Professional Documents
Culture Documents
.il^
Br^"
^1-i '
^ yiS
:B--B
^^^
1 ;?
^*t^L'^;^
^
.'11
:f
. '',:p ' r
-*4\g
9.?
-^ ^ ^ ^
:?
yliB^'^~~~~~~~~~~~Y~~sr;
ANCIENT
EASTERN
NEAR
ART
THEMETROPOLITAN
MUSEUMOF ART
On the cover: The stag vessel with a frieze depicting a religious scene is a rare example of Hittitesilverware. It is part of a collection of silver and gold
objects from Anatolia generously lent by Norbert Schimmel for the newly installed permanent galleries of ancient Near Eastern art. Inside covers:
Reliefs from the Northwest Palace of Assurnasirpal 11(883-859 B.C.). Above: Lion's-head dress ornament (see fig. 67).
www.jstor.org
artof the Achaemenidand Sasanian dynasties of Iran,housed ingalleriesleadinglogicallyto the Islamicdepartment,whose holdings
date fromthe seventh centuryA.D.to the modern era.
Althoughthe Departmentof AncientNear
EasternArtwas notofficiallyestablisheduntil
1956, the historyof the collectionbegan much
earlierwithsubstantialgiftsfromJ. Pierpont
MorganandJohn D. Rockefeller,Jr. Charles
K.Wilkinson,a specialistinthe fieldaffiliated
withthe Museumsince 1920, administeredthe
departmentfrom1956 untilhis retirementin
1963, when VaughnCrawford,a prominent
Sumerologist,tookcharge.Bothmen were
seasoned archaeologistsand each furthered
the Museumexpeditionsindispensableto a
deeper understandingof this art.AlthoughDr.
Crawforddied in 1981, he livedlongenough to
see the completionof the Raymondand BeverlySacklerGalleryforAssyrianArt,which
opened in the springof thatyear.He was
succeeded by PrudenceO. Harper,who has
of the
supervisedthe rest of the reinstallation
collection.
The new galleriesare a tributealso to those
collectorswhose giftsand supporthaveenrichedand strengthenedthe collection.We
thankthe RightReverendPaulMoore,Jr.,
Bishopof the EpiscopalDiocese of New York,
forthe long-termloanof the Mrs.WilliamH.
Moorecollectionof seals. Weare most gratefulforthe recentgiftsof glypticartfromDr.and
Mrs.MartinCherkaskyand the two largegifts
of seals, tools, weapons, and vessels of westernCentralAsiafromJudge Steven D. Robinson and SheldonLewisBreitbart.Special
thanksgo to NorbertSchimmel,forhis great
generosityto the departmentovera long periodof time-reflected inthe numerousgifts
and loans highlighting
the galleries-and his
importantroleinthe developmentof the
collection.
Forthe installationitselfwe are deeply
indebtedto The HagopKevorkian
Fund;James
N.Spear;The DillonFund;the NationalEndowmentforthe Humanities;and Raymondand
BeverlySackler,whofundedthe expansionof
the gallerythatbears theirnames. Onlya few
of the manydonorsand supporterswho have
aidedthe growthof the departmentcan be
acknowledgedinthisbriefspace, butallshould
take prideinthe new installationand the role
they playedin itsformation.
Philippede Montebello
Director
INTRODUCTION
Mesopotamia, the heart of the Near East
and the land that has produced the first
traces of civilization,lies between two great
rivers,the Tigris and the Euphrates. These
riverswere majorroutes of communication,
opening the way to distant regions and
encouraging contacts between the settle-
www.jstor.org
southernMesopotamia,probablyfrom
the west, duringthe centuriesof Sumerian
domination.This new dynasty(23342154 B.C.) expanded its controlwithin
Mesopotamiaand made its presence felt,
throughtradeand militaryinvasion,as far
as the "cedarforests"of Lebanon,the
Taurusmountains,and
"silver-bearing"
the highlandsof Iran.The artsflourished
duringthe Akkadianera. Seal stones are
finelycarvedwithelaboratemythological
scenes (see fig. 30); stone and metal
sculpturesare of highartisticandtechnical
quality.
This periodof brillianceended with
invasionsof Guti,tribesmenfromthe
Zagrosmountains,who disruptedthe
course of lifeinsouthernMesopotamia.
Duringthe followingdecades a few
Sumeriancity-statesgraduallyreestablishedtheirauthorityover a limitedarea.
One of these states, Lagash,was ruled
by Gudea (fig.2), who is prominentin the
historyof ancientNear Easternartbecause of the largenumberof massive
dioritesculpturesthathave survivedfrom
the periodof his rule(2144-2124 B.C.).
By the end of the thirdmillenniumB.C.
a new wave of Semiticpeoples, Amorites
fromthe ArabianDesert, had spread into
Mesopotamia and Syria. A common
writtenlanguage,the OldBabyloniandialect of Akkadian,came intouse over a
widearea and opened the wayto increasinglyefficientcommunications.The most
famousof the Amoriterulersis Hammurabi
of Babylon(1792-1750 B.C.),whose code
of laws, based on earlierSumerianmodels, is a comprehensiverecordof legal
practicesand an importantdocumentfor
the historyof Mesopotamiancivilization.
Interconnectionsin the Near East, both
peacefuland warlike,increasedduring
the second millennium.Assyrianmerchants fromthe northof Mesopotamia
establishedtradingcolonies inAnatolia
(see fig. 73); Hittitekingsrulingin central
AnatoliamarriedBabylonian,Hurrian,
and Egyptianprincesses; Elamitearmies
fromsouthernIraninvadedMesopotamiaand carriedoffstatues of the kings
and gods to the capitalat Susa.
The firstmillenniumwas a periodof
greatempiresinAssyria,Babylonia,and
AchaemenidIran.Assyria-or northern
Mesopotamia-differsgeographically
fromits southernneighbor,Babylonia.
Cropsgrownon the fertilenorthernplains
producedsufficientfood forAssyriaand
sustained her armiesand herempirein
times of expansion.Stone and timber,
whichthe south lacked,were also available inthe moretemperatemountain
countryof the north.WhileBabylonia
Malyan),in neighboringFarsprovince,
were the most importantpoliticaland
culturalcenters throughoutthe long historyof the Elamites.OldElamiteworksof
artproducedinthis regionduringthe third
and earlysecond millenniawere influenced by the artof Sumerianand
AkkadianMesopotamia.The images,
however-particularlythose of animals
and fantasticcreatures-are renderedin
a distinctiveElamitestyle thatis characterizedby naturallyrenderedformsand
decorativesurfacepatterns.Contactswith
landsfarto the northand east, in presentday Afghanistan,as wellas withpeoples
livingalong the Induscoastline inthe
southeast, exposed the artistsof Iranto
culturesthatwereunfamiliar
to theirMesopotamianneighbors,and this is reflected
inthe characterand appearanceof their
worksof art.UnderkingsrulingfromSusa
inthe second halfof the second millennium
B.C. Elambecame a majorpoliticalforce
inthe Near East. Wheneversouthern
Mesopotamiawas controlledby weak or
ineffectiveleaders,Elamitearmiesinvaded
the region,destroyedits cities, and briefly
controlledthe course of events there.
Northwestof Khuzistanlies a region
withinthe Zagrosmountainchainthatin
antiquitywas the home of semi-nomadic
peoples. Littleis knownof the historyor
cultureof the inhabitantsof Luristan,as
the regionis nowcalled. Inthe third,
second, and earlyfirstmillenniaB.C.the
importanceof the areaas a centerof horse
breedingresultedin frequentcontacts
betweenthe mountainpeople and their
sedentaryneighborsin Babyloniaand
Elam.Bronzes made in Luristanduring
the thirdand second millenniaB.C. illustratethe influenceof southernMesopotamiaand Elam.Inthe firstmillennium
B.C.the florescence of a distinctivelocal
style is documentedbya profusionof cast
andhammeredworksof art-the "Luristan
bronzes"-for whichthis regionis justifiablyfamous. Excavationsin recentyears
have uncoveredbuildingsand tombs, but
the ethnicoriginof the inhabitantsandthe
reason forthis richartisticproduction
remainuncertain.
Lateinthe second millenniumB.C., the
arrivalof Indo-Europeans,the Iranians,
began a new periodinthe historyof the
region.Bythe middleof the firstmillenniumB.C., Mesopotamiaand Iran,
underthe ruleof Achaemenidkings,
were partof an empirethatexceeded in
its geographicalextentanythingthat
had come before.Fromcapitalcities at
Susa, Ecbatana,and Babylon,the Iranian rulerscontrolledan empirethat
reachedfromTurkmenistan
to the Mediterraneanseacoast and Egypt.Inthe art
3
of the Achaemenidcourt,influencesfrom
Assyria,Babylonia,Egypt,and Greece
are apparentin bothstyle and
iconography.
The imperialambitionsof the Achaemenids,whichled them twiceto attack
the Greekmainland,were the cause of
theirdownfall.In334 B.C.Alexanderthe
GreatinvadedAsia fromMacedoniain
Greece. Fouryears later,the victorious
Greekarmyreached Persepolis in southern Iranand burnedthis greatceremonial
centerto the ground.Achaemenidrulein
the Near East was at an end.
The Greekconquestof the Achaemenid
the culturaldevelopempireinterrupted
mentof the Near East and alteredthe
course of civilizationinthatregion.Earlier
invasions,inthe thirdand second millennia,had broughtpeoples fromdesert
and mountainareas as well as fromthe
steppes intothe fertilelands and urban
centers of the Near East. The arrivalof
these seminomadictribesmenfromoutside the civilizedworlddid not radically
transformthe culturesthathad developed
overthe millennia.New concepts and
values were graftedonto existingtraditions, the societies were modified,and
the fabricof civilizationwas enriched.
The invasionof the Greeks, however,
differedfromthese earlierincursionsbecause itbroughtintothe NearEastforthe
firsttime a people who had highly
4
developed culturaltraditions.Greek
soldiersand merchantscame to livein
Syria,Anatolia,Mesopotamia,and Iran;
they foundedcities and introduceda new
way of life.When,inthe latethirdcentury
B.C.,the IranianParthiansreclaimedMesopotamiaand Iranfromthe Seleucidsthe successors of Alexanderthe Greatthe Greeksettlers and theirculture
remained.The Orienthad adoptedthe
West,and forthe nextmillennium,intimes
of peace and war,the kingdomsof the
Near East and the Romanand Byzantine
empires inthe West maintainedpolitical
and economicties as wellas commonculturaltraditions.
A reassertionof a NearEasternidentity,
an Iranianrenaissance, is apparentin
the artsat the beginningof the firstcenturyA.D., and itdeveloped underanother
Iraniandynasty,the Sasanians, who ruled
Mesopotamia,Iran,and partsof Syria
and AnatoliafromA.D.226 to 651. Forms
and motifswere adoptedfromthe West,
buttheirsignificancechanged, and they
expressed OrientalratherthanWestern
concepts. Similarly,in the Iraniannationalepic, the Shahnameh, originally
compiledat the end of the Sasanian
period,a legendaryAlexanderthe Great
is half-Persianand half-Greekby birth,a
modificationof historythatmade events
understandableand meaningfulto the
Near Easterner.
worldwere
Egyptand the Mediterranean
adoptedand passed intimefromSyria
intothe artof Mesopotamia.Inthe first
millenniumB.C.Assyriaand Phoenicia
replacedEgyptand the Myceneanand
Minoanempiresas a majorsource of
influencein Syrianart.Ivorycarvings
fromArslanTash-exhibited now inthe
Raymondand BeverlySacklerGalleryfor
AssyrianArt-clearly illustratea combinationof variousartisticstyles. The small
plaqueswithreliefcarvingsof human,
animal,and plantdesigns decoratedfurnitureand objectsof luxury.Egyptianizing
motifsintroducedthroughPhoeniciaare
combinedwithstylisticand iconographic
detailstakenfromthe artof Assyria.
Exhibitedin the same galleryare ivories
excavatedat Nimrud,in northernMesopotamia,where craftsmen,deportedfrom
Syriaand Phoenicia,workedforthe Assyriancourt.TheAssyriansmustalso have
receivedsome ivories,whichwere treasuredobjects,as tributeand bootyfollowingtheirconquest inthe earlyfirstmillenniumB.C.of towns inthe Syrianwest.
The Assyriandominationof Syriawas
followedby Babylonianconquests and
finallyby Achaemenidrule.Withthe invasion of Alexanderthe Greatinthe fourth
century,a largepartof Syriafell into
Greekhands, and latercame under
Romanand then Byzantinecontrol.The
borderbetweenthe westernempiresof
Rome and Byzantiumand the Parthian
and Sasanian lands inthe east ranalong
the centraland northernEuphratesRiver
throughSyria.
Fora thousandyears, fromthe last
centuriesbeforeChristto the comingof
Islam,the historyof the regionwas one
of almostcontinualwarfareas the great
empiresof Byzantiumand Sasanian Iran
battledand ultimatelyexhaustedtheir
resources inthe effortto controlthe rich
traderoutesand cities of Anatoliaand
Syria.Finally,Arabarmiesfromthe western desert-followers of the prophet
Muhammad-overranthe NearEast, and
bythe middleof the seventhcenturyMesopotamiaand Iranas wellas almosthalfof
the ByzantineempirehadfallenunderIslamicrule.Withthe introduction
of this
new religionand way of lifeanotherperiodin the historyof the Near East began.
in processions celebrating special occasions. Ancient man believed that the gods
controlled the forces of nature and governed the course of events in daily life.
Notable exceptions to this understand-
Beginninginthe earlyNeolithicperiod,
representationsof humanfigures in
terracotta,stone, or bone were made all
overthe Near East. We cannotoftentell
whetherthe figuresrepresentdeities or
humans,or if indeed such distinctions
were intended.Butbythe latefourthand
earlythirdmillenniaB.C., backgroundsceneryor physicalattributesand activities
were includedthatcan sometimes help
us to distinguishgods frommen. Itis
difficult,however,to tell an ordinary
citizen-a priest or a worshiper,for
example-from a ruler.
Inthe course of the thirdmillennium
B.C.variousNear Easternstates were
engaged in organizedtradeand imperial
conquest, and then, politicallyand economicallysecure, theirrulersbegan to
have themselves portrayedunambiguously and sometimes withinscriptions.
Theywere depictedperformingsecular,
military,and religiousfunctions,and the
formsemployedwere statuaryinthe
roundor carvingson cylinderseals and
reliefs,usuallyin stone.
Thefiguresreproducedhere are clearly
rulers,identifiedas such eitherby inscriptions or theirregalcharacteristics.Possiblythe earliestis the heavy,almost
solid-casthead (fig. 1), masterfullyand
subtlyexecuted to indicatecalm dignity
and inherentpower.The heavy-lidded
eyes, the prominentbutnotoverlarge
nose, the full-lippedmouth,and the intricatelycoiffedbeardare all so carefully
and skillfullymodeledthatthe head may
wellbe a portrait,almostcertainlyof a
ruler.Ifthis is a portrait,then the head is
uniqueamong Near Easternartifacts.
Some scholars date itto the second
millenniumB.C., othersto the latethird
millenniumB.C., which,consideringthe
style, seems more likely.The makerand
the date of the piece remainunknown,as
does the identityof this king,whose
representation,muteand nameless, nevertheless remainsone of the greatworks
of ancientart.
The seated stone figure(fig.2) represents Gudea (2144-2124 B.C.), the ensi,
or governor,of the ancientSumerian
state of Lagash,whose name and title
are includedinthe long inscription.A
numberof stone statues of Gudea,seated
or standing,were excavatedat Tello
(ancientGirsu),insouthernMesopotamia,
whileothers, presumablyfromTello,surfaced on the artmarket;manyfromboth
sources are fragmented,lackingheads
or bodies. The Museum'sGudea is complete and depictsthe rulercharacteristicallydressed in a brimmedhatdecorated
withhairlikespiralsand a longgarment
thatleaves one shoulderbare. His hands
7
.;
W[:f.001
_u
i;_,5~~~~~~~~~~~i
'~..~,
i'.,s
?'
:.?-..
~i?
.'.o
.,~...
'.'!,.,
.~..,..
S:~~~~~~~~E
Mudbrick,unbakedand baked,reed,
wood, and stone were the chief building
materialsof the ancientNear Eastern
world.The collapse of successive mudbrickwallsgraduallyled to the formation
of mounds,whichmarkthe sites of human
occupationinthe Near East (see figs. 44,
49, 51). Because stone is rarein southern Mesopotamia,mudbrickand reeds
were used to fashionstructures.Wood
was also generallylackinginthe south,
where the onlycommontree was the
date palm(see figs. 4, 39). InSyriaand
Anatolia,however,wood formedan integralpartof all largestructures.On a clay
culttowerprobablymade in Syria(see fig.
22), sizable wooden beams are represented betweenthe two stories and in
the frameworkof the building.
The wallsand doorwaysof most importantroyaland cultbuildingswere embellished withdifferentmaterials,stone,
metal,and paintedplaster.Claybricks
moldedintofiguraland plantformsfirst
appearas a type of decorationin architecture of the second millennium B.C. in
lgSIBW
Iwhite,
brickscoveredwithyellow,blue, black,
and redglazes. The lions (see fig.
11
particularly
strikingexample (see fig. 35),
probablyfromnorthernMesopotamia,
toppedwitha snarlinglion.
The conquest of the Near Eastern
lands inthe fourthcenturyB.C.by
the GreekrulerAlexanderof Macedon
broughtforeigncraftsmenin considerable numbersto the NearEast, and the
architecture
soon reflectedtheirpresence.
Stone was used morefrequentlyforbuildings of importance,and Greekcapitals,
columns,and moldingsbegan to trans-
W/mWJ'-
l~N
4VIt
kt-
~11
13
16
14
14
-~~~~~~~~~~~_
-'
---,_
r
.r
d-
Wm
Now
Wm&4'
I-
.r
I,y
'
.'',.
%
_a
- _
'
Ju
l
_
_~ILad~
.N.
looiho
J(
-A"^ - ,
1y.
.
.*
J8
t?,L
'
".
17
15
18
16
17
19
19
20
21
22
performedritualsforeleven days;the
highpointof the festivaloccurredwhen
the cultstatues of Marduk-the chief
Babyloniangod-and otherdeities were
paradedalongthe ProcessionalWay
leadingfromthe templeprecinctto the
Akituhouse. Outsidethe magnificent
IshtarGate, the wallsalongthe waywere
linedwithcolorfulglazed-brickimages of
lions(see fig. 9) stridingboldlytoward
the sacred destinationwhere a mysteriousand crucialritualmusthave
takenplace. H.P.
23
23
25
24
2/
26
25
28
29
tureswere represented;amongthemwere
the bull-man,the human-headedbull,
and the lion-headedeagle, Imdugud.But
duringthe Akkadiandynasty(2334-2154
B.C.)a richvarietyof these fabulouscreatureswere placedintothe artisticrepertory.
On the illustratedseal (fig.30) is carved
the snake god, whose formis human
above and reptilianbelow;he is approachedfromfrontand behindby minor
deitieswithscorpionsor snakes forhands
and feet. One of these divinitiesis winged,
whilethe otherhas felines emergingwinglikefromits back.The domainof the
snake god was the underworld,and because he is often associated withgrowing vegetationor,as here, withscorpions
and felines and the gatepost of Inanna
(the Sumeriangoddess of love and war),
he is thoughtto be a fertilitydeity,perhaps of Iranianinspiration.
Monstrousimages were often borrowedfromothercultures,eitherwithor
withouttheiroriginalidentity.The image
of the sphinx-a creaturewitha lion's
Representationsof fabulouscreatures
served notonlyas images of numinous
spirits,butalso as heraldicsymbolsfor
the propagandaof the secular state.
Althoughits meaningis not understood,
the hornedand wingedlionoccurs in
AchaemenidPersianiconography,frequentlyinconjunctionwiththe king.On a
gold plaqueof this period(fig.31) are
two wingedand hornedlions,each rearingwithits head turnedback.The plaque
was most probablysewn on a soft cloth
or leatherbackingthatserved as partof
the resplendentpanoplyof an Achaemenid
courtier. H.P.
27
34
32
associated withpower,bothsecularand
divine.The forepartof a lionemerges
froma bronzepeg-shaped foundation
figurine(fig.35). The platebeneaththe
lion'sextended paws is inscribedwiththe
name of Tishatal,a kingof Urkish,inthe
languageof the Hurrians,a non-IndoEuropean,non-Semiticpeople who, from
the second halfof the thirdmillennium
B.C.,
were presentinthe northernpartsof
Mesopotamiaand Syria.Stylisticfeatures
suggest thatthisfoundationpeg-frightening enough to scare offevildoers-was
made eitherby an Akkadianartistor by
one withinthe Akkadiansphere of
influence.
30
millenniumlater.
Near Easternartistsmust have carefullyobserved animalsin nature;the
renderingscapturetheiressence either
throughnaturalisticor stylizedconventions. A fine sculptureof a wildmountain
sheep (fig.36), or mouflon,identical
to several foundat MohenjoDaro(an
urbansite of the thirdmillenniumB.C.
inthe valleyof the IndusRiver),shows
the animalresting;his hindquarters
are stronglytwistedto receivethe full
weightof his body.The physicalpower
of this creatureis emphasized bythe
closed outlinethatincorporateshis
sweeping hornsintothe massive volume
of his chest.
Thethree-dimensional,sculpturalqualityof these animalscontrastswiththe
bodintricately
patterned,two-dimensional
ies of the gazelles stridingaroundthe
side of a lovelygold cup (fig.34).
The heads at a rightangle to the bodies
are a featureshared by several similar
cups foundat KalarDashtand Marlik,
second-millennium B.C. sites of royal
36
31
were morerealisticallycombinedwith
naturalfeaturesto give the impressionof
actuallandscape.AnAkkadianseal (fig.
37) shows a huntingscene in whicha
manseizes a hornedanimal.Firtrees
and moundswithimbricatedpatternsindicate thatthe setting is a mountainous
region,probablythe forestlandsto the
northor east of Akkad.
The ivorycarvingsfromthe NeoAssyrianpalaces at Nimrudincorporate
manyplantformsas decorativeelements
inthe designs. On one example executed in Syrianstyle (fig.38) a goat is
naturalistically
portrayedrearingup on its
hindlegs and nibblingat the leaves of a
tendrils.
highlystylizedshrubof intertwined
The sacred tree was alwaysa popular
motif.Thisimaginary,decorativeplant,
composed of ornamentalleaves and
waterliketendrils,was repeatedmany
times on the ninth-century
B.C. reliefsof
the NorthwestPalace at Nimrud(see
insidefrontcover). Frequently,attending
divinitiesare shown administeringsome
purifyingsubstance witha date palm
spathe and a bucket.The sacred tree
was a symbolof vegetallifeandfertility-a
significancethatwe attributeto most
plantmotifsand designs inthe artof the
ancientNearEast. B.A.P.
38
32
39
Ct' ds%a~
1^a~a
It";^~.~
:Ilg*'^~k;
?^^~6
htAfm
'-^
^ <**. '^w
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
I'l' %~~~~~~~~~
'~~~~~~~~~
I? I
~ ~~
''
.tVI<
;rd/
/'/
-j
ri~~~~~~~~~~4
7~~~~iii
L1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
i;
1~~
~~
?5i~~~~~~~~~~/
7/
~~~~
~~;j//
~2 4~
40
41
43
silverbeaker(fig.40) probablymade in
the regionof present-dayRumaniaor
Bulgaria.Similarbeakershavebeen found
in a princelytombat Agighiol,nearthe
Danubedelta in eastern Rumania.The
Museum'scup depicts several animals,
some realand some fantastic.Aneightlegged stag has antlersterminatingin
birds'heads, whichform partof the
decorative borderaroundthe rim.
A bronzebeltclasp (fig.43) has an
intricateopenworkdesign witha horse
and smallerfiguresof a foal, a dog, and a
bull-all enclosed bya framewithbosses.
Manybeltclasps of this same type and
style have been foundin ancientColchis,
nowwesternGeorgiainthe Soviet Union.
Recentlyit has been suggested thatthey
date to the firstto thirdcenturyA.D.These
small,portable,and highlydecorative
objects preservedmanyof the featuresof
the earlier,nomadicanimalstyle. B.A.P.
35
44
36
witha templeof the god Enlilwitha ziggurat,a templeof the goddess Inannathat
was rebuiltmanytimes overthe millennia
(fig.44), and scribalquartersare the
mainarchitectural
and culturalfeaturesat
the site. Seven brickfoundationboxes of
the kingShulgiwere discoveredbeneath
the templeof Inanna,whichdates from
the ThirdDynastyof Ur(2.112-2004 B.C.),
and three boxes of his father,Urnammu,
were discoveredbeneaththe Ekurfoundations;they are amongthe most notable artifactsfoundthere. Each box containeda bronzepeg statuetteof the king,
representedcarryinga basketof mortar
forthe ritualbuildingof the temple.One
of the Shulgistatuettes(fig.45) is inthe
Museum'scollection.
A massive area withfortification
walls
five miles longsurroundingan area of
some nine hundredacres, the Assyrian
site of Nimrudin northernMesopotamia
has concernedarchaeologistssince
46
48
37
4950
50
particular
Syrianand Phoenician.Forits
supportthe Museumreceivedaboutone
hundredfortyivories,two of whichare
illustratedon p. 37. One is masterfully
sculptedin Phoenicianstyle and depicts
a Nubianbringingan oryxand a monkey
as giftsto the Assyrianking(fig.48). The
other,in Syrianstyle, is the head of a
womanwithnecklace and braidedhair
(fig.47). Eachshows the skilland precision of ancientartistswithdifferent
backgrounds.
Hasanlu(fig.49) in northwesternIran
was excavatedin 1936 by AurelStein;
from1956 to 1974 bythe Universityof
Pennsylvania;and from1959 on, with
the Metropolitan.
Itwas settled inthe
sixthmillenniumB.C.and was occupied
throughthe Bronzeand IronAge periods.
The mostextensivelypreservedlevel is
PeriodIV,or IronAge II,datingfromthe
twelfthor eleventhcenturyB.C.to close to
800 B.C., when the site was violently
O.W.M.
56
40
41
57
I~~~~~ -~~~
s~~~~~~~
I
1i
.~~~1
'
_iiiiii
L
_illflffBflffIPqlHfs58
59
42
?+
*L
kr
YI
ji
c_i?'
1i
t
1
r?;, r*?5ct,
2
?
r.45
.1
t
g
I
5, ,,
.? ,i
E
f
.Cr;
*'
*
""
9?TSs;.?
'L
'r
"a
rr
'?
j
'%-r
''I
r
5
?i
w->
Al"I
cO?
Inantiquitythe manymountainrangesof
the NearEast, includingthe Taurusof
easternTurkey,the Zagrosof western
Iran,and the Caucasus betweenthe
Blackand Caspianseas, were richin
B.C.
metallicores. Atseventh-millennium
sites such as Cayonu,TellRamad,and
AliKoshthe earlieststages of metalworkingtechnologyare documented.
Towardthe end of the fourthmillennium B.C., the burgeoning urban centers
60
62
44
Aw2;J,
/
the earliest examples of the more complex technique of lost-wax casting around
a central ceramic core.
A handsome silver plate (fig. 63), a
product of the last part of the Sasanian
period(fifthto earlysixthcenturyA.D.),
H.P.
64
46
rl
'
tt..u
IlIiaD
.:':
-A%i
L-.
i,i
~1
48
65
millenniumB.C. is augmentedbydetailed
representationson the stone reliefsfrom
the Neo-Assyrianpalaces. Forexample,
inthe relief(see fig. 3) fromthe Northwest Palace at Nimrud,whichshows
the kingAssurnasirpalIIand an attendant,
one can see the richarrayof jewelry
worn-necklaces, bracelets,armlets,and
crescent-shapedearringswithpendants.
Plaques sewn on garments-also
called bracteates-were commonin the
fifth-century
Scythiangravesof southern
Russia (see fig. 41). Goldappliqueswere
also popularin AchaemenidPersia.The
lion-headbracteates(fig.67) have five
ringson the back,allowingthemto
be attachedto clothgarmentsor tent
hangings.
The gold necklace (fig.65) is made up
of elements fromthe Achaemenidperiod,
includinga head of Bes-an Egyptian
god-plaques of a male figurewitha
horse, and lotusterminals.Similar
jewelryelements were excavatedat
Pasargadae,where morethanone hundredthirtyimages of Bes, humanheads
in profile,and the heads of ibexes and
lionswere foundtogetherin a jar.
The sumptuousobjectswornbythe
Persiansare confirmedby Herodotus
(VII,83): "Ofallthe troopsthe Persians
were adornedwiththe greatestmagnificence.... they glitteredalloverwithgold,
vast quantitiesof whichthey wore about
theirperson."Herodotusalso tells us that
Persiantentscapturedat PlateainGreece
were"adornedwithgoldandsilver." B.A.P.
Ns
67
66
I
49
C.1
0
Q)
69
51
52
cuneiformwritingwas widelyused
73
74
53
I*
fi;;
t", -
r.
?'
r
"ge-
75
/
t
78
r
I
.;,e.;
fA
.,
11
/,-
,:
S-;
I_-
tf
iF--
i4
..1
^"- : *
:.
TN
79
76
f
80
77
54
Mesopotamia (South)
Mesopotamia (North)
Iran
Anatolia
Levant
Egypt
3500 B.C.
3500 B.C.
3000 B.C.
Uruk 3500-3100
Proto-Urban
Susa II
Proto-Elamite
Susa III
Chalcolithic
Archaic 3100-2686
3000 B.C.
2500 B.C. -
Sumero-Elamite Susa IV
Troy II
Early Bronze
2500 B.C.
First Intermediate
2160-2060
Old Elamite
i'"
,ffNnv'
luu R V0
Isin-Larsa period
2017-1763
Old Babylonian period
1894-1595
Hammurabi 1792-1750
1500 B.C.
1500 B.C.
Kassite Dynasty 1595-1157
Mitannian Empire
1600-1350
Second Dynasty of Isin
1156-1025
IUU
2000 B.C.
Middle Kingdom
2060-1786
Second Intermediate
1786-1570
Hyksos 1667-1559
Middle Elamite
Iron I
D.C.
Hasanlu IV
ca. 1200-800
Neo-Assyrian Empire
883-612
Iron II
Iron III
Neo-Elamite
Median Empire
UrartianKingdom 850-600
Phrygian Kingdom 775-690
Neo-Babylonian Empire
625-539
500 B.C.
Late Bronze
ThirdIntermediate
1000 B.C.
Third Intermediate
1085-656
Achaemenid Empire
550-331
0 B.C./
A.D.
Seleucid Empire
Macedonian period
332-305
Ptolemaic period 305-30
M,
Parthian period
200 B.C.-A.D. 224
Parthian period
Sasanian Empire
Roman period
Byzantine Empire
Roman period
Byzantine Empire
~~~~~~~~~~~--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~----
Roman perno
30 B.C.-A.D. 325
0 B.C./
A.D.
500 A.D.
II~~~~~~~~~~~~~
CREDITS
Front cover: Stag vessel. Silver with gold inlay
Anatolia, Hittite,Empire period, 15th-13th century
B.C.L. 611/16in. (17 cm.), H. 71/16 in. (18 cm.). Lent by
Norbert Schimmel (L.1983.119.1)
Back cover: Detail of frieze on the stag vessel
depicted on front cover showing a male god standing on a stag and facing a man who is pouring liquid
from a spouted vessel.
Inside front cover: Relief with two registers of sacred tree attended by divinities. Alabaster. Northern
Mesopotamia, Nimrud, Northwest Palace of Assurnasirpal 11(883-859 B.C.),Neo-Assyrian period. H. 893/4
in. (227.9 cm.), W.83 in. (210.8 cm.). Giftof John
D. Rockefeller, Jr., 1932 (32.143.3)
Inside back cover: Relief of bird-headed divinity
Alabaster. Northern Mesopotamia, Nimrud, Northwest Palace of Assurnasirpal II(883-859 B.C.), NeoAssyrian period. H. 905/8(230.2 cm.), W. 713/8in.
(181.3 cm.). Giftof John D. Rockefeller, Jr., 1931
(31.72.3)
1. Head of a dignitary Arsenical copper. Western
Asia, late 3rd millennium B.C.H. 131/2in. (34.3 cm.).
Rogers Fund, 1947 (47 100.80)
2. Seated statue of Gudea. Diorite. Southern Mesopotamia, probably Tello, Neo-Sumerian period, 21442124 B.C.H. 175/16 in. (44 cm.) HarrisBrisbane Dick
Fund, 1959 (59.2)
55
16. Sword.Ironwithcarnelianinlays.Iran,Luristan,
ca. 750-650 B.C. L. 193/4in.(50.1 cm.). Giftof
H. DunscombeColt,1961 (61.62)
17. Detailof swordhiltand scabbard. Goldover
wood withgarnetand glass paste jewelsand giltbronzeguard.Iran,Sasanianperiod,ca. A.D. 7th
centuryFullI. 391/2in. (100.3 cm.). RogersFund,
1965 (65.28)
18. Cylinderseal and modernimpression.Yellow
chert.Mesopotamia,Neo-Assyrianperiod,ca. 9th8th centuryB.C. H. 17/16in. (3.7 cm.), Diam. 5/8in.
(1.6 cm.). Giftof MatildaW.Bruce,1907 (07.155.1)
19. Necklacewithpendants.Gold.SouthernMesopotamia,ca. 19th-18thcenturyB.C.L. 1615/16in.
(43 cm.). FletcherFund,1947 (47.la-h)
20. Helmet.Bronzewithgold and silverfoilover
bitumen.SouthwesternIran,Elamite,ca. 1300 B.C.
in.(22.1 cm.). Fletcher
H.61/2in.(16.5 cm.), W.811/16
Fund,1963 (63.74)
21. Standingmalefigure.Gypsum.SouthernMesopotamia,TellAsmar,SquareTemple,ShrineII,Sumerian,
EarlyDynasticIIperiod,2750-2600 B.C. H. 115/8
in. (29.5 cm.). FletcherFund,by exchange, 1940
(40.156)
22. Cultvessel inshape ofa tower.Ceramic.Syria(?),
ca. 19thcenturyB.C. H. 123/8in.(31.4 cm.), W.31/4
in. (8.3 cm.). RogersFund,1968 (68.155)
23. Kneelingbullholdingvessel. Silver.Southwestern Iran,Proto-Elamite
period,ca. 2900 B.C. H.67/16
in. (16.3 cm.), W.21/2in. (6.3 cm.). Purchase,
Joseph PulitzerBequest, 1966 (66.173)
24. Pendantof seated goddess holdingchild.Gold.
Anatolia,Hittite,Empireperiod,15th-13thcentury
B.C. H. 11/16in. (4 3 cm.). Lentby NorbertSchimmel
(L.1983.119.3).
25. Femalefigure.Ceramic.Iran,ca. 900B.C.H.125/16
in.(31.3 cm.), W.61/4in. (15.9 cm.). HarrisBrisbane
DickFund,1964 (64.130)
26. Ewer.Silverwithmercurygilding.Iran,Sasanian
period,ca. A.D. 6th-7th century.H. 133/8in.(34 cm.).
Purchase,Mr.and Mrs.C. DouglasDillonGiftand
RogersFund,1967 (67.10)
27. Cylinderseal and modernimpression.Hematite.
Mesopotamia,OldBabylonianperiod,ca. 1850-1700
B.C. H. 11/16 in. (2.7 cm.), Diam. 9/16 in. (1.4 cm.).
36. Recumbentmouflon.Marble.IndusValleyca.
2500-2000 B.C. L. 111/16in.(28 cm.). Anonymous
Giftand RogersFund,1978 (1978.58)
37. Cylinderseal and modernimpression.Serpentine.Mesopotamia,Akkadianperiod,2334-2154 B.C.
61. Antelope.Silver.Iran,Proto-Elamite
period,ca.
2900 B.C.L.4 in. (10.2 cm.). RogersFund,1947
(47.100.89)
H. 11/8 in. (2.8 cm.), Diam. 11/16 in. (1.8 cm.). Bequest
56
I~ ~~~ ~
II
~~~~~~~~~
:,,q~
:,..
48
'
1,~
'
!"
,::.
'-$,Ai
v~~~~~~~~j
., I...
~,~.j~-TM
'_~ilt,i~*
~I.
~
~: ~ ~