CHAPTER 4

INTERPARTICLE FORCES
4.1 Introduction

The knowledge of interparticle forces: in size

enlargement process (granulation, agglomeration,
tabletting), fine particle processes (fluidization, particle
transport).

Size enlargement process: smaller particles are put

together to form larger masses but the original particles
can still be identified.

Why increase the mean size: to reduce dust hazard,

reduce caking and lumping formation, improve flow
properties etc.

Example of applications: pharmaceutical formulation

defined active ingredient, catalyst support control
surface to volume ratio.

4.2 Interparticle bonding.

The most important forces causing the structuring of a

mixture are:
o due to moisture
o due to electrostatic charge
o due to Van der Waal forces

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4.2.1 Bonding due to moisture

Moisture retention in powder = f(nature of the solids,

ambient humidity, temperature, pressure)

Moisture will be present as :

(i)
adsorbed vapour if the humidity is below a critical
value
(ii)
liquid bridges for higher humidities.

The binding force = f(actual humidity) for both cases.

4.2.1.1

Adsorbed layer bonding

The bonding is caused by the overlapping of the

adsorbed layers of neighbouring particles and its
strength is proportional to tensile strength of the
adsorbed film and the area of contact.

In a simple case of two dissimilar spheres, the contact

area and the bond strength can be calculated.
y

R2

R1

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y m

S = 4 R2

2 m + 1

Boding surface between a flat surface and a sphere

would be twice as large as that between two equi-sized
spheres.

Important variable of bonding: particle shape and surface

roughness.

In most cases, the surfaces of the contacting particles

will not be perfectly smooth and surface roughness will
reduce the area of contact and hence the bond strength.

4.2.1.2

Liquid bridge bonding

When the relative humidity reaches a critical point, liquid

bridges form between particles and this is a nature of
cohesive particles.

A liquid bridge will only be stable if its tendency to

evaporate equals the tendency of water vapour to
condense on it.

As humidity increases, the area of particle surface

covered by the bridge increases and the independence
of neighbouring liquid bridges becomes a function of
porosity and of absolute particle size.

4.2.2 Electrostatic bonding

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Two solids in rubbing contact will charge each other

electrostatically.

Electrons are transferred until at equilibrium, a contact

potential difference is established.

Depending on the sign of the charge particles will tend to

bond to the mixer wall or to other dissimilar particles.

Generally, electrostatic effects are unwelcome as they

are not only unpredictable but they could give the
potential for a dangerous electrostatic charge.

4.2.3 Van der Waal force bonding

Attractive forces exist between neutral atoms or

molecules which are separated by a distance which is
large compared to their own dimension.

These force known as Van der Waal forces and they

decrease with the distance apart according to a power
law.

The extension of Van der Waals theory of attractive force

for bulk powder was carried out by Lifshitz (1955)

Particles do not have to touch in order that attraction

occurs but it can be seen from equation 4.1 and 4.2 that
the magnitude of the force decreases with the square of
the distance between the surfaces.
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For attraction force between flat surface and a sphere,

Fvdw

hw
=
R
2
8Z o

(4.1)

Equation (4.1) was then modified for the attraction force

two sphericals:

Fvdw

hw
=
8Z o2

R1 R2

R1 + R2

(4.2)

where hw = Lifshitz VDW constant

Zo = distance between two solids
R = radius of sphere

4.3

The range of attraction is smaller than for electrostatic

bonding and for a similar packing density, the effective
area of contact will also be smaller.
Interaction of the bonding forces
In powder mixing, the humidity of the atmosphere plays a
crucial role in determining the relative importance of the
forces.

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Adsorbed and liquid bridge bonding forces can dominate

other possible bonding forces and also influence their
magnitude.

On theoretical basis, Rumpf (1962) plotted the

theoretical tensile strength of agglomerates as a function
of particle size (Fig. 11.2 pg 271 from handout).

The effect of adsorbed moisture on the Van der Waals

forces is to increase their value as the adsorbed layers
may be considered as part of particle and a decrease in
the interparticulate distance will occur.

Rumpf suggests that the effect of such adsorbed layers

can increase the contribution of Van der Waals forces to
the cohesive strength of bulk powders by a factor of 100.

Electrostatic forces will decay rapidly as humidity causes

air to be more conductive and therefore favour discharge
from the particles.

Adsorbed moisture also reduces the magnitude of

mechanical forces such as friction and interlocking, as
the adsorbed film act as lubricant, decrease friction and
reduces the chances of stable interlocking.

As the particle size of fine component decreases to the

sub-micron range, the relative importance of the bonding
forces will change again.

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