History 121D6

Many of the early nationalist movements seem a bit less obvious

These early movements coincided with the emergence of literary

languages
The Romanian literary language used the Latin alphabet
Sometimes it was difficult to determine what constituted this new

thing called nation

Many of the Hapsburg groups had nothing that they could term

nation
In the Czech lands of Bohemia, the nobility was German speaking
Many of the nobles had recently settled there
The literary elite spoke German, while the populace spoke Czech
The national revival couldnt emerge from the top down in

Bohemia
The leading Czech nationalist spoke German at home
Many of the Ukrainian nationalists spoke better Polish than

Ukrainian
These nationalist groups were incredibly small in numbers
This was not surprising given the low literacy rates and small

population
Defining the nation would depend on reaching the serfs/peasants
The peasants couldnt tell you what the new terms meant, but

they did dislike the aristocracy

In 1846, peasant Polish nationalists in Galicia revolted against

and slaughtered the nobility

Nationalists became increasingly belligerent and were willing to

forego liberty, etc. in order to create the nation

The failures of the early part of the century contributed to the

disillusionment
Violent nationalist reactions were primarily a thing of the East

The industrial revolution continued to transform the European

continent
The industrial revolution was the most important series of events

in world history since the invention of agriculture

The industrial revolution spread from Britain to mainland Europe
The term was coined in the 1820s by British and French

socialists
For the first time in human history, the shackles were removed

from the productive powers of humans

Societies became able to produce whatever they wanted
The economy shifted from a craft-based, agrarian one to one of

urban, machine-driven manufacturing in cities

There exists a thriving commercial class in most of Europe
Widespread handicraft production was characteristic of most

merchant capitalists and it contributed to overseas trade

The expansion of commerce within the continent and overseas

became a large theme in the century

This expansion spread to North and South America, Africa, and

Asia
These capitalists are tapping into a wealth that was much larger

than the days of the Renaissance

Europe was able to accumulate a lot of wealth during the

nineteenth century
In Europe, that wealth was spread across more classes of people

than other societies of that time

In Europe, the rivalry between nation-states was a dominant

theme
These states are competing with one another for
markets/territory which pushes economic expansion

There is a close tie between state interests and economic

interests of individuals
The state promotes the arms and other industries to spread

commerce which brings in more taxes

More people are free from the shackles of farming and are free to

pursue other occupations elsewhere

The East was primarily a provider of raw materials to the West
The West is cutting down the forests of the East at an alarming

rate
The West is also getting vast amounts of grain and other food

from the East

Russian territories to the south become primary exporters of

grain to the West

There is no incentive to abolish slavery/serfdom in the East due

to this massive grain production

This is one of the reasons that serfdom lasts for so long in the

East
There is also a massive population expansion during this time

which expands markets

Agriculture is more efficient, younger marriages (more children),
and a declining death rate all contributed to the population

expansion
A necessary precursor to the industrial revolution is an

agricultural one
Capitalist agriculture is spreading throughout Europe
The British Enclosure Movement is the most popular of these
Capitalist methods in agriculture are not implemented to feed

people, but for the market

Production is shifting to the sometimes global market instead of
local consumption

Animal husbandry and new crops assist the spread of agricultural

advancement
The agricultural revolution displaces millions of peasants
Many of the peasants sell their land to wealthier farmers
The displacement continues to increase as the century continues
Displaced peasants join the forces of wage laborers
Fewer people could produce more food and more goods
The more you employ technology, the fewer people you need to

produce more goods

Around 3% of the US population farms now as opposed to the

>90% when the nation started

The industrial revolution is occurring globally in the 19th century
It begins in Britain in the second half of the 18th century
France and Prussia were ahead of Britain in mathematics and

economics
The early stages of industrialization didnt require intellectual

refinement
Britain had a much better standard of living than the rest of the

continent
Agricultural productivity in Britain was second only to the

Netherlands
Much of British farming was directed to the market
The results were the ability to feed a rapidly rising population

through increased productivity

There was a substantial supply of surplus capital for expansion

and production
Britain had large reserves of accessible coal and iron
Britain has large traditions of mining and metalworking
It has a fairly well-developed market place
The roads were good and it had access to the seas and to foreign

markets
Private artisans initially spurred industrialization in Britain
Britain had a near-mastery of the seas in the late 18th century

For centuries, Britain has had an extremely wealthy commercial

class
Britain takes other countries colonies away during the 18th and

19th centuries
Most late-18th century British increases in production were going

to exports
The spinning of cotton was the primary industry that spurred the

industrial revolution
The colonial trade creates the cotton industry and continues to

feed the cotton industry

Cotton is traded for slaves which were used on cotton plantations

in US and Caribbean
These plantations became increasingly productive due to the

near-insatiable demand from Britains cotton mills

Britain monopolized the oversea exports for many years
Cotton export ratios were (yards used at home vs. yards used

abroad) 1814 4/3, by 1850 14/8

Latin America became almost entirely dependent on British

imports since it could not rely on Spain

The Indian subcontinent was a lead exporter of cotton, but was
systematically de-industrialized in terms of cotton exports to turn

India into a market of British cotton instead of an exporter

The industrial revolution transforms Britains relationship with

other European countries

Other traders were seeking to break into global trade and found

it in opium
The industrial revolution dramatically increases production in an

incredibly short amount of time

James Hargreaves creates the spinning jenny in 1764
One worker could increase their productivity by 15x

Richard Arkwright attaches his name to the water frame and the

spinning mule
These machines could be powered by water instead of people
The mule combines the spinning jenny and the water frame
The main improvements are how many threads can be made,

how fast, and with how many workers

Demand for raw cotton fiber is growing faster than supplies could

catch up
The separation of cotton from seed is what slows down the

supply of cotton
Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin which increases the supply

and decreases the price, while keeping plantations profitable

Each new invention is increasing in efficiency but also in size
Instead of having individual workers keep a machine in their

homes, the modern factory was born

Most early industrial production takes place near water sources

as water power was required for most machines

Watts steam engine freed technology and allowed factories to

be set up anywhere
Factories began to be set up in cities, driving urbanization
In the old system, workers had much more control over their

schedules and thus their lives

Bringing workers together under one roof introduces a much

more militant regime

Cotton is the first industry to be revolutionized in this way
Cotton was the only industry in which heavy machinery

predominated well into the 19th century

It drove industrialization for 70-80 years
Unlike other industries (where innovations do occur), cotton was
the only industry that had the power to revolutionize an entire
economy

Cotton demanded buildings, entire new areas (like Manchester),

machinery, lighting, chemical improvements (such as dyes), and

the shipping industry were all fed by the cotton industry

The other major industry to push industrialization is iron
There is a growing demand for ever-stronger metals
Most machines were made from iron
Demand for cotton and other agricultural goods (such as iron

plows) was driving the demand for iron

Railroads really drove the demand for iron
Britain dominated the early rail industry
Coal and steel were integral parts of the rail industry
Coal stimulated railroad expansion
Early railroads were laid between raw materials and

manufacturing and to get the finished products to markets

By the middle of the 19th century, the steam engine was

beginning to be used in the realm of transportation

Most manufacturing industries would be affected by these

changes
Many were put out of business, others did very well
For at least a generation after 1815, Britain and Belgium were

the only two states who were industrialized to a large extent

Only in those two states could you find the substantial

engineering and machine building industries

It was Britain and Belgium where these new techniques were

flowing
Industrialization only really begins on the European continent

after 1830
Manchester was an early cotton manufacturing center
It was illegal for an artisan or manufacturer to emigrate from
Britain in the early industrial revolution

Much of the reason Belgium industrialized was because of people

who snuck out of Britain or Scotland

In 1815 most of Europe was even further behind Britain than in

1789
Teachers and artisans were needed to run these factories
Iron was going to take the lead in continental European

industrialization
The role of railroads was going to be important in the industrial
revolution of future countries