1.

1 Microscopy
unit
metre
decimetre
centimetre
millimetre
micrometre
nanometre
picometre

symbol
m
dm
cm
mm
m
nm
pm

metres
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.000 001
0.000 000 001
0.000 000 000 01

The table above shows different measurements

of length

The magnification of an image is how much bigger it appears under the

microscope than it actually is, and is worked out by:
magnification = image size actual size
But magnification on its own does not increase the level of detail seen,
it only increases the size of the image. The resolution is the ability to
see two distinct points separately. For example, a resolution of 0.2m
means you can see two points as close as 0.2m together separately
any closer than that and they appear as one object

The light microscope uses a number of lenses to produce an image that can be viewed directly at the eyepiece. Light passes
through a condenser lens and then through the specimen. It then travels through an objective lens and onto the eyepiece lens.
The objective lenses can be rotated to give magnifications of x4, x10, x40 and x100, and the eyepiece lens magnifies it by x10
Light microscopes have a maximum resolution of around 0.2m. A higher resolution can be achieved with the electron
microscope, which generates beams of electron. They can distinguish objects as small as 0.2nm apart. There are two types:

the transmission electron microscope (TEM) produces a 2D image of up to x500,000. The electron beam produces the
image, as it passes through denser parts of the specimen less easily, giving contrast
the scanning electron microscope (SEM) produces a 3D image of up to x100,000. The electrons dont pass through the
specimen, they bounce off, producing a final 3D surface view

Electron micrographs are false-colour micrographs because TEMs and SEMs always produce images in greyscale. The colours
are always added in after using special computer software

1.2 Cells and Cell Contents

Internal structures within a cell are called organelles. Together, these make up the cells ultrastructure. Cells contain a network
of protein fibres which keep the cells shape stable by providing an internal framework called the cytoskeleton. Some of the
fibres, called actin filaments can move against each other this enables movement in some cells, and moves some organelles
around within the cell. Other fibres called microtubules, cylinders around 25nm in diameter, are made of a protein called
tubulin. These can be used to move a microorganism through a liquid or waft a liquid past the cell
The flagella of eukaryotes are technically named undulipodia. These are structurally the same as cilia. Each is made up of a
cylinder containing nine microtubules arranged in a circle with a further two in the centre. Many bacteria also have flagella,
which look the same as a eukaryotic undulipodium, but internally are different: they contain a protein called flagellin which act
as true motors which spin the flagellum using ATP energy

1.3 Internal Cell Structures

Most organelles in a eukaryotic cell are membrane-bound. This means having their own surrounding membrane to stop them
mixing with the rest of the cell contents
The table on the following page displays the details of the main organelles and their functions

Structure
The nucleus is the largest organelle in the cell. When stained, it
shows darkened patches known as chromatin. It is surrounded
by a nuclear envelope. This is a structure made of two
membranes with fluid between them. A lot of holes, called
nuclear pores, go right through the envelope. There is a dense,
spherical structure, called the nucleolus, inside the nucleus
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) consists of a series of flattened
membrane-bound sacs called cisternae. They are continuous
with the outer nuclear membrane. Rough ER is studded with
ribosomes, smooth ER does not have ribosomes

The Golgi apparatus is a stack of membrane-bound sacs, which

looks very much like a pitta bread

A single mitochondrion is spherical or sausage-shaped. It has

two membranes separated by a fluid-filled space. The inner
membrane is highly-folded to form cristae. The central part of
the mitochondrion is the matrix
Chloroplasts are only found in plant cells, and have two
membranes separated by a fluid-filled space. The inner
membrane is continuous, with an elaborate network of
flattened membrane sacs called thylakoids. A stack of
thylakoids is a granum. Chlorophyll molecules are present on
the thylakoids membranes and in the intergranal membranes
A lysosome is a spherical sac surrounded by a single membrane

Function
The nucleus stores the majority of the cells genetic
material. The chromatin consists of DNA and proteins. It
contains the instructions for making proteins. Some of
these proteins regulate the cells activities. When a cell
divides, chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes.
The nucleolus makes RNA and ribosomes. These pass into
the cytoplasm and proteins are assembled at them
Rough ER transports proteins that were made on the
attached ribosomes. Some of these proteins may be
secreted from the cell. Smooth ER is involved in making
the lipids that the cell needs
The Golgi apparatus is responsible for receiving proteins
and modifying them. It receives proteins from the ER and
may add sugar molecules to them. It then packages the
modified proteins into vesicles that can be transported.
Some modified proteins go to the cell surface so they can
be secreted
Mitochondria are the site where ATP is produced during
respiration. ATP is sometimes called the universal carrier
energy as it drives most of the cellular processes
These are the site of photosynthesis in plant cells. Light
energy is used to drive the reactions, in which
carbohydrate molecules are made from carbon dioxide
and water
These contain powerful digestive enzymes which are
there to break down materials.

And the non-membrane-bound organelles:

Structure
A ribosome is a tiny organelle that consists of two subunits.
They can be found in the cytoplasm or attached to the ER
making rough ER
Centrioles are small tubes of protein fibres (microtubules)
which are present only in animal cells and cells of some
protoctists. They are found in a pair next to the nucleus

Function
Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis in the cell
(where new proteins are made). They act as an assembly
line where coded information (mRNA) from the nucleus is
used to assemble proteins from amino acids
These are used in cell division, they form fibres known as
spindle which move the chromosomes during nuclear
division

1.4 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Any cell which is eukaryotic has a complicated internal structure containing many membrane-bound organelles performing
their own specific roles, which together contribute towards the cells survival this is called division of labour
Bacteria are prokaryotic and are much smaller than eukaryotic cells. Features of prokaryotes include:

they have only one membrane, the cell surface (plasma) membrane, and do not contain any membrane-bound organelles
they are surrounded by a cell wall, although it is made from a different substance to eukaryotic cell walls
many prokaryotes are contained within a capsule which provides protection
they contain ribosomes, but these are far smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes
ATP production happens in specially infolded regions of the plasma membrane called mesosomes
their DNA is found loose within the cytoplasm and is in the form of a single loop this loop of DNA is often referred to as
a circular chromosome or bacterial chromosome many prokaryotic cells also contain many smaller loops of DNA called
plasmids (the general area containing the DNA is called the nucleoid)
many prokaryotes have flagella (these are functionally the same as eukaryotic undulipodia, but are internally different)

1.5 Biological Membranes

All eukaryotic cells have a cell surface membrane (or plasma membrane), and most of their organelles are also membranebound. Membranes are there to stop cell contents mixing; to control the passage of certain substances into and out of the cell;
and are involved in cell communication
hydrophilic
head
hydrophobic
tail

The basic structure of the membrane consists of a number of arranged phospholipids. This consists
of a phosphate head, which is very hydrophilic (loves water) and two fatty acid tails, which are
hydrophobic (hate water). When mixed with water, the phospholipids arrange themselves in a layer,
so that the water-loving heads are in the water, and the hydrophobic tails stick out:
hydrophobic tail

When phospholipids become completely

surrounded by water, a phospholipid bilayer is
formed, where the hydrophobic tails are hidden
from the water. This is the basic structure of a
biological membrane

air
water

hydrophilic head

The bilayer creates a barrier to molecules, and separates the cell contents from
the outside world. However, this simple bilayer is incapable of performing all the
tasks required of the membrane, so there are other components among the
membrane with specific roles
Membranes are permeable to water because water molecules can diffuse across
the lipid bilayer. Membranes which are permeable to only water and some solute
molecules are described as a partially-permeable membrane

1.6 Fluid Mosaic Model

The fluid mosaic model shows the components found in a biological membrane which make it function. Its main features are
the basic lipid bilayer providing simple structure, various protein molecules in the layer (some free, some bound to other
components), and some extrinsic proteins partially embedded on either side of the layer, and intrinsic proteins spanning
through the entire bilayer
glycoprotein

glycolipid

channel
protein

phospholipid
bilayer

extrinsic protein

cholesterol

Some phospholipids have carbohydrate chains attached to them: these are called glycolipids. When a protein has a
carbohydrate chain attached to it, it is called a glycoprotein. Glycoproteins are used in cell signalling. The cholesterol provides
mechanical strength giving the membrane stability
Channel proteins allow the transport of certain substances through the membrane, because some molecules are too large, or
are polar (charged), and so cannot pass directly through the membrane: only uncharged (non-polar), small molecules can
diffuse directly over the membrane itself. Carrier proteins actively transport some substances across the membrane. Also
present might be enzymes and coenzymes, or receptor sites. Receptor sites allow hormones to bind with the cell so that a
cellular response can be carried out

1.7 Communication and Cell Signalling

It is an important part of cell life to be able to respond to change in its environment. In order to detect signals, cells must have
sensors on their plasma membranes which are capable of receiving these signals. These sensors are called receptors. They are
usually modified protein molecules (glycoproteins)
Multicellular organisms use hormones to communicate between cells. These are chemical messengers packaged into tissues
and released into the organism. A cell with a specific receptor for a hormone is called a target cell. The hormone binds
perfectly to its target cell, much like enzymes with the lock and key theory
An example is the insulin receptor. Insulin is released is and the molecule can attach to many cells plasma membranes,
including those of muscle and liver cells. When insulin attaches to the receptor, it triggers internal responses within the cell
that lead to more glucose channels being present in the membrane, allowing the cell to take up more glucose from the blood
Similarly, viruses enter cells by binding with receptors on the plasma membrane, for example the HIV virus, which causes AIDS,
can infect humans because it enters the cells of the immune system

1.8 Movement Across Cell Membranes

A: Diffusion
The process of diffusion is passive. It relies only on the kinetic
energy which keeps the molecules of a fluid moving. Diffusion
entails the evening out of molecules across an area. It is the net
movement of particles from an area of high concentration, to an
area of low concentration
Once the concentrations are even throughout, movement
doesnt stop completely, the molecules continue to move, just
not in any one particular direction this is because the kinetic
energy that keeps them moving still exists
Several factors affect the rate of diffusion:
temperature an increase in temperature increases kinetic energy, so this increases the rate of diffusion
concentration gradient a higher concentration gradient on one side increases diffusion rate
size of the molecules smaller molecules diffuse more quickly than larger ones
thickness of the surface membrane diffusion rate is slowed down by a thick membrane
B: Facilitated Diffusion
This is the movement of specific molecules across the membrane via a special protein carrier. The two types of channel are:
carrier protein: shaped to fit a specific molecule, the protein changes shape to engulf and push the molecule through
channel protein: a gated (can open and close) pore in the membrane which can pass through specific molecules
C: Osmosis
The diffusion of water molecules is called osmosis. Osmosis is also the movement of molecules down the concentration
gradient (i.e. to an area with many free molecules to an area with fewer). When there is a solute dissolved in water, there
will be less water molecules and more solute molecules, therefore, a lower water concentration
The measure of the tendency of water molecules to move from one place to another is water potential (). Water always
moves from areas of high water potential to areas of low water potential. Osmosis occurs, like with diffusion, until the
concentrations are even on both sides of the membrane

When an animal cell is placed in a solution of low solute concentration, it bursts open (it is haemolysed)
When a plant cell is placed in a solution of low solute concentration, it swells (it is turgid)
When an animal cell is placed in a solution of high solute concentration, it shrinks and wrinkles (it is crenated)
When a plant cell is placed in a solution of high solute concentration, it shrivels (it is plasmolysed)

D: Active Transport
Active transport is a method of transport which is active. It uses energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

Active transport uses carrier proteins like those in facilitated diffusion. However, active transport involves the movement of
molecules against the concentration gradient, such as when a molecule needs to be moved from inside the cell to outside the
cell, even though there is a higher concentration of that solute outside the cell. It is also faster and more efficient than diffusion
molecule being actively transported

shape change of active transport protein requires ATP the shape

change does not allow the molecule to go the wrong way
active transport protein is shaped so that the molecule it
transports can only fit on one side of the protein

The energy used in the process changes the shape of the transport protein as the molecule slots into it. The fact that the shape
changes, rather than has pores on both sides mean the movement is from one side to another only

1.9 Transporting Large Amounts

Endocytosis

When cells transport large amounts of substances into packaged vesicles, it is

called bulk transport. The process of bringing materials into the cell in this way is
known as endocytosis, and secreting materials this way is called exocytosis. The
terms phago and pino refer to transport of solids and liquids respectively, so,
for example, exopinocytosis is the term given to the bulk movement of liquid
material out of a cell
Bulk transport is made possible because membranes can easily fuse, separate and
pinch off into vesicles. This is also an active process which uses ATP energy

Exocytosis

Examples of bulk transport include:

In plant cells, materials required to build cell walls are carried outside in
vesicles
Some white blood cells engulf invading microorganisms by forming a vesicle
around them this vesicle then fuses with lysosomes so that the enzymes
can digest the microorganisms
Pancreatic cells make insulin in large quantities, the insulin is processed and
packaged into vesicles by the Golgi body, and then these vesicles fuse with
the outer membrane to release insulin into the blood

1.10 The Cell Cycle

When parent cells divide, daughter cells are produced. This happens in a series of
events making the cell cycle. Cells reproduce in order to replace dead cells/repair
damaged cells, for growth, or for reproduction
All eukaryotic cells have chromosomes which contain one molecule of DNA each.
These contain specific lengths of DNA called genes. Chromosomes hold the blueprint
for making new cells. Daughter cells produced during the cycle must contain a copy
of these instructions, so they must carry the full set of chromosomes copied from the
parent cell
The diagram shows the cell cycle

G1 indicates the first growth stage, this includes making new proteins and organelles
S indicates synthesis, each chromosome is duplicated to have two chromatids
Next, the cell checks itself to ensure it has correctly copied each chromosome, if not, the cycle is abandoned
G2 indicated the second growth stage, the enlargement of the developing cell
Here we have the second checkpoint where the cell checks its progress is correct
M is nuclear division mitosis where the cell eventually undergoes the events involved in cellular division
The outer letters M and I represent the stages of mitosis and interphase (the stage the cell is at the rest of the time)
centromere

chromatid

Before a cell divides, the DNA of each chromosome must be replicated. Two replicas are
produced. Each is an exact copy of the original and they are held together at a point
called the centromere. Each chromosome consists of a pair of sister chromatids, which
are genetically identical
chromosome

1.11 Mitosis
Mitosis is a form of cellular division where two daughter cells are produced. The daughter cells are genetically-identical to each
other and the parent cell
Stage 1

Stage 2

Interphase refers to the state a complete parent cell

Early prophase occurs when the chromosomes

is in when it has all 46 chromosomes that have been

replicated. There are two centrioles situated at opposite
ends of the cell

supercoil (shorten and thicken). At this point they consist

of a pair of sister chromatids. The two daughter
centrioles begin to move around the cell

Stage 3

Stage 4

Late prophase involves the centrioles moving

Metaphase happens next. The individual

completely round to opposite ends of the cell (opposite

poles). Each centriole begins to make the spindle, a
structure made of protein threads. The nuclear envelope
has broken down at this point

chromosomes move to the central region of the spindle

(the equator) and align themselves. Each chromosome
becomes attached to the spindle thread as the spindle
locks onto the centromere of each chromosome

Stage 5

Stage 6

Anaphase happens when the centromeres split and

each individual chromatid (now effectively its own
chromosome). The spindle fibres shorten, which pulls the
chromatids further apart to opposite poles of the cell.
They have a V-shaped appearance because they are
being pulled by the centromere, which leads the way

Telophase is the final stage of nuclear division where

a new nuclear envelope reforms around each individual
set of chromatids to create two new nuclei. The spindle
breaks down and disappears and the chromosomes
uncoil again. The cell then splits in two, so that the two
daughter cells each have a nucleus and are genetically
identical. This splitting action is called cytokenesis

1.12 Meiosis
Meiosis is the type of division concerned with sexual reproduction. During this process, the daughter cells contain only half the
number of chromosomes as the parent cell, and daughter cells are genetically-different
Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two cell nuclei from two individuals. Each cell contributes half of the genetic
information (genome), so each one has been produced to contain half of the chromosomes as its parent. These sex cells (which
are haploid contain half the chromosomes) are called gametes, and are described as n (parent cells being diploid - 2n)
Meiosis only happens in the gonads (sex organs). Most adult cells contain 46 chromosomes, which are homologous, so
containing the same genes but different alleles (versions of a gene). During meiosis, only one chromosome from each
homologous pair is copied into the daughter cell

1.13 Cell Specialisation

A stem cell is potentially capable of becoming any cell found in an organism, found in bone marrow and in embryos in humans.
They can become any type of cell needed, by differentiating into a specialised cell, by switching on and off certain genes. Cell
differentiation is an irreversible process. The table below displays some adaptations of specialised cells:
Cell
Erythrocyte (red blood cell)

Neutrophil (phagocyte)

Sperm cell

Structure

Function

Packed with haemoglobin (Hb)

Hb bind reversibly with oxygen to carry it around the

body

Biconcave disc (concave on both

sides of the cell)

Provides an increased surface area for exchange; and

makes it more flexible to pass through narrow
capillaries

No nucleus

Allows for more space for haemoglobin

Granular cytoplasm due to many

lysosomes

Allows the breakdown of ingested pathogens

Lobed nucleus

Gives the cell greater flexibility to make movement

easier

Undulipodium

Rapid undulation gives the cell propulsion for

movement

Acrosome (with hydrolytic

enzymes)

Breaks down the outer coating of the egg cell

Many mitochondria

Produce ATP for movement

Palisade cell

Large numbers of chloroplasts

Capture a lot of sunlight for photosynthesis

Chloroplasts circulate around cell

Minimalises the heat damage to organelles

Tall, thin and long in shape

Means there are fewer cell walls for the sunlight to

pass through

Long hair-like projection

Increases the cell surface area, allowing for a more

rapid absorption rate of water

Root hair cell

Erythrocytes (red blood cells) and neutrophils (phagocytes) by no means have the same function, yet they each begin with the
same set of chromosomes, so each are potentially capable of becoming the same cell. All blood cells are produced from
undifferentiated stem cells in the bone marrow. The cells destined to become erythrocytes lose their nucleus, mitochondria,
Golgi body and rough ER. They become packed full of haemoglobin and become biconcave discs. Those to become neutrophils
keep their nucleus, and it becomes lobed. Their cytoplasm appears granular due to the lysosomes containing enzymes

1.14 Tissues and Organs

Tissues
A collection of cells that are similar to each
other and perform a common function. These
may be attached to each other but may not be.
Examples include phloem and xylem in plants,
and epithelial and nervous tissues in animals

Organs
A collection of tissues working
together to perform a
particular function. Examples
include the leaves of plants
and the liver in animals

Organ systems
Made up of several organs
working together to perform an
overall life function. Examples
include the excretory system and
the reproductive system

There are four main tissue types in animals: epithelial, muscle, nervous and connective tissue
Epithelial tissues form sheets which cover surfaces most organs have this tissue. Squamous (pavement) epithelia cover many
surfaces including the cheeks, alveoli and blood vessels. Individual cells are smooth, flat and very thin, they all fit closely
together. Their thinness allows for rapid diffusion. Ciliated epithelia have cilia. The cells which have the cilia waft rhythmically
to move material along the surface (e.g. moving the egg along the oviduct). Also present among ciliated epithelia are goblet
cells which secrete mucus. The mucus traps dirt and microbes, and the cilia move it upwards in breathing tubes
In plants, meristem cells (undifferentiated cells, like stem cells) are produced only in meristem areas. These are the root, shoot
tips and a ring around the stem or trunk. Meristem cells can differentiate into cells which become part of the transport tissues
(either xylem or phloem)