Operator Formalism II

7.1

Completeness

There exists
To each observable corresponds a Hermitian operator, say Q.
a set of eigenfunctions n, each corresponding to an eigenvalue qm (may
be more eigenfunctions n than eigenvalues qm, not vice versa. )
Completeness: Any physical state can be expanded in this set,
=

cnn

(1)

cn = (n, )

(2)

If the n are normalized,

(Analogy: in 3-space, any vector of unit length may be written v = v1i +
with v1 = i v, v2 = j v, and v3 = k v.)
v2j + v3k,
Example: Free particle momentum eigenstates in periodic universe:
1
p(r) = 3 eipr/h,
L
with p = 2nh
/L

(3)
(4)

Note (p, p0 ) = pp0 , i.e. 1 or 0.

Any state (r) may be represented as
(r) =

with

cpp(r)
X cp
eipr/h
=
p
L3
p

(5)
(6)

d3r ipr/h
cp = (p, ) = L3 3 e
(r),
(7)
L
nothing more than a definition of a 3D Fourier series! Note the cp are
dimensionless.
Z

Example II: Momentum eigenstates with L (Continuous spectrum).

If we let L the eigenfunctions (3) no longer well defined. How do we
normalize plane wave states in real (infinite) universe? From (4), difference between allowed momenta p = 2h/L also = momentum
eigenvalues continuous. Instead of requiring (p, p0 ) = pp0 (Kronecker
-fctn.), normalize with Dirac -fctn.:
(p, p0 ) = (p p0)
Choose normalization
p(r) =

(8)

1
eipr/h
3/2
(2h)

(9)

Verify Eq. (8). (See def. (5.37) of -fctn., use p = h

k).
Then if we expand in terms of these fctns:
(r) =

d p c(p) p(r) =

c(p) = (p, ) =

d3p
c(p)eipr/h,
3/2
(2h)

d3r
(r)eipr/h
3/2
(2h)

(10)
(11)

just Fourier integral transform!

N.B. If is superposition of energy eigenstates, =
into S.-eqn. ih
t = H to see time evolution:

n cn n ,

X
X dcn
cnn = ih
= ih
n
n
n dt
t
t
X
X
X
= H cnn =
cn(Hn) = cnEnn
ih

can plug

(12)

multiply by m, take inner product of lhs and rhs, get

dcn
ih
= Encn
dt
2

(13)

soln: cn = dneiEnt/h, or
(r, t) =

dnn(r)eiEnt/h

(14)

where dn is const. to be determined by initial conditions. Note that n(r)

itself is a stationary statenot a function of time. It is the form of the
energy eigenstate with eigenvalue En at t = 0.
7.2

Measurement

This is just a summary of some results weve written down before. Want
which has
to measure observable, represented by Hermitian operator Q
complete set of eigenfunctions n (assume nondegenerate for now) corresponding to eigenvalues qn.
If we measure Q in state probability that measurement yields the
result qn is
Pn = |(n, )|2 = |cn|2
if =

(15)

n cn n .

Can check that prob. is normalized

n Pn

= 1!

Expectation values. Average result of many measurements is

> X qnPn = (, Q)

<Q
n

(16)

pf:
X

Pn =

(, n)qn(n, )

= (,

qnn(n, ))

X n(n, ))
= (, Q
n

= (, Q).
since =

n n (n , ).
3

(17)

 Pure states. If = n before the measurement, result is always qn.

Simultaneous eigenstates. If [P , Q]=0,

can find complete set of simul = qpq . If
taneous eigenfctns pq , such that P pq = ppq and Q
6= 0, and system is in state of definite P , must be mixture of
[P , Q]
different eigenvalues qn, i.e. measurement of Q is uncertain.
7.3

Parity

defined by
Definition: Parity operator

(r)
= (r)

(18)

= (,
) so
is Hermitian and an observable!
Easy to check that (, )
Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues
2 = 1, since (r) = r. Then if = const.(6= 3.14159265...!)
Obviously
= , must have 2 = 1, and since
is
is the eigenvalue of parity,
Hermitian, must be real = = 1.
Therefore classify eigenfunctions of parity as = 1, i.e. even or odd under spatial inversion. But energy eigenstates may (e.g, symmetric square
well) or may not be eigenstates of parity. Need to find out under what
circumstances may expect parity eigenstates.
Commutation relations:
or
p =
(check!).
1. [, p] = 2
p,
p
p2] = 0 (check!)
2. [,
2
V (r)] = 0,
3. Central potential, V = V (r), with r = x + y 2 + z 2: [,
H] = 0.
so with previous relation find [,
H] 6= 0. While parity good symmetry
For the real H of the universe, [,
for strong and electromagnetic interactions, violated in weak interaction
decays.
4

 H] = 0, what then?
If [,
1. If
i
h

= H,
t

(19)

then

ih
= H
t

(20)

so if is allowed state of system, mirror image state also possible

state.
and H, so every energy
2. Can find complete set of eigenstates of
eigenstate can be assigned a definite parity.
3. Parity is conserved, i.e. associated with eigenfctn doesnt flip
with time. Note how symmetry yields a conservation law!