P.S.R.

ENGINEERING COLLEGE, SIVAKASI-626 140

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

YEAR: I

SEMESTER: I

ENGINEERING PRACTICES
LABORATORY
(12F1Z9)

LAB MANUAL
[Group B]

SHANMUGANATHAN ENGINEERING COLLEGE, ARASAMPATTI

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Class/ Semester

: I/ I

Sub & Code

: EE6162 - Engineering Practices Laboratory [Group B]

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

v STUDY OF SYMBOLS
v SIMPLE WIRING CONNECTION
v STAIRCASE WIRING
v FLUORESCENT LAMP WIRING
v MEASUREMENT OF POWER USING WATTMETER
v MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY USING SINGLE PHASE ENERGY METER
v STUDY OF MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE USING COLOR CODING
v MEASUREMENT OF AC SIGNAL PARAMETERS USING CRO
v STUDY OF BASIC LOGIC GATES
v HALF WAVE AND FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
v MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE TO EARTH OF ELECTRICAL
EQUIPMENT

Ex.No:
Date:

STUDY OF SYMBOLS

AIM:

To study the various symbols used in electric circuits.

COMPONENT

CIRCUIT SYMBOL

DESCRIPTION

WIRE CONNECTIONS
To pass current very easily from one part
of a circuit to another.

Wire

Wires joined

A 'blob' should be drawn where wires are

connected (joined), but it is sometimes
omitted. Wires connected at 'crossroads'
should be staggered slightly to form two Tjunctions, as shown on the right.

Wires not joined

In complex diagrams it is often necessary

to draw wires crossing even though they
are not connected. I prefer the 'bridge'
symbol shown on the right because the
simple crossing on the left may be misread
as a join where you have forgotten to add a
'blob'!

POWER SUPPLIES

Cell

Supplies electrical energy.

The larger terminal (on the left) is positive
(+).
A single cell is often called a battery, but
strictly a battery is two or more cells joined
together.

Battery

Supplies electrical energy. A battery is

more than one cell. The larger terminal (on
the left) is positive (+). The smaller
terminal (on the right) is negative (-).

DC supply

Supplies electrical energy.

DC = Direct Current, always flowing in
one direction.

AC supply

Supplies electrical energy.

AC = Alternating Current, continually
changing direction.
A safety device which will 'blow' (melt) if
the current flowing through it exceeds a
specified value.

Fuse

Transformer

Two coils of wire linked by an iron core.

Transformers are used to step up (increase)
and step down (decrease) AC voltages.
Energy is transferred between the coils by
the magnetic field in the core. There is no
electrical connection between the coils.

Earth
(Ground)

A connection to earth. For many electronic

circuits this is the 0V (zero volts) of the
power supply, but for mains electricity and
some radio circuits it really means the
earth. It is also known as ground.

OUTPUT DEVICES: LAMPS, HEATER, MOTOR, etc.

Lamp (lighting)

A transducer which converts electrical

energy to light. This symbol is used for a
lamp providing illumination, for example a
car headlamp or torch bulb.

Lamp (indicator)

A transducer which converts electrical

energy to light. This symbol is used for a
lamp which is an indicator, for example a
warning light on a car dashboard.

Heater

A transducer which converts electrical

energy to heat.

Motor

A transducer which converts electrical

energy to kinetic energy (motion).

Bell

A transducer which converts electrical

energy to sound.

Buzzer

A transducer which converts electrical

energy to sound.
A coil of wire which creates a magnetic
field when current passes through it. It may
have an iron core inside the coil. It can be
used as a transducer converting electrical
energy to mechanical energy by pulling on
something.

Inductor
(Coil, Solenoid)

Switches
A push switch allows current to flow only
when the button is pressed. This is the
switch used to operate a doorbell.

Push Switch
(push-to-make)

Push-to-Break
Switch

This type of push switch is normally closed

(on), it is open (off) only when the button
is pressed.

On-Off Switch
(SPSTS)

SPSTS = Single Pole Single Throw

Switch. An on-off switch allows current to
flow only when it is in the closed (on)
position.

2-way Switch
(SPDTS)

SPDTS = Single Pole Double Throw

Switch. A 2-way changeover switch directs
the flow of current to one of two routes
according to its position. Some SPDT
switches have a central off position and are
described as 'on-off-on'.

Dual On-Off
Switch
(DPSTS)

DPST = Double Pole, Single Throw

Switch. A dual on-off switch which is
often used to switch mains electricity
because it can isolate both the live and
neutral connections.

DPDT = Double Pole, Double Throw

Switch. This switch can be wired up as a
reversing switch for a motor. Some DPDT
switches have a central off position.

Reversing Switch
(DPDTS)

An electrically operated switch, for

example a 9V battery circuit connected to
the coil can switch a 230V AC mains
circuit.
NO = Normally Open, COM = Common,
NC = Normally Closed.

Relay

Resistors
A resistor restricts the flow of current, for
example to limit the current passing
through an LED. A resistor is used with a
capacitorinatimingcircuit.
Some publications still use the old resistor
symbol:

Resistor

This type of variable resistor with 2

contacts (a rheostat) is usually used to
control current. Examples include:
adjusting lamp brightness, adjusting motor
speed, and adjusting the rate of flow of
charge into a capacitor in a timing circuit.

Variable Resistor
(Rheostat)

Variable Resistor
(Potentiometer)

This type of variable resistor with 3

contacts (a potentiometer) is usually used
to control voltage. It can be used like this
as a transducer converting position (angle
of the control spindle) to an electrical
signal.

Variable Resistor
(Preset)

This type of variable resistor (a preset) is

operated with a small screwdriver or
similar tool. It is designed to be set when
the circuit is made and then left without
further adjustment. Presets are cheaper
than normal variable resistors so they are
often used in projects to reduce the cost.

CAPACITORS

Capacitor

A capacitor stores electric charge. A

capacitor is used with a resistor in a timing
circuit. It can also be used as a filter, to
block DC signals but pass AC signals.

Capacitor
polarized

A capacitor stores electric charge. This

type must be connected the correct way
round. A capacitor is used with a resistor in
a timing circuit. It can also be used as a
filter, to block DC signals but pass AC
signals.

Variable Capacitor

A variable capacitor is used in a radio

tuner.

Trimmer Capacitor

This type of variable capacitor (a trimmer)

is operated with a small screwdriver or
similar tool. It is designed to be set when
the circuit is made and then left without
further adjustment.

DIODES
A device which only allows current to flow
in one direction.

Diode
LED
Light Emitting
Diode

A transducer which converts electrical

energy to light.
A special diode which is used to maintain a
fixed voltage across its terminals.

Zener Diode

Photodiode

A light-sensitive diode.

TRANSISTORS

Transistor NPN

A transistor amplifies current. It can be

used with other components to make an
amplifier or switching circuit.

Transistor PNP

A transistor amplifies current. It can be

used with other components to make an
amplifier or switching circuit.

Phototransistor

A light-sensitive transistor.

AUDIO AND RADIO DEVICES

Microphone

A transducer which converts sound to

electrical energy.

Earphone

A transducer which converts electrical

energy to sound.

Loudspeaker

A transducer which converts electrical

energy to sound.

Piezo Transducer

A transducer which converts electrical

energy to sound.

Amplifier
(general symbol)

An amplifier circuit with one input. Really

it is a block diagram symbol because it
represents a circuit rather than just one
component.

A device which is designed to receive or

transmit radio signals. It is also known as
an antenna.

Aerial
(Antenna)

METERS AND OSCILLOSCOPE

Voltmeter

A voltmeter is used to measure voltage.

Voltmeter must be connected across the
terminal.

Ammeter

An ammeter is used to measure current. It

is always connected in series with the
circuit.

Galvanometer

A galvanometer is a very sensitive meter

which is used to measure tiny currents,
usually 1mA or less.
An ohmmeter is used to measure
resistance. Most multimeters have an
ohmmeter setting.

Ohmmeter

An oscilloscope is used to display the

shape of electrical signals and it can be
used to measure their voltage and time
period.

Oscilloscope

SENSORS (INPUT DEVICES)

A transducer which converts brightness
(light) to resistance (an electrical
property).
LDR = Light Dependent Resistor

LDR

A transducer which converts temperature

(heat) to resistance (an electrical property).

Thermistor
LOGIC GATES

NOT

A NOT gate can only have one input. The

'o' on the output means 'not'. The output of
a NOT gate is the inverse (opposite) of its
input, so the output is true when the input
is false. A NOT gate is also called an
inverter.

AND

An AND gate can have two or more inputs.

The output of an AND gate is true when all
its inputs are true.

A NAND gate can have two or more

inputs. The 'o' on the output means 'not'
showing that it is a Not AND gate. The
output of a NAND gate is true unless all its
inputs are true.

NAND

OR

An OR gate can have two or more inputs.

The output of an OR gate is true when at
least one of its inputs is true.

NOR

A NOR gate can have two or more inputs.

The 'o' on the output means 'not' showing
that it is a Not OR gate. The output of a
NOR gate is true when none of its inputs
are true.

EX-OR

An EX-OR gate can only have two inputs.

The output of an EX-OR gate is true when
its inputs are different (one true, one false).

EX-NOR

An EX-NOR gate can only have two

inputs. The 'o' on the output means 'not'
showing that it is a Not EX-OR gate. The
output of an EX-NOR gate is true when its
inputs are the same (both true or both
false).

RESULT:
Thus the various symbols in electric circuits were studied and drawn.

LAYOUT DIAGRAM:

SIMPLE WIRING CIRCUIT

SIMPLE WIRING CIRCUIT

MODEL CALCULATION:

10

CONDUCTOR:
Any pure metal which offers low resistance to the passage of electric current
is called a conductor. The current is taken from one place to the other by means of
a conductor. Copper is used as a conductor in majority of applications.
INSULATION CONVERING:
It is the covering which bounds the current flow in a definite path. The
insulation of the cable must be strong enough because a leakage current will start
giving electrical shocks and cause fire.
PROTECTIVE COVERING:
It protects the insulation covering against any mechanical injury.
VARIOUS TYPES OF WIRES:
The various types of wires are vulcanized Insulation Rubber(VIR) wires,
Cab Type Sheathed(CTS), Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) wires,flexible
Wires,etcout of these for house hold applicatios PVC wires are used.
PRECAUTIONS:
v The circuit should be checked by series test lamp.
v Bare portion of the conductor should not come out of the terminal and the
insulation of the conductor should keep up to the end of the terminal.
v All the connections should be tight.
v All the switches should be connected in positive wire.
v Always keep the live wires on the right hand side.
PROCEDURE:
v First the layout diagram of the electrical circuit is made.
v The circuit is made with the given material.
v The output is verified by switching ON the switches.
RESULT:
Thus the various electrical circuit connections were made and studied.

11

STAIRCASE WIRING

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

12

Ex.No:

STAIRCASE WIRING

Date:
AIM:

To construct and control the status of lamp using two way switch by Stair
Case wiring.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No.

APPARATUS

QUANTITY

1.

Tester

2.

Electrician Knife

3.

Wire Cutter

4.

Screw Driver

5.

Combination Plier

MATERIAL REQUIRED:
1. Two Way Switches

2 No.s

2. Lamp

1 No

3. Wires

Required

4. Lamp Holder

1 No

PRECAUTIONS:
v The circuit should be checked by series test lamp.
v Bare portion of the conductor should not come out of the terminal and the
insulation of the conductor should keep up to the end of the terminal.
v All the connections should be tight.
v All the switches should be connected in positive wire.
v Always keep the live wires on the right hand side.

13

LAYOUT DIAGRAM:

TABLULATION:

Sl.NO
1

Switch A

Switch B

14

Output-Lamp
OFF

PROCEDURE:
v First the layout diagram of the electrical circuit is made.
v The connections are made as per the wiring diagram.
v The output table is verified by switching ON the switches.

RESULT:
Thus the stair case wiring was constructed and output was verified.

15

FLUORESCENT TUBE WIRING

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

16

Ex.No:

FLUORESCENT LAMP WIRING

Date:

AIM:
To construct and study the working of a fluorescent lamp circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No.

TOOLS

QUANTITY (No.)

1.

Tester

2.

Electrician Knife

3.

Wire Cutter

4.

Screw Driver

5.

Combination Plier

MATERIAL REQUIRED:
1. Choke

1 No.

2. Starter

1 No.

3. Tube light holder, frame

1 No.

4. Tube light

1 No.

5. Connecting wires

Required

PRECAUTIONS:
v All the connections should be tight.
v Twisting of wires should be avoided.
v Always keep the live wires on the right hand side.
THEORY:
The fluorescent tubes are usually available in lengths of 0.61 m and 1.22 m.
The various parts of fluorescent tube include.

17

18

MODEL

2.
Starter
CALCULATION:
1.
Glass tube
3. Choke

4. Fluorescent materials
5. Filaments
The inside surface of the fluorescent tube is coated with a thin layer of fluorescent
material in the form of powder. The tube also contains low pressure argon gas and
one or two drops of mercury. The two filaments are coated with electron emissive
material. The starter (initially in closed position) puts the filaments directly across
the supply mains at the time of starting, there by initiating emission of electrons.
After 1 or 2 seconds the starter switch gets opened. The interruption of current
makes the choke to act like ballast providing a voltage impulse across the
filaments. Due to this, ionization of argon takes place. Mercury vapour arc
provides a conducting path between the filaments. The starter used may be of
thermal starter or glow starter whose function is to complete the circuit initially for
preheating the filaments (to initiate emission of electrons) and then to open the
circuit for high voltage across choke for initiating ionization.
PROCEDURE:
v First the layout diagram of the electrical circuit is made.
v The connections are made as per the wiring diagram.
v The output is verified.

RESULT:
Thus the fluorescent lamp circuit connection was given and studied.
19

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

(0 10A) MI
P

10 A

230 V, 1
50 Hz, A.C.

A
C

D
P
S
T
S

300V, 10A, UPF

M

L
V

L
O
A
D

(0 300V) MI

10 A
1 Variac
(0 270V)

TABULATION:
Multiplication Factor = .
S.No.

Voltage

Current

(Volts)

(Ampere)

Wattmeter Reading (Watts)

Observed value

20

Actual value

MEASUREMENT OF POWER USING WATTCIRCUIT

Ex.No:

MEASUREMENT OF POWER USING WATTMETER

Date:

AIM:

To measure the Power consumed by a Single Phase Resistive Load by using

Wattmeter.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No.

APPARATUS

TYPE / RANGE

QUANTITY

1.

Ammeter

(0 10A) MI

2.

Voltmeter

(0 300V) MI

3.

Wattmeter

300V, 10A, UPF

4.

Single Phase Resistive Load

5.

Connecting Wires

1
Required

FORMULA USED:
v Multiplication Factor = Current Coil Rating x Voltage Coil Rating x Power Factor
Full Scale Reading of Wattmeter
v Actual Power in Watts = Observed Reading x Multiplication Factor
THEORY:
A wattmeter is an instrument specially designed to measure average power
consumed by a load. It has two coils:A current coil that measures the current and a
voltage coil that measures the voltage. The wattmeter takes into account the phase
shift, if there is any between the current sensed by its current coil and the voltage
sensed by its voltage coil. If the voltage drop across as measured the voltage coil is
Vm cos(t + ) A, then the average power P measured by the wattmeter in watts is
Vm Im Cos ,where = is the power factor angle. The voltage coil of the
wattmeter, its reading will be 0.707 Vm.
21

22

PRECAUTIONS:
v Single phase variac should be kept at minimum position, during starting
period.
v No load should be connected when the DPSTS is closed or opened.
PROCEDURE:
v The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
v Rated Voltage is set in the voltmeter, by gradually varying the single phase
variac.
v Resistive load is switch ON.
v Load is gradually increased and the ammeter, voltmeter & wattmeter
readings are noted.

RESULT:
Thus the power consumed by a single phase resistive load was measured.

23

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
(0 10A) MI
P

230 V, 1
50 Hz, A.C.

10 A

D
P
S
T
S

Energy Meter

S1

C1

P1

C2

P2

(0 300V) MI

10 A

S2

L1

L
O
A
D

L2

1 Variac
(0 270V)

TABULATION:
Energy Meter Constant =
Sl.

Voltage

No.

(Volts)

Current

Power

Time

Number of

(Ampere) (Watts) (Seconds) Revolutions

24

Actual

True

Energy Energy
(KWh)

(KWh)

%
Error

MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY USING SINGLE PHASE ENERGY METER

AIM:
To measure the Energy consumed by a Single Phase Resistive Load by using
Single Phase Energy Meter.
REFERENCE:
1.Engineering Practices Laboratory by V. Ramesh Babu VRB Publishers.
2.Engineering Practice by M.S. Kumar D D Publications.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No.

APPARATUS

TYPE / RANGE

QUANTITY

1.

Ammeter

(0 10A) MI

2.

Voltmeter

(0 300V) MI

3.

Single Phase Energy Meter

4.

Stop Watch

5.

Single Phase Resistive Load

6.

Connecting Wires

1
Analog

3 KW, 230 V

1
Required

FORMULA USED:
v Actual Energy in KWh = Power in Watts x Time Taken in Seconds
1000 x 3600
v Power in Watts = Voltage in Volts x Current in Amperes
v True Energy in KWh = No. of Revolution / Energy Meter Constant
v % Error = True Energy Actual Energy
Actual Energy

100

THEORY:
An induction type meter is commonly used. It consists of two magnets, the
upper and lower magnets. The upper magnet carries a pressure coil, which is made
up of a thin wire and has large number of turns. This coil has to be connected in
parallel with the supply. The lower magnet carries the current coil which is made

25

26

up of a thick wire and has only few turns. This coil is to be connected in series with
the load. An aluminum disc mounted on the spindle is placed between the upper
and lower magnets. The disc can rotate freely between the magnets. Another
permanent magnet called as brake magnet is used for providing breaking torque
on the aluminium disc.
The power consumed is measured in terms of number rotations of the disc.
For example 1800 revolutions of the disc means 1 KWH power consumed by the
load connected to the energy meter.
PRECAUTIONS:
v Single phase variac should be kept at minimum position, during starting
period.
v No load should be connected when the DPSTS is closed or opened.
PROCEDURE:
v The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
v Rated Voltage is set in the voltmeter, by gradually varying the single phase
variac.
v Resistive load is switch ON.
v Load is gradually increased and the ammeter, voltmeter & Energy meter
readings are noted.

RESULT:
Thus the Energy consumed by a single phase resistive load was measured.

27

RESISTOR COLOUR CODING:

RESISTOR STANDARD COLOUR CODE TABLE:

Colour
Black
Brown
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Grey
White
Gold
Silver
None

Value Digit
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Multiplier
x100
x101
x102
x103
x104
x105
x106
x107
x108
x109
x10-1
x10-2

28

Tolerance
1%
2%

0.5%
0.25%
0.1%
0.05%
5%
10%
20%

STUDY OF MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE USING COLOR CODING

AIM:
To study the measurement of value of resistance using color coding
REFERENCE:
1. Engineering Practices Laboratory by V. Ramesh Babu VRB Publishers.
2. Engineering Practice by M.S. Kumar D D Publications.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
1. Resistors
2. Multimeter
THEORY:
A resistor is a passive component. It introduces resistance in the circuit.
Resistance is basic property of conducting material and is given by
R = L/ A
Where,

Specified resistivity.

Length of the material.

Area of cross section of material.

We have a number of type of resistors such as carbon composition, metal

film, carbon film wire wound and variable resistors.
In our laboratory carbon resistors are used. For resistance of the order of
mega ohms, we use powdered carbon mixed with a suitable building material in
the proper proportion. Carbon resistors are quite cheap, but the value of resistance
may be easily affected by atmospheric changes and is also susceptible to high
tolerance.

29

TABULATION:

Sl. No.

Resistance Value by

Resistance Value

Colour Coding ()

by Multimeter ()

30

IDENTIFICATION MARKING OF RESISTORS

Universally recognized approaches have been established to identify the
electrical values. Two such markings are
(i)

Colour code.

(ii)

Alpha numeric code.

Normally in our laboratories low wattage general purpose resistors are

used. In this colour coding method is used to identify the value of the resistance.
In our colour coding method the value of the resistance is coded on the
resistor using three or four colour bands. The first two colour band gives the first
two significant digital values. The third band gives the value of multiplier. Fourth
band gives the tolerance value.

RESULT:
Thus the value of resistor using colour coding was studied and measured.

31

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Measurement of AC Voltage amplitude and frequency

AFO

CRO

TABULATION:

Maximum voltage ,

Peak- to-

RMS

Vm in Volts

Peak

Voltage

Voltage

Vrms

Sl.
No

Per

No of

Actual

division

divisions

Value

Vpp= 2Vm

= Vm /

in Volts

In Volts

1.
2.
3.
4.

32

Time in Seconds

Frequency

Per

No of

Actual

division

divisions

Value

f = 1/T
in Hz

MEASUREMENT OF AC SIGNAL PARAMETERS USING CRO

AIM:
To measure the following when a sinusoidal voltage is applied.
1.

Peak Peak Magnitude of the Voltage,

2.

RMS Value of the Voltage

3.

Time Period

4.

Frequency,

REFERENCE:
1. Engineering Practices Laboratory by V. Ramesh Babu VRB Publishers.
2. Engineering Practice by M.S. Kumar D D Publications.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO. NAME OF THE EQUIPMENT

TYPE

RANGE

QUANTITY
(NO.S)

1.

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

Analog

30 MHz

2.

Audio Frequency Oscillator

Digital

2 MHz

3.

Bread Board

4.

Connecting Probes, wires

1
As Required

FORMULA USED:
Measurement of unknown frequency = FV / FH (Hz)
= Number of loops cut in the horizontal axis
Number of loops cut in vertical axis
Where,
FV frequency of waveform given to the vertical plane
FH frequency of waveform given to the horizontal plane
VRMS = Vm / 2 (Volts)
f = 1 / T (Hz)
= 2 f (radian)

33

MODEL GRAPH: (Using CRO)

AC input Voltage:

Measurement of DC Voltage amplitude and frequency:

CRO

RPS (0-30V)
-

TABULATION:
SI.No.

Applied Voltage
(V)

Number of
divisions

1.
2.
3.
4.

34

Volt/Division

Measured
Voltage (V)

THEORY:
The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope is an extremely useful and versatile as laboratory
instrument for studying wave shapes of alternating currents and voltages as well as for
measurement of voltage, current and frequency. It generates the electron a high velocity,
deflects the beam to create the image and contains a phosphor beam, to screen where the
electron beam becomes visible. For accomplishing these tasks various electrical signals and
voltages are required, which are provided by the power supply circuit of the oscilloscope.
Low voltage supply is required for the heater of the electron gun for generation of electron
beam and high voltage is required for cathode ray tube to accelerate the beam. Normal
voltage supply is required for other control circuits of the oscilloscope. Electron beam
deflects in two directions horizontal on X axis and vertical on Y axis.
For measurement of direct voltage, firstly the spot is centered on the screen without
applying signal any voltage to the deflection plates. Then direst voltage to be measured is
applied between a pair of depletion plates and deflection of the spot is observed on the
screen. The magnitude of the deflection multiplied is the deflection factor gives the value of
direct voltage applied.
In case of measurement alternating voltage of sinusoidal waveform it is applied between a
pair of deflection plates and the length of the straight line is measured. Knowing be
determined the deflection sensitivity the peak to peak value of applied ac voltage can be
determined.

PROCEDURE:
1. The circuit connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. The sinusoidal voltage is applied with the help of AFO.
3. Readings are taken for different magnitudes and frequencies.

RESULT:
Thus the Peak Peak Magnitude of the voltage, RMS Value of the Voltage, Time
Period, Frequency are measured with help up CRO.

35

AND GATE

OR GATE

LOGIC DIAGRAM:

LOGIC DIAGRAM:

PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 7408 :

PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 7432 :

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TRUTH TABLE:

TRUTH TABLE:

S.No
1.
2.
3.
4.

INPUT
AB
00
01
10
11

OUTPUT
Y=A.B
0
0
0
1

S.No
1.
2.
3.
4.

36

INPUT
A
0
0
1
1

B
0
1
0
1

OUTPUT
Y=A+B
0
1
1
1

STUDY OF BASIC LOGIC GATES

AIM:
To verify the truth table of basic logic gates of AND, OR, NOT, NAND,
NOR, EX-OR gates.
REFERENCE:
1. Engineering Practices Laboratory by V. Ramesh Babu VRB Publishers.
2. Engineering Practice by M.S. Kumar D D Publications.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No

Name of the Apparatus

1.

Range

Quantity

Digital IC trainer kit

2.

AND gate

IC 7408

3.

OR gate

IC 7432

4.

NOT gate

IC 7404

5.

NAND gate

IC 7400

6.

NOR gate

IC 7402

7.

EX-OR gate

IC 7486

8.

Connecting wires

As required

THEORY:
a. AND gate:
An AND gate is the physical realization of logical multiplication operation.
It is an electronic circuit which generates an output signal of 1 only if all
the input signals are 1.
b. OR gate:
An OR gate is the physical realization of the logical addition operation. It is
an electronic circuit which generates an output signal of 1 if any of the
input signal is 1.
37

NOT GATE

NAND GATE

LOGIC DIAGRAM:

LOGIC DIAGRAM:

PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 7404:

PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 7400 :

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

CIRCUIT DIARAM:

TRUTH TABLE:

TRUTH TABLE:

S.N
o
1.
2.

INPUT
A
0
1

OUTPUT
Y = A
1
0

S.No
1.
2.
3.
4.

38

INPUT
AB
00
01
10
11

OUTPUT
Y = (A. B)
1
1
1
0

c. NOT gate:
A NOT gate is the physical realization of the complementation
operation. It is an electronic circuit which generates an output signal
which is the reverse of the input signal. A NOT gate is also known as
an inverter because it inverts the input.
d. NAND gate:
A NAND gate is a complemented AND gate. The output of the NAND
gate will be 0 if all the input signals are 1 and will be 1 if any one of
the input signal is 0.
e. NOR gate:
A NOR gate is a complemented OR gate. The output of the OR gate
will be 1 if all the inputs are 0 and will be 0 if any one of the input
signal is 1.
f. EX-OR gate:
An Ex-OR gate performs the following Boolean function,
A

B = ( A . B ) + ( A . B )

It is similar to OR gate but excludes the combination of both A and B

being equal to one. The exclusive OR is a function that give an output
signal 0 when the two input signals are equal either 0 or 1.

PROCEDURE:

v Connections are given as per the circuit diagram

v For all the ICs 7th pin is grounded and 14th pin is given +5 V supply.
v Apply the inputs and verify the truth table for all gates.

39

NOR GATE

LOGIC DIAGRAM:

LOGIC DIAGRAM

PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 7402 :

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

1.
2.
3.
4.

INPUT
AB
00
01
10
11

PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 7486 :

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TRUTH TABLE:

TRUTH TABLE:
S.No

EX-OR GATE

OUTPUT
Y = (A + B)
1
0
0
0

S.No
1.
2.
3.
4.

40

INPUT
AB
00
01
10
11

OUTPUT
Y=AB
0
1
1
0

RESULT:

The truth table of all the basic logic gates were verified.
41

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Half Wave Rectifier:
P
IN 4007
100 F
230 V, 50 Hz
1 Supply

1 K

CRO

N
Step-down Transformer
(0 12V)

Full Wave Rectifier:

P
D1

D2

230 V, 50 Hz
1 Supply
D4

D3

100 F
1 K

CRO

TABULATION:
Without Filter
Rectifier

Vm (V)

With Filter

T (mS)

Half Wave Rectifier

Full Wave Rectifier

42

Vm (V)

T (mS)
Charging

Discharging

HALF WAVE AND FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

AIM:
To obtain the output of Half wave and Full Wave rectifier and to plot
the characteristics.
REFERENCE:
1. Engineering Practices Laboratory by V. Ramesh Babu VRB Publishers.
2. Engineering Practice by M.S. Kumar D D Publications.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO. NAME OF THE EQUIPMENT
1

Diode

Resistor

Capacitor

TYPE

RANGE

IN 4001

Transformer

Step-down

QUANTITY
(NO.S)
4

1 K

100 F

230 V /

(12 0 12) V

CRO

Bread Board

Connecting wires and probe

Analog

30 MHz

1
1
As Required

THEORY:
Half wave rectifier converts alternating voltage into unidirectional
pulsating voltage. The half wave rectifier circuit using a diode with a load
resistance R. The diode is connected in series with the secondary of the
transformer and the load resistance R, the primary of the transformer is being
connected to the supply mains. The AC voltage across the secondary winding
changes polarities after every half cycle. During the positive half cycles of the
input AC voltage i.e. when upper end of the secondary winding is positive
with respect to its lower end, the diode is forward biased and therefore
43

WAVEFORMS:

Vin (V)
Vm

0
Time

Vout (V)
Output of Half Wave Rectifier without filter

0
Time
Vm
Output of Half Wave Rectifier with filter

0
Time
Vm

Output of Full Wave Rectifier without

filter

0
Time
Vm
Output of Full Wave Rectifier with
filter

0
Time

44

current conducts. During the negative half cycles of the input AC voltage i.e.
when lower end of the secondary winding is positive with respect to its upper
end, the diode is reverse biased and does not conduct. Thus for the negative
half cycles no power is delivered to the load. Since only one half cycles of the
input wave is converted as output, it is called as Half Wave Rectifier.
In Full Wave Rectifier the diode D2 and D4 will conduct during
the positive half of the input signal and during the negative half cycle of the
input signal the diode D1 andD3 conducts. Hence both the half cycles are
converted into output and the efficiency is high compared with the half wave
rectifier.

PROCEDURE:
1. Circuit connections were given as per the circuit diagram.
2. Input waveforms magnitude and frequency was measured with the
help of CRO.
3. Supply is switched ON and the output waveform was obtained in the
CRO.
4. Output waveforms magnitude and time period was measured.
5. Graphs were plotted for Half wave and Full wave rectifier outputs.

RESULT:
Thus the output of Half wave and Full wave rectifiers were obtained
and the curves were plotted.

45

46

MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE TO EARTH OF ELECTRICAL

EQUIPMENT
AIM:
To measure the resistance to earth / insulation resistance of the order of
mega ohms.
REFERENCE:
1. Engineering Practices Laboratory by V. Ramesh Babu VRB Publishers.
2. Engineering Practice by M.S. Kumar D D Publications.
THEORY:
Megger is the equipment used in this experiment. It is an instrument
for testing the insulation resistance of the order of mega ohms.
PRINCIPLE:
A megger consists of an EMF source and a Voltmeter. The voltmeter
scale is calibrated in ohms. In measurement, the EMF of the self contained
source should be equal that of the source used in calibration. The deflection of
the moving system depends on the ratio of the currents in the coils and is
independent of the applied voltage. The value of unknown resistance can be
found directly from the scale of the instrument. Figure shows the detailed
diagram of a megger. It consists of hand driven dc generator and ohmmeter, a
small permanent magnet. Hand driven dc generator generates a EMF about
500V. The permanent dc meter has two moving coils. First one is deflecting
coil and another one controlling coil. The deflecting coil is connected to the
generator through a resistor R. The torque due to the two coils opposes each
other. It consists of three terminals E, L and G.
OPERATION:
When the terminals are open circuited, no current flows through the
deflecting coil. The torque due to the controlling coil moves the pointer to one
end of the scale. When the terminals are short circuited, the torque due to the
controlling coil and the pointer is deflected to the other end of the scale, i.e.
47

48