line no
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80

line
48-49
49-50
50-51
10-51
13-49
29-52
52-53
53-54
54-55
11-43
44-45
40-56
56-41
56-42
39-57
57-56
38-49
38-48
9-55
46-47

R p.u
0.0834
0.0801
0.1386
0
0
0.1442
0.0762
0.1878
0.1732
0
0.0624
0
0.553
0.2125
0
0.174
0.115
0.0312
0
0.023

X p.u
0.129
0.128
0.22
0.0712
0.191
0.187
0.0984
0.232
0.2265
0.153
0.1242
1.195
0.549
0.354
1.355
0.26
0.177
0.0482
0.1205
0.068

Bp.u
0
0.024
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.002
0
0
0
0
0
0.0015
0
0
0.0016