p

111
000
000
111

q0

Rotation
p is periodic function of q
configuration of the system is the same under q q + q0 :
p(t + T ) = p(t); q(t + T ) = q(t) + q0
eg rotating pendulum

6.3.1

Definition of the AngleAction variables

For either type of motion, define action variable

I
1
pdq J() ,
angular momentum
J =
2 complete period
= area in phase space swept out in one period/2 .
[Note alternative convention without 2. Then in following.]
Now use J to replace . So (q, p) (, J) via a generating function, F2 (q, J)
W (q, J) so that
p=

W
,
q

W
,
J

where is the coordinate conjugate to J the action variable.

p

77

Hamiltonian is
K(J) = H ,

( cyclic) ,

and so equations of motion are

H
= 0 = J = constant
J =

H
= (J) = = (J)t +
=
J
In one period, the change in is
I
I

=
d =
dq
q
I
2W
dq
=
qJ
I

W
=
dq
J
q
I

pdq
=
J
= 2 .

with (J) =

H
.
J

as J is constant

Hence if T (or ) is the period we have

2 = = (t + T ) (t) = [(t + T ) + ] [t + ] = T ,
so
=

2
,
T

thus can be identified as the (angular) frequency of the periodic motion.

So frequency may be obtained without finding a complete solution for the motion,
once H is determined as a function of J.
Harmonic Oscillator
Frequency of the SHO using angleaction variables
H=

1
p2
+ m 2 q 2 .
2m 2
78

HJ equation is
1
2m

W
q

2

1
m 2 q 2 = E ,
2

so
J =
=
=
=

I
1
pdq
2
I
1
W
dq
2
q

I
q
2m
dq 21 m 2 q 2
2

q=

2
sin
m 2

So
H = = J =

H
= ,
J

as required.

6.4

f dof Conservative System

Need separable HJ equation W =

separable
pi =

Wi (qi ,
~ ) as canonical transformation is then

Wi
= pi = pi (qi ,
~) .
qi

so if we assume that the orbit equation of the projection of the system point on the
(qi , pi ) plane is periodic (ie libration or rotation), then we can define action variables
as for the 1-dof case. Hence, as previously
i =

2
.
Ti

Note that this does not imply that the system motion is periodic unless the frequencies are commensurate. (ie ratio of any two frequencies is a rational number, cf
closed Lissajous figures and open Lissajous figures.)
Define action variables
1
Ji =
2

pi dqi ,

(no sum) .

Formal variation, not necessarily actual variation as in 1-dimensional case

79

 If a qi is cyclic then pi = constant

orbit is horizontal straight line

motion of arbitrary period

Since qi always an angle, then
Ji = pi ,

cyclic variables qi .

In general
1
Ji =
2

Wi (qi ,
~)
dqi Ji (~
) ,
qi

are independent (from independence of separate variable pairs (qi , pi )) and so

may be taken to be the new constant momenta.
Thus we may write
W =

f
X

~ ,
Wi (qi , J)

~ K.
H = H(J)

i=1

Conjugate angle variables are

i =

~
W
Wi (qi , J)
=
,
Ji
Ji

and satisfy equation of motion

H
~ ,
= i (J)
i =
Ji

or i = i t + i .

So are the (angular) frequencies of the motion. We see this from how the qs
depend on the s.
The change in i due to small changes in qs are
i =

X i
qj ,
qj
j

cf virtual work with no time Goldstein p459

X 2W
qj
J
q
i
j
j
X Wj
qj
=
Ji j qj
X
~ j.
=
pj (qj , J)q
Ji j

80

So total change in i when each qj is taken through (eg) mj cycles (libration or

rotation) is
I
X
~ dqj
i =
pj (qj , J)
integration over mj cycles
Ji j mj
X
mj Jj
= 2
Ji j
= 2mi ,

or
~ = 2 m
~ ,
(so again, as before, we may identify i as angular frequencies).

6.4.1

Libration

Under a change ~ = 2 m
~ , qs and ps all return to their initial values, ie qj is a
~
periodic function of .
qj =

kX
1 =

k1 =

kf =

~ ei~k~
aj~k (J)

kf =

~ ei~k~ ,
aj~k (J)

~k

or
qj (t) =

~ eik(~t+) .
aj~k (J)

~k

Note that qj is not a periodic function of time unless j s are commensurate. For if
~
qi (t + T ) = qi (t) then eik~T = 1 or need
~.
~ T = 2 N
This can be solved if the ~ s are commensurate, then
j =
Ni

6.4.2

or

Ni
i
=
j
Nj

T =

2
.

Rotation

Under one complete cycle (t t + 2/j of the pair (qj , pj )) qj is increased by its
period q0j , j is increased by 2 = qj (j /2)q0j returns to its initial value and
so is periodic in ~. So as before we have
X
q0j
~
~ ei~k(~t+)
(j t + j ) +
aj~k (J)
.
qj (t) =
2
~k

81

6.5

The Kepler Problem using ActionAngle variables

k
V (r) = ,
r

(k > 0, bound state) .

1. k = GmM Gravitational (planets)

1 e2
2. k = e4
Coulomb
e1 = e2 = e Hydrogen atom. With quantisation gives the Bohr atom.

In either case
~r = (r, 0, 0) ,

r sin )
.
~r = (r,
r ,

and
L = T V
k
1
m(r 2 + r 2 2 + r 2 sin2 2 ) + .
=
2
r
Giving
L
= mr
r
L
=
= mr 2

L
=
= mr 2 sin = const. = Lz

pr =
p
p

as is cyclic .

Thus
H = T +
V

1
1 2
1
k
2
2
=
pr + 2 p + 2
p
2
2m
r
r sin
r
= E = |E|
< 0 as bound state .
The HJ equation is
"

2
2
2 #

W
W
k
1
1 W
1
= |E| .
+ 2
+ 2 2
2m
r
r

r
r sin
Seek separated solution
W = Wr (r,
~ ) + W (,
~ ) + W (,
~) .
82

As is cyclic, we have p = W / = const. = . This gives

2


Wr
k
2
+ 2 = 2m |E| +
r
r
r
2

2

W
+
= 2

sin2
W
= .

What does represent?

mr sin )

~ = (r, 0, 0) (mr,
L
mr ,


p
= 0,
, p ,
sin

giving

2
~ 2 = p2 + p =
L
sin2

2

2
= 2 ,
+
sin2

so AM magnitude is constant.

6.5.1
Jr

J
J

Actionangle variables
I s



2
k
2 dr
2m |E| +
r
r
s
I
I
I
2
1
W
1
1
2
p d =
d =

=
d
2
2

2
sin2
I
I
1
W
1
p d =
d = .
=
2
2

1
=
2

1
pr dr =
2

Wr
1
dr =
r
2

Jr

k
= +
2

Integrating

J =
J = ,

2m
|E|

Trick for Jr :
[See eg Goldstein for proof using contour integrals.]

83

Integral easier to find if square root in denominator.

Z r+
m
rdr
Jr
p
= 2
|E|
2 r
2m|E|r 2 + 2mkr 2
Z r+
r
m
rdr
1
p
,
=
2 2|E| r
(r r )(r+ r)

(turning points on ellipse perihelion and apehelion are at r , r+ when pr vanishes).

Setting
r = 21 (r+ + r )

k
,
2|E|

= 12 (r+ r ) .

Changing variables
r = r + cos ,
gives (r r )(r+ r) = 2 sin2 and r() = r , r(0) = r+ , so we have
r
Z
r
k m 1
m
1
Jr
,
(r + cos )d =
=
|E|
2|E| 0
2 2 |E| 23
and thus
k
Jr = const. +
2

m
.
2|E|

To determine the constant, consider a circular orbit, r = a, then pr = 0. So as



1
2
2
H=
p +
,
2m r r 2
then from Hamiltons equation
H
2
k
2
pr =
= 3 + 2 = 0 = a =
,
r
mr
r
mk

1 mk 2
and E =
.
2 2

As in this case Jr = 0 (as pr = 0) then substituting E in the equation for Jr gives

the constant as .
Trick for J :
~ = const. ([H, L]
~ = 0 or dL/dt
~
Use fact that motion is in a plane L
= 0 or Lz = const.,
z arbitrary.)
~
So in cylindrical coordinates (r, , z), z axis along L,
0) = mr 2 ~
ez ,
~ = (r, 0, 0) (mr,
L
mr ,
84