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Standardizing
interfaces:The
network
The OSI model consists of seven layers, each corresponding to a specific network
function:
The function of the upper layers of the OSI model can be difficult to visualize. Upper
layer protocols do not always fit perfectly within a layer, and often function across
multiple layers.
TCP/IP Suite
The TCP/IP suitewhose name is actually a combination of just two individual
protocols, Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP)is divided
into layers, each of which performs specific functions in the data communication
process. This topic describes how the layers of TCP/IP are organized into a stack.
The TCP/IP suite was developed at approximately the same time as the OSI model.
Like the OSI model, the TCP/IP suite is a means of organizing components in an
order that reflects their functions in relation to one another. The components, or
layers, of the TCP/IP stack are as follows:
Internet layer:This layer provides routing of data from the source to the
destination by defining the packet and the addressing scheme, moving data
between the data link and transport layers, routing packets of data to remote
hosts, and performing fragmentation and reassembly of data packets.
Network access layer: This layer covers the same processes as the two
lower OSI layers:
Data link layer: The data link layer defines how data is formatted for transmission and how
access to the network is controlled.
The TCP/IP network access layer roughly corresponds to the OSI physical and
data link layers and is concerned primarily with interfacing with network
hardware and accessing the transmission media.
The TCP/IP Internet layer corresponds closely to the network layer of the OSI
model and deals with the addressing of and routing between network
devices.
The TCP/IP transport layer, like the OSI transport layer, provides the means
for multiple host applications to access the network layer, either in a besteffort mode or through a reliable delivery mode.
The TCP/IP application layer addresses applications that communicate with
the lower layers and corresponds to the separate application, presentation,
and session layers of the OSI model. The additional layers of the OSI model
provide some additional organization of features related to applications.
What is protocol?
A protocol is a formal description of a set of rules and conventions that govern how
devices on a network communicate.
Have you wondered why different devices or application are able to send data to
each other? For example, you can send a message from your phone to your friend
computer. The reason is because there devices or applications are using the same
protocol.
Figure:Devices in Network
Protocols are like the languages in human communication. People who understand
the same languages are able to communicate to each other. So it is the same as the
devices and applications. Devices and application with the same protocol are able to
send data to each other.
Applications provide the means for generating and receiving data that can be
transported on the network. Applications can be a client, a server or both a client
and server at the same time. One client application that we normally use is the
internet browser which is used to request and receive webpages from web server.
For web server, it has application that is used to store webpages, and upon request,
its will generate webpage data are sent to the internet browser.
Identifying Services
Multiplexing
De-Multiplexing
Segmentation
Sequencing
Reassembling
Error Correction
Flow control (or windowing)
Buffering
Service Identification
TCP and UDP ports identify services that run on a specific logical address.
Otherwise, there would be no way to distinguish data destined for one service or
another on a device. For example, port numbers allow both a web and email server
to operate simultaneously on the same address.
Well-Known Ports
Well-known ports are assigned by the IANA and are numbered 1023 and below.
These numbers are assigned to applications that are fundamental to the Internet.
Registered Ports
Registered ports are listed by IANA and are numbered from 1024 to 49151. These
ports are used for proprietary applications, such as squid proxy (3128).
Dynamically assigned ports are assigned numbers between 49152 and 65535.
These ports are assigned dynamically for the duration of a specific session.
Protocol
67
68
69
80
88
110
115
119
123
137
143
161
UDP
TCP
UDP
TCP/UDP
TCP
TCP
TCP
TCP
UDP
UDP
TCP/UDP
UDP
179
389
443
TCP/UDP
TCP
TCP
TCP
TCP
TCP
TCP/UDP
Function
FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
SSH (ssh,scp copy or sftp)
Telnet
SMTP (for sending outgoing emails)
DNS Server (Domain name service for DNS
requests)
BOOTP (Bootstrap Protocol)
DHCP
TFTP
HTTP Port Internet Traffic
Kerberos
POP3 (for receiving email)
(SFTP) Secure File Transfer Protocol
NNTP (Network News Transfer Protocol)
NTP (Network Time Protocol)
NetBIOS Name Service
IMAP4 Protocol (for email service)
SNMP (Simple Network Management
Protocol)
BGP
LDAP (light weight directory access)
Secure HTTP over SSL (https)
465
514
515
520
863
902
990
993
995
1433
1812-13
2049
3128
3306
5050
5432
5060
5900
8080
10000
TCP
UDP
UDP
UDP
TCP/UDP
TCP
TCP
TCP/UDP
TCP
TCP/UDP
Yahoo
Msgr.
TCP
UDP
TCP
Socket address
An IP address combined with a TCP or UDP port forms a socket. A socketis written
out as follows:
208.112.208.30:80
Session Multiplexing
Session multiplexing is an activity in which a single computer, with a single IP
address, is able to have multiple sessions occurs simultaneously. A session is
created when a source machine needs to send data to a destination machine. Most
often, this involves a reply, but a reply is not mandatory. The session is created and
controlled within the IP network application, which contains the functionality of OSI
Layers 5 through 7.
A best-effort session is very simple. The session parameters are sent to UDP. A besteffort session sends data to the indicated IP address using the port numbers
provided. Each transmission is a separate event, and no memory or association
between transmissions is retained.
When using the reliable TCP service, a connection must first be established between
the sender and the receiver before any data can be transmitted. TCP opens a
connection and negotiates connection parameters with the destination. During data
flow, TCP maintains reliable delivery of the data and, when complete, closes the
connection.
For example, you enter a URL for Yahoo into the address line in the Internet Explorer
window, and the Yahoo site corresponding to the URL appears. With the Yahoo site
open, you can open the browser again in another window and type in another URL
(for example, Google). You can open another browser window and type the URL for
Cisco.com and it will open. Three sites are open using only one IP connection,
because the session layer is sorting the separate requests based on the port
number.
Segmentation
TCP takes data chunks from the application layers and prepares them for shipment
onto the network. Each chunk is broken up into smaller segments which will fit the
maximum transmission unit (MTU) of the underlying network layers. UDP, being
simpler, does no checking or negotiating and expects the application process to
give it data that will work.
Flow Control
If a sender transmits data faster than the receiver can receive it, the receiver will
drop the data, requiring it to be retransmitted. Retransmission can waste time and
network resources, which are why most flow control methods try to maximize the
transfer rate while minimizing the requirements to retransmit.
In TCP, basic flow control is implemented by acknowledgment by the receiver of the
receipt of data; the sender waits for this acknowledgment before sending the next
part. However, if the round-trip time (RTT) is significant, the overall transmission
rate may slow to an unacceptable level. A mechanism called windowing increases
network efficiency when combined with basic flow control. Windowing allows a
receiving computer to advertise how much data it is able to receive before
transmitting an acknowledgment to the sending computer.
UDP header
The UDP header length is always 64 bits. The field definitions in the UDP segment
(see figure)
Include the following:
originated from.
Destination Port - A 16-bit field that specifies which port the datagram
includes the UDP header and the data being sent. (The value is always at
least 8, since the UDP header is eight octets.)
Checksum - A 16-bit field that operates much like the TCP counterpart. It is
Protocols that use UDP include TFTP, Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP),
Dynamic Host configuration Protocol (DHCP), Network File System (NFS), and
Domain Name System (DNS).
Reserved - A 6-bit field that is reserved for future use. Currently this field is
represented as all zeroes. In the future, it may be likely that TCP will make
use of this space for some reason or another.
URG - A 1-bit control flag that stands for urgent. If the value is 1, the
information is urgent and should be dealt with accordingly.
ACK - A 1-bit control flag that, if set to 1, indicates that the Acknowledgment
Number field is significant.
PSH - A 1-bit control flag that stands for push. If set to 1, all the information
sent so far is sent to the receiving application.
RST - 1-bit control flag that stands for reset. If set to 1, the connection is
reset.
SYN - A 1-bit control flag that stands for synchronize. If set to 1, then a
sequence of numbers will be used to sort information packets. This also
marks the beginning of a connection.
FIN - A 1-bit control flag that stands for finished. It also closes a connection,
and indicates that there is no more data to be sent.
Window - A 16-bit field that is used for flow control. It indicates that a range
of sequence numbers past the last acknowledged sequence number do not
require further acknowledgment.
Checksum - A 16-bit field that checks segment integrity. A calculation is
done on both the sending and receiving computer. This calculation is based
on the segments information, so we can use it to check and see if the packet
is indeed the same being received as it was sent.
Urgent Pointer - A 16-bit field that indicates the beginning of urgent
information. Specifically, it points to a sequence number.
Options - A field that may be used to set various optional settings.
Padding - A spacer used to offset the Options field. Since every row must
equal 32 bits, the Padding field must add to the Options field to equal 32 bits.
Since the Options field may vary, variable Padding is needed.
Data - The actual data being sent to the recipient computer.
UDP
Connection-oriented
Connection-less oriented
Guaranteed Delivery
No Guaranteed Delivery
Sends Acknowledgments
Flow Control
No Flow Control
Protocol No is 6
Protocol No is 17
The second-lowest layer (layer 2) in the OSI Reference Model stack is the data link
layer, often abbreviated DLL (though that abbreviation has other meanings as well
in the computer world). The data link layer, also sometimes just called the link
layer, is where many wired and wireless local area networking (LAN) technologies
primarily function. For example, Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI and 802.11 (wireless
Ethernet or Wi-Fi) are all sometimes called data link layer technologies. The set
of devices connected at the data link layer is what is commonly considered a simple
network, as opposed to an internetwork.
Data Link Layer Sublayers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access
Control (MAC)
The data link layer is often conceptually divided into two sublayers: logical link
control (LLC) and media access control (MAC). This split is based on the
architecture used in the IEEE 802 Project, which is the IEEE working group
responsible for creating the standards that define many networking technologies
(including all of the ones I mentioned above except FDDI). By separating LLC and
MAC functions, interoperability of different network technologies is made easier, as
explained in our earlier discussion of networking model concepts.
Logical Link Control (LLC): Logical link control refers to the functions
required for the establishment and control of logical links between local
devices on a network. As mentioned above, this is usually considered a DLL
sublayer; it provides services to the network layer above it and hides the rest
of the details of the data link layer to allow different technologies to work
seamlessly with the higher layers. Most local area networking technologies
use the IEEE 802.2 LLC protocol.
Data Framing: The data link layer is responsible for the final encapsulation
Addressing: The data link layer is the lowest layer in the OSI model that is
Error Detection and Handling: The data link layer handles errors that
devices to control access to the network medium. Since many networks use a
shared medium (such as a single network cable, or a series of cables that are
electrically connected into a single virtual medium) it is necessary to have
rules for managing the medium to avoid conflicts. For example. Ethernet uses
the CSMA/CD method of media access control, while Token Ring uses token
passing.
of higher-level messages into frames that are sent over the network at the
physical layer.
concerned with addressing: labeling information with a particular destination
location. Each device on a network has a unique number, usually called a
hardware address or MAC address that is used by the data link layer protocol
to ensure that data intended for a specific machine gets to it properly.
occur at the lower levels of the network stack. For example, a cyclic
redundancy check (CRC) field is often employed to allow the station receiving
data to detect if it was received correctly.
The physical layer and the data link layer are very closely related. The requirements
for the physical layer of a network are often part of the data link layer definition of a
particular technology. Certain physical layer hardware and encoding aspects are
specified by the DLL technology being used. The best example of this is the
Ethernet standard, IEEE 802.3, which specifies not just how Ethernet works at the
data link layer, but also its various physical layers.
Since the data link layer and physical layer are so closely related, many types of
hardware are associated with the data link layer. Network interface cards (NICs)
typically implement a specific data link layer technology, so they are often called
Ethernet cards, Token Ring cards, and so on. There are also a number of
network interconnection devices that are said to operate at layer 2, in whole or in
part, because they make decisions about what to do with data they receive by
looking at data link layer frames. These devices include most bridges, switches and
barters, though the latter two also encompass functions performed by layer three.
Some of the most popular technologies and protocols generally associated with
layer 2 are Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI (plus CDDI), HomePNA, IEEE 802.11, ATM,
and TCP/IP's Serial Link Interface Protocol (SLIP) and Point-To-Point Protocol (PPP).
In general, then, physical layer technologies are ones that are at the very lowest
level and deal with the actual ones and zeroes that are sent over the network. For
example, when considering network interconnection devices, the simplest ones
operate at the physical layer: repeaters, conventional hubs and transceivers. These
devices have absolutely no knowledge of the contents of a message. They just take
input bits and send them as output. Devices like switches and routers operate at
higher layers and look at the data they receive as being more than voltage or light
pulses that represent one or zero.
Ethernet Technology
Introduction
In today's business world, reliable and efficient access to information has become
an important asset in the quest to achieve a competitive advantage. File cabinets
and mountains of papers have given way to computers that store and manage
information electronically.
Computer networking technologies are the glue that binds these elements together.
Networking allows one computer to send information to and receive information
from another. We can classify network technologies as belonging to one of two basic
groups. Local area network (LAN) technologies connect many devices that are
relatively close to each other, usually in the same building. The library terminals
that display book information would connect over a local area network. Wide area
network (WAN) technologies connect a smaller number of devices that can be many
kilometers apart.
In comparison to WANs, LANs are faster and more reliable, but improvements in
technology continue to blur the line of demarcation. Fiber optic cables have allowed
LAN technologies to connect devices tens of kilometers apart, while at the same
time greatly improving the speed and reliability of WANs.
Token Ring
IEEE 802.5 standards Token Ring is an IBM-created network topology. It arranges
nodes and network cables in order to form a ring or a loop. As opposed to CSMA/CD
where nodes check the network for activity before sending, Token Ring networks use
a token to determine when a node can transmit.
The nodes in a Token Ring network actually dont physically look like a ring. In fact,
central units referred to as MAUs (Multistation Access Units). That means that Token
Ring is logically a Ring but physically a star topology. Because its physically a star,
a single break in the ring doesnt take down the whole network.
The token is passed from node to node around the network in a particular direction.
When a node wished to transmit, it waits for the token to arrive, transmits its data
with the token, and then waits for the token to arrive again to transmit again. This is
called Token Passing.
Token Ring is also a guaranteed delivery networking system. When a node transmits
data with the token, it sends a special message inside the token. When the token
arrives at the destination, it reverses this special message and re-transmits the
token. When the token reaches the original sending computer, it can then tell if the
data was sent properly. If the token does not contain the changed message, the
sending computer knows it must re-send the data.
Twistedpair
MAC
Method
Token
passing
Signal
Propagation
Method
Forwarded from
device to device
(or port to port
on a hub) in a
closed loop
Spee
d
Topologie
s
4Mbp
s
Ring
16
Mbps
Star-using
Token Ring
repeater
hubs
Maximum
Connecti
ons
255 nodes
per
segment
FDDI
The Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) provides high-speed network backbones
that can be used to connect and extend LANs.
Like token ring, FDDI also has error-detection and correction capabilities. In a
normally operating Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) ring, the token passes by
each network device fast. If the token is not seen within the maximum amount of
time that it takes to circulate the largest ring, it indicates a network problem.
Fiber-optic cable such as the cable used with Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)
can support very large volumes of data over large distances.
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is an expensive technology to set up because
the network devices require a special network card and also fiber-optic cabling is
required, which is expensive than twisted-pair cable. Because most Fiber Distributed
Data Interface (FDDI) installations use a redundant second ring, more cabling is
required.
Fiber Distributed Data Interface is also a Ring topology, but uses two rings rather
than one single ring. It can transmit up to 1Gbps, and can send data up to 2
kilometers.
Media
MAC
Signal
Spe
Topologi
Maximum
Method
Propagation
ed
es
Connectio
Method
ns
Token
Forwarded
from
1
Double
Fiberpassing
device to device (or Gbps ring Star
500 no
optic
port to port on a
hub) in a closed loop
You wont see much information on FDDI on the exam, but you should be aware of
the basics. Expect to see limited information on Fiber optics, FDDI, and token
passing, but study more for the 802.3 standards and how Token Ring networks work.
Ethernet Technology
Ethernet is a family of technologies that provides data-link and physical
specifications for controlling access to a shared network medium. It has emerged as
the dominant technology used in LAN networking.
Ethernet was originally developed by Xerox in the 1970s, and operated at 2.94Mbps.
The technology was standardized as Ethernet Version 1 by a consortium of three
companies - DEC, Intel, and Xerox, collectively referred to as DIX - and further
refined as Ethernet II in 1982.
In the mid 1980s, the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers(IEEE)
published a formal standard for Ethernet, defined as the IEEE 802.3 standards. The
original 802.3 Ethernet operated at 10Mbps, and successfully supplanted competing
LAN technologies, such as Token Ring.
Ethernet has several benefits over other LAN technologies:
Simple to install and manage
Inexpensive
Flexible and scalable
Easy to interoperate between vendors
Up until two years ago, Ethernet networks were the most common networks on the
planet. With the boom of the Internet, other network types have grown rapidly, but
Ethernet still remains the easiest and most cost-effective networking topology.
Ethernet is usually installed as a bus or star architecture. The bus architecture is the
easiest to set up, as the wire runs from computer to computer and is terminated at
each end. The star architecture requires more cable and more work, but is easier to
troubleshoot. If a break occurs in the cable of a bus architecture, the network fails. If
a break occurs in the cable of a star architecture, only the network segment that
contains that break fails.
Ethernet is a passive network. All network traffic is delivered node-to-node. That
means the computers themselves transfer all the data, not hubs or routers. They
are also called CSMA/CD networks, or Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection. That means that two nodes cannot transmit at the same time. If two
nodes transmit data at the same time, the data collides and fails to transfer.
Therefore, Ethernet networks require the node to check for network activity before
sending data.
Description
802.0
802.1
802.2
802.3
802.4
802.5
802.6
802.7
802.8
802.9
802.10
802.11
802.12
802.14
802.15
802.16
802.17
LLC Sublayer
The IEEE created the LLC sublayer to allow part of the data link layer to
functionindependently from existing technologies. This layer provides versatility in
services to thenetwork layer protocols that are above it, while communicating
effectively with the variety ofMAC and Layer 1 technologies below it. The LLC, as a
sublayer, participates in theencapsulation process.
An LLC header tells the data link layer what to do with a packet when it receives a
frame. Forexample, a host receives a frame and then looks in the frame header to
understand that thepacket is destined for the IP protocol at the network layer.
MAC Sublayer
The MAC sublayer deals with physical media access. The IEEE 802.3 MAC
specification defines MAC addresses, which uniquely identify multiple devices at the
data link layer. The MAC sublayer maintains a table of MAC addresses (physical
addresses) of devices. To participate on the network, each device must have a
unique MAC address.
use. If it is, theCSMA/CD stations wait. If the network is not in use, the stations
transmit. A collision occurswhen two stations listen for network traffic, hear none,
and transmit simultaneously (see thefigure). In this case, both transmissions are
damaged, and the stations must retransmit at somelater time. CSMA/CD stations
must be able to detect collisions to know that they mustretransmit.
When a station transmits, the signal is referred to as a carrier. The NIC senses the
carrier andconsequently refrains from broadcasting a signal. If there is no carrier, a
waiting station knowsthat it is free to transmit. This is the carrier sense part of the
protocol.
The extent of the network segment over which collisions occur is referred to as the
collision domain. The size of the collision domain has an impact on efficiency, and
therefore on data throughput.
In the CSMA/CD process, priorities are not assigned to particular stations, so all
stations on thenetwork have equal access. This is the multiple access part of the
protocol. If two or morestations attempt a transmission simultaneously, a collision
occurs. The stations are alerted ofthe collision, and they execute a backoff algorithm
that randomly schedules retransmission ofthe frame. This scenario prevents the
machines from repeatedly attempting to transmit at thesame time. Collisions are
normally resolved in microseconds. This is the collision detectionpart of the
protocol.
Carrier Sense - When a device connected to an Ethernet network wants to send
data it first checks to make sure it has a carrier on which to send its data (usually a
piece of copper cable connected to a hub or another machine).
Multiple Access - This means that all machines on the network are free to use
the network whenever they like so long as no one else is transmitting.
Ethernet Addresses
The address used in an Ethernet LAN, which is associated with the network adapter,
is themeans by which data is directed to the proper receiving location. This topic
describes thespecific characteristics of an Ethernet address.
00:00:0c:43:2e:08 or 0000:0c43:2e08
Each device on a LAN must have a unique MAC address to participate in the
network. The MAC address identifies the location of a specific computer on a LAN.
Unlike other kinds of addresses used in networks, the MAC address should notbe
changed unless there is some specific need.
Transmission Media
Characteristics of UTP
Unshielded twisted pair cable uses an insulator to protect twisted pairs. Although
the protective covering is helpful, it doesn't qualify as a shield against interference
in the same way as the metallic covering found on STP cable. UTP cable is generally
cheaper and its transmission speed is faster than that of STP.
Characteristics of STP
Shielded twisted pair cable adds multiple layers of protection from interference. A
metallic shield covers each pair of cables in a given connection. Each pair of cables
is then placed inside another metallic shield. An additional grounded wire is also
often added to improve the effects of shielding. Although these multiple layers of
protection can greatly benefit signal clarity, improper grounding of the shields can
cause the shields to actually pick up unwanted signals and make clarity issues
worse. Installation of STP cables requires greater technical knowledge, and the
technology is more expensive than UTP.
The more common transmission media are twisted pair and fiber optics. Categories
defined under twisted pair support transmission over various distances and data
rates. The most common UTP cable in the enterprise network are Category 5,
Category 5e, Category 6, Category 6a and Category 7, which supports 10 Mbps to
10 Gbps rates.
Ethernet technology standards are the responsibility of the IEEE 802.3 working
group. This group is responsible for evaluating and eventually approving Ethernet
specifications as new Ethernet technologies are developed such as Gigabit and
10Gigabit Ethernet. Although this group defines the standards for Ethernet, it looks
to other established standards organizations to define the specifications for physical
cabling and connectors. These organizations include the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI), Engineering Industry Association (EIA), and
Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA). The TIA/EIA published specifications
for twisted-pair cabling are found in the TIA/EIA-568-B specification document.
The more common forms of cabling are unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) and optical
fiber. Twisted pair cable comes in a variety of forms. The most common categories
in today's networks are the following:
Category 1
Category 2
Category 3
Category 5
Category 5e
Category 6
Category 6a
Category 7
Category 1
CAT 1, or Category 1, cable is best suited for telephone communications. It is not
suitable for data transmission or Ethernet data work usage. It is mostly used for onpremises wiring.
Category 2
Category 2, or CAT 2, cables are capable of data transmission of up to 4 Mbps. It is a
Level 2 cable and was used on ARCnet and token ring networks sometime ago. Like
CAT 1, CAT 2 is not suitable for Ethernet data work usage.
Cat 3 Cable
Category 3 Cable, or Cat 3, is an older iteration of Ethernet cables that is limited to
10 Mbps (megabits per second). Cat 3 cables are not widely used outside of VOIP
(Voice-Over Internet Protocol) and other voice solutions. Cat 3 cables have an issue
with cross-talk and interference and were quickly replaced with high quality cables
as a standard. Category 3 was initially designed as voice grade cable and is capable
of handling transmissions using up to 16 MHz
Category 4
Category 4, or CAT 4, is an unshielded, twisted pair that supports transmission up to
20MHz. It is reliable for transporting data over CAT 3 and can transmit data up to a
speed of 16 Mbps. It is mostly used in token ring networks.
Cat 5 Cable
Cat 5 was the widely used successor to Cat 3 cable. Cat 5 allows for 10/100 Mbps.
Ethernet connections. The way the cable was wrapped changed from Cat 3 to Cat 5
to not allow as many twists per foot. This reduced the amount of interference.
Category 5 is capable of handling transmissions up to 100 MHz
Cat 5e Cable
Cat 5e is an enhanced version of Cat 5 cabling. Cat 5e will allow for 10/100/1,000
Mbps. Ethernet connections. Gigabit Ethernet (1,000 Mbps.) is widely used in both
homes and business applications. Due to its lower price point versus higher end
cables, Cat 5e is the most common type of cable sold in stores. Most prebuilt cables
will be of Cat 5e design. Category 5E is an improved version of Category 5; while
still limited to 100 MHz, Category 5E defines performance parameters sufficient to
support 1000BASE-T operation.
Cat 6 Cable
Cat 6 cable is very similar to Cat 5e; however, it is not as popular. Unless the
network is running at close to full speed, a Cat 6 cable will not show much benefit
over a Cat 5e cable. Cat 6 cables have thicker wires than Cat 5e, but are made the
same way. Category 6 provides the best possible performance specification for UTP
cabling. Category 6 specifies much stricter requirements for cabling than Category
5 and 5E. Category 6 is capable of handling transmissions up to 250MHz.
Category 7
Category 7, or CAT 7, is another proposed standard that supports transmission up to
600MHz. CAT 7 is a standard 10G Ethernet copper cable that is over 100 meters. It
is backward compatible with CAT 5 and CAT 6 and has more stringent rules than CAT
6 for system noise and cross talk.
Usage
Cat 1
Cat 2
Cat 3
Cat 4
Cat 5
Cat 5e
Cat 6
Cat 6a
Cat 7
There are several IEEE 802.3 standards that define Ethernet transfer over Category
5 (or higher) UTP cabling. The most common of these are 802.3 10Base-T, 802.3u
100Base-TX (Fast Ethernet), and 802.3ab 1000Base-T (Gigabit Ethernet). Although
not defined by the IEEE, these standards are accompanied by the EIA/TIA-568-A and
EIA/TIA-568-B specifications to standardize an ordered color code for termination
which is practiced by the majority of the telecommunications industry.
A patch cable (also called a straight through cable) is configured with all 8 wires in
the same order on both ends of the cable. There are two standard wiring
configurations used for patch cables. They are 568A and 568B. Either configuration
can be used, so long as the same configuration is used at both ends of the cable.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Connecting
Connecting
Connecting
Connecting
Connecting
a
a
a
a
a
router to a hub
router to a Switch
computer to a switch
computer to a hub
Switch to hub
With 568A:
Pin 1 White/Orange
Pin 2 Orange White
Pin 3 White/Green
Pin 4 Blue/White
Pin 5 White/Blue
Pin 6 Green/White
Pin 7 White/Brown
Pin 8 Brown/White
With 568B:
Pin 1 White/Green
Pin 2 Green/White
Pin 3 White/Orange
Pin 4 Blue/White
Pin 5 White/Blue
Pin 6 Orange/White
Pin 7 White/Brown
Crossover cables are very similar to straight-through cables, except that they have
pairs of wires that crisscross. This allows for two devices to communicate at the
same time. Unlike straight-through cables, we use crossover cables to connect
likedevices (Same OSI Layer).
1.
2.
3.
4.
Connecting
Connecting
Connecting
Connecting
a
a
a
a
computer to a router
computer to a computer
router to a router
switch to a switch
A cross over cable is configured with 4 of the wires in the same order on each end.
The other four wires are crossed (hence the name). One end gets wired with the
568A configuration, while the other gets wired with the 568B configuration.
First End:
Second End:
Pin
Pin
Pin
Pin
Pin
Pin
Pin
Pin
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
White/Orange
Orange White
White/Green
Blue/White
White/Blue
Green/White
White/Brown
Brown/White
Pin
Pin
Pin
Pin
Pin
Pin
1
2
3
4
5
6
White/Green
Green/White
White/Orange
Blue/White
White/Blue
Orange/White
Rollover cable
Rollover cables, like other cabling types, got their name from how they are wired.
Rollover cables essentially have one end of the cable wired exactly opposite from
the
other.
This
essentially
rolls
over
the wires- but why would we need to do such a thing? Rollover cables, also called
Yost cables, usually connect a device to a router or switchs console port. This allows
a programmer to make a connection to the router or switch, and program it as
needed.
multi-mode, normally used for short distances, has large cores and transmits
infrared light.
If the diameter of the core of the fiber is large enough so that there are many
paths that light can take through the fiber, the fiber is called multimode
fiber.
Single-mode fiber has a much smaller core that only allows light rays to travel
along one mode inside the fiber.
Transmitting/Receiving Devices
PoE was originally formalized as 802.3af, which can provide roughly 13W of power
to a device. 802.3at further enhanced PoE, supporting 25W or more power to a
device.
Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, andGigabit Ethernet all support PoE. Power can be sent
across either the unusedpairs in a cable, or the data transmission pairs, which is
Figure: Segment
A segment is a network connection made by a single unbroken network cable.
Ethernet cables and segments can span only a limited physical distance, beyond
which transmissions will become degraded because of line noise, reduced signal
strength, and failure to follow the Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD) specifications for collision detection. Cable type, data rate,
and modulation technique affect the maximum segment length.
Any device that operates at Layer 1 of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model will not terminate the Ethernet segment of the LAN, because Layer 1 devices
only repeat the electrical signals.
Collision Domains
currently the most common, but the 128-bit IPv6 address is also in use, and will
probably become the more common address type over time. This lesson describes
32-bit IPv4 addressing, except where IPv6 is explicitly identified.
An IP address is a numeric identifier assigned to each machine on an IP network. It
designates the specific location of a device on the network.
Terminology
An IP address consists of 32 bits of information. These bits are divided into four
sections, referred to as octets or bytes, each containing 1 byte (8 bits). You can
depict an IP address using one of three methods:
Dotted-decimal, as in 172.20.18.125
Binary, as in 10101100.00010100.00010010.01111101
Logical Addressing
Logical addressing is a function of the network layer of the OSI Model (Layer3).Logical addresses, unlike hardware addresses, provide a hierarchicalstructure to
separate networks. A logical address identifies not only a uniqueHost ID, but also
the network that host belongs to. Additionally, logicaladdresses are rarely hardcoded onto hosts, and can be changed freely.Two common logical addressing
protocols are IPX (Internetwork PacketExchange) and IP (Internet Protocol).
IPX was predominantly used onNovell networks, but is mostly deprecated. IP is the
most widely-usedlogical address today.
IP Addressing Rules
It is a 32 bit dotted decimal number with 4 octets, each octet of 8 bits.
It is divided into two portions, Network and host portion
IP addresses must be unique in a network
32 bits divided into 4 octets
Each octet has a decimal value range of 0 to 255.
The network portion cannot be all 0s nor all 1s
The first octet cannot be 127 (network), this is reserved for loopback
The host portion cannot be all 0s this defines the network address
The host portion cannot be all 1s this defines a broadcast in that particular
network
The IP address 255.255.255.255 defines a general broadcast
Although IP addresses are stored as binary numbers, they are usually
displayed in human-readable notations, such as 208.77.188.166 (for IPv4)
IPv4 Addressing
One of IPs core functions is to provide logical addressing for hosts. An IPaddress
provides a hierarchical structure to separate networks. Consider thefollowing
address as an example:
158.80.164.3
First Octet
158
.80
.164
3
Each octet is 8 bits long, resulting in a 32-bit IP address. A computerunderstands
an IP address in its binary form; the above address in binarywould look as follows:
Third Octet
.01010000
Fourth Octet
.10100100
00000011
IP Address Classes
To accommodate different sizes of networks and aid in classifying them, IP
addresses are divided into categories called classes. This topic describes the IP
address classes and the structure of the IP addresses within them.
Assigning IP addresses to classes is known as classfull addressing. The classes were
determinedduring the early days of the Internet by the Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority (IANA).Each IP address is broken down into a network ID and the host ID.
In addition, a bit or bitsequence at the start of each address determines the class of
the address. The figure shows threeof the five IP address classes, which are used
LAN, MAN and WAN as follows:
Class A IP addresses
The Class A address uses only the first octet (8 bits) of the 32-bit number to
indicate thenetwork address. The remaining three octets of the 32-bit number are
used for host addresses.The first bit of a Class A address is always 0. Since the
first bit is a 0, the lowest number that can be represented is 00000000 (decimal 0),
and the highest number that can be represented is01111111 (decimal 127).
However, these two network numbers, 0 and 127, are reserved andcannot be used
as network addresses. Any address that starts with a value between 1 and 126
inthe first octet of the 32-bit number is a Class A address.
Example of a Class A address:
Address: 64.32.254.100
Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0
Class B IP addresses
The Class B address uses two of the four octets (16 bits) to indicate the network
address. Theremaining two octets specify host addresses. The first 2 bits of the first
octet of a Class Baddress are always binary 10. Starting the first octet with binary
10 ensures that the Class Bspace is separated from the upper levels of the Class A
space. The remaining 6 bits in the firstoctet may be populated with either 1s or 0s.
Therefore, the lowest number that can be represented with a Class B address is
10000000 (decimal 128), and the highest number that canbe represented is
10111111 (decimal 191). Any address that starts with a value in the range of128
to 191 in the first octet is a Class B address.
Example of a Class B address:
Address: 152.4.12.195
Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0
Class C IP addresses
In a Class C address, the first three octets (24 bits) of the IP address identify the
networkportion, with the remaining octet reserved for the host portion. A Class C
address begins withbinary 110. Therefore, the lowest number that can be
represented is 11000000 (decimal 192),and the highest number that can be
represented is 11011111 (decimal 223). If an addresscontains a number in the
range of 192 to 223 in the first octet, it is a Class C address.
Example of a Class C address:
Address: 207.79.233.6
Class D IP addresses
Class D IP addresses are known as multicast IP addresses. Multicasting is a
technique developed to send packets from one device to many other devices,
without any unnecessary packet duplication. In multicasting, one packet is sent
from a source and is replicated as needed in the network to reach as many endusers as necessary. You cannot assign these IP addresses to your devices.
Four left most bits of the left most octet of a "Class D" network is reserved as
"1110". The other 28 bits are used to identify the group of computers the multicast
message is intended for.
The minimum possible value for the left most octet in binaries is 11100000
(decimal equivalent is 224) and the maximum possible value for the leftmost octet
is 11101111 (decimal equivalent is 239). Therefore for a "Class D" IP address,
leftmost octet must have a rangebetween 223 to 239.
Example of a Class D Multicast address:
Multicast Address: 224.0.0.9 for RIPv2
Multicast Address: 224.0.0.10 for EIGRP
Class E IP addresses
Class E is used for experimental purposes only and you cannot assign these IP
addresses to your devices.Four left most bits of the left most octet of a "Class E"
network is reserved as "1111".
The minimum possible value for the left most octet in binaries is 11110000
(decimal equivalent is 240) and the maximum possible value for the leftmost octet
is 11111111 (decimal equivalent is 255). Therefore for a "Class E" IP address,
leftmost octet must have a value between 240-255.
Network Address
An IP address that has binary 0s in all host bit positions is reserved for the network
address. Therefore, as a Class A network example, 10.0.0.0 is the IP address of the
network containing the host 10.1.2.3. As a Class B network example, the IP
address 172.16.0.0 is a network address, while 192.16.11.0 would be a Class C
network. A router uses the network IP address when it searches its IP route table for
the destination network location. The decimal numbers that fill the first two octets
in a Class B network address are assigned. The last two octets contain 0s because
those 16 bits are for host numbers and are used for devices that are attached to the
network. In the IP address 172.16.0.0, the first two octets are reserved for the
network address; it is never used as an address for any device that is attached to it.
An example of an IP address for a device on the 172.16.0.0 network would be
172.16.16.1. In this example, 172.16 is the network address portion and 16.1 is
the host address portion.
A local loopback address is used to let the system send a message to itself for
testing. A typical local loopback IP address is 127.0.0.1.
Network ID
The network portion of an IP address is also referred to as the network ID, which is
importantbecause most hosts on a network can directly communicate only with
devices in the samenetwork. If the hosts need to communicate with devices that
have interfaces assigned to someother network ID, there must be a network device
that can route data between the networks.This is true even when the devices share
the same physical media segment.A network ID enables a router to put a packet
onto the appropriate network segment. The hostID helps the router deliver the
Layer 2 frame encapsulating the packet to a specific host on thenetwork. As a
result, the IP address is mapped to the correct MAC address, which is needed bythe
Layer 2 process on the router to address the frame.
Host ID
Each class of a network allows a fixed number of hosts. In a Class A network, the
first octet isassigned to the network, leaving the last three octets to be assigned to
hosts. The first hostaddress in each network (all 0s) is reserved for the actual
network address, and the final hostaddress in each network (all 1s) is reserved for
broadcasts. The maximum number of hosts in aClass A network is 224 2
(subtracting the network and broadcast reserved addresses), or16,777,214.In a
Class B network, the first two octets are assigned to the network, leaving the final
twooctets to be assigned to hosts. The maximum number of hosts in a Class B
network is 216 2, or65,534.In a Class C network, the first three octets are
assigned to the network. This leaves the finaloctet to be assigned to hosts, so the
maximum number of hosts is 28 2, or 254.
Binary
Decimal
Address Part
11000000.10101000.00001010.
00000000
192.168.10.0
Subnet Mask
11111111.11111111.11111111.
0000000
255.255.255.0
The Rules
0-bit = match
1-bit = ignore
The Target
To target an entire network means that every bit within the NETWORK portion of the
IP address must match. All others we can ignore. So for a Class-C network (i.e.,
192.168.1.0) the wild card mask would be -- 0.0.0.255
Targeting a Subnet
To target a particular subnet (not classfull) we will still need to match on every bit
on the NETWORK portion, however now we need to find the proper bit boundary in
the last octet used by our network. So for example we need to find the wild card
mask for the network 192.168.1.128/25. The easiest way to do this is to simply
subtract
the
subnet
mask
(255.255.255.128)
from
255.255.255.255.
255.255.255.255 minus 255.255.255.128 equals a wild card mask of -- 0.0.0.127
If you look here the bit we want to match on is the 23rd bit. The subnet mask for a
slash 23 is 255.255.254.0. We then subtract it from 255.255.255.255 to get our
wild card which is 0.0.1.255.
IP Class
Default wildcard
Mask
Class A
255.0.0.0
0.255.255.255
Class B
255.255.0.0
0.0.255.255
Class C
255.255.255.0
0.0.0.255
0 AND 0 yields a 0
0 AND 1 yields a 0
1 AND 0 yields a 0
1 AND 1 yields a 1
You can perform a Boolean AND on longer binary numbers, but you are really just
performing an AND on each pair of numbers. For instance, if you wanted to AND
together two four-digit numbers, 0110 and 0011, you would perform an AND on the
first digit of each number and write down the answer. Then you would perform an
AND on the second digit of each number, and so on, through the four digits.
(ANDing)
0 0 1 1
----------0 0 1 0
When you Boolean AND together two longer binary numbers, you perform what is
called a bitwise Boolean AND. This term simply means that you do what the
previous example shows: You AND together the first digits from each of the two
original numbers, and then the second digits, and then the third, and so on, until
each pair of single-digit binary numbers has been ANDed.
IP subnetting math frequently uses a Boolean AND between two 32-bit binary
numbers. The actual operation works just like the next example:
What is CIDR?
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) merges or combine network addresses
of sameclass into one single address to reduce the size of the routing table. It is
done on core router to reduce the size of routing table. It is implemented by ISP
(internet service providers).CIDR is simplified method of representing a subnet
mask. CIDR identifies the number of binary bits set to a 1 (or on) in a subnet mask,
preceded by a slash.
Consider the following subnet mask: 255.255.255.240
Looking
at
the
above
subnet
binary:11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000
mask
in
The first 28 bits of the above subnet mask are set to 1. To represent this inCIDR
notation: /28
Consider this next example:
192.168.11.1 255.255.255.0
The above address/subnet
CIDR:192.168.11.1 /24
mask
can
be
represented
as
follows
CIDR values:
CIDR
Subnet Mask
Wildcard
Mask
No of IPs
using
/32
255.255.255.255
0.0.0.0
/31
255.255.255.254
0.0.0.1
/30
255.255.255.252
0.0.0.3
/29
255.255.255.248
0.0.0.7
/28
255.255.255.240
0.0.0.15
16
/27
255.255.255.224
0.0.0.31
32
/26
255.255.255.192
0.0.0.63
64
/27
255.255.255.128
0.0.0.127
128
/24
255.255.255.0
0.0.0.255
256
/23
255.255.254.0
0.0.1.255
512
/22
255.255.252.0
0.0.3.255
1,024
/21
255.255.248.0
0.0.7.255
2,048
/20
255.255.240.0
0.0.15.255
4,096
/19
255.255.224.0
0.0.31.255
8,192
/18
255.255.192.0
0.0.63.255
16,384
/17
255.255.128.0
0.0.127.255
32,768
/16
255.255.0.0
0.0.255.255
65,536
/15
255.254.0.0
0.1.255.255
131,072
/14
255.252.0.0
0.3.255.255
262,144
/13
255.248.0.0
0.7.255.255
524,288
/12
255.240.0.0
0.15.255.255
1,048,576
/11
255.224.0.0
0.31.255.255
2,097,152
/10
255.192.0.0
0.63.255.255
4,194,304
/9
255.128.0.0
0.127.255.255
8,388,608
/8
255.0.0.0
0.255.255.255
16,777,216
/7
255.0.0.0
1.255.255.255
33,554,432
/6
255.0.0.0
3.255.255.255
67,108,864
/5
255.0.0.0
7.255.255.255
134,217,728
/4
255.0.0.0
15.255.255.25
5
268,435,456
/3
255.0.0.0
31.255.255.25
5
536,870,912
/2
255.0.0.0
63.255.255.25
5
1,073,741,824
/1
255.0.0.0
127.255.255.2
55
2,147,483,648
/0
0.0.0.0
255.255.255.2
55
4,294,967,296
Without using CIDR, all ISPs routing tables would have a separate route to
each of 216 Class C networks that begin with 198. By implementing CIDR, a
single route to 198.0.0.0/8 is sufficient to route all networks whose IP
addresses begin with 198 to ISP 1. CIDR helps Internet routers to reduce the
size of their routing tables by reducing the number of entries in the routing
tables.
Subnetting
It changes the subnet mask of the local network number to produce an even
number of smaller network numbers, each with a corresponding range of IP
addresses.
Review of IPv4
The table below summarizes the possible network numbers, the total number of
each type, and the number of hosts in each Class A, B, and C network.
Default subnet mask
Range
Class A
255.0.0.0 (/8)
1.0.0.0 126.255.255.255
Class B
255.255.0.0 (/16)
128.0.0.0 191.255.255.255
Class C
255.255.255.0 (/24)
192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255
/12 equals 1111 1111.1111 0000.0000 0000.0000 0000 -> 12 bits are
turned on (bit 1)
/28 equals 1111 1111.1111 1111.1111 1111.1111 0000 -> 28 bits
are turned on (bit 1)
/32 equals 1111 1111.1111 1111.1111 1111.1111 1111 -> 32 bits
are turned on (bit 1) and this is also the maximum value because all bits are
turned on.
The slash notation (following with a number) is equivalent to a subnet mask. If you
know the slash notation you can figure out the subnet mask and vice versa. For
example, /8 is equivalent to 255.0.0.0; /12 is equivalent to 255.240.0.0; /28
is equivalent to 255.255.255.240; /32 is equivalent to 255.255.255.255.
What is subnetting?
When changing a number in the Network part of an IP address we will be in a
different network from the previous address. For example, the IP address 11.0.0.1
belongs to class A and has a default subnet mask of 255.0.0.0; if we change the
number in the first octet (a block of 8 bits, the first octet is the leftmost 8 bits) we
will create a different network. For example, 12.0.0.1 is in a different network from
11.0.0.1. But if we change a number in the Host part, we are still in the same
Network. For example, 11.1.0.1 is in the same network of 11.0.0.1.
The problem here is if we want to create 300 networks how can we do that? In the
above example, we can only create different networks when changing the first octet
so we can create a maximum of 255 networks because the first octet can only
range from 1 to 255 (in fact it is much smaller because class A only range from 1 to
126). Now we have to use a technique called subnetting to achieve our purpose.
Subnetting means we borrow some bits from the Host part to add to the
Network part. This allows us to have more networks than using the default subnet
mask. For example, we can borrow some bits in the next octet to make the address
11.1.0.1 belong to a different network from 11.0.0.1.
How to subnet?
Do you remember that I said in the subnet mask, bit 1 represents for Network part
while bit 0 presents for Host part? Well, this also means that we can specify how
many bits we want to borrow by changing how many bit 0 to bit 1 in the subnet
mask.
Lets come back to our example with the IP 11.0.0.1, we will write all numbers in
binary form to reveal what a computer really sees in an IP address.
Now you can clearly see that the subnet mask will decide which is the Network part,
which is the Host part. By borrowing 8 bits, our subnet mask will be like this:
After changing the second octet of the subnet mask from all 0 to all 1, the
Network part is now extended. Now we can create new networks by changing
number in the first or second octet. This greatly increases the number of networks
we can create. With this new subnet mask, IP 11.1.0.1 is in different network from IP
11.0.0.1 because 1 in the second octet now belongs to the Network part.
So, in conclusion we subnet by borrowing bit 0 in the Host portion and
converting them to bit 1. The number of borrowed bits is depended on how many
networks we need.
Note: A rule of borrowing bits is we can only borrow bit 0 from the left to the right
without skipping any bit 0. For example, you can borrow like this: 1111 1111. 1100
0000.0000 0000.0000 0000 but not this: 1111 1111. 1010 0000.0000 0000.0000
0000. In general, just make sure all your bit 1s are successive on the left and all
your bit 0s are successive on the right.
Example
If you still do not remember the weights of all bits, you may consider using this little
aid presented below (pic. 1) while calculating subnets, and converting binary
network masks into decimal values.
This tool is useful before you remember all the weights from left to right and right to
left.
Pic. 2 - Example of Subnet Binary-to-Decimal Conversion.
Question 1
Given the prefix 192.168.1.0/24, what should be the length of subnet mask allowing
up to 9 subnets?
Answer 1
The address belongs to the class C and uses its default network mask. That leaves
us with 8 bits to play with (the last byte). Before we change anything, our address
and network mask converted into the binary notation look like shown below (pic. 3).
Pic.3 - 192.168.1.0/24 in Binary.
In order to create 9 subnets we must extend the existing length of the network
mask by 4 bits which allows up to 16 subnets (use calculation aid in pic. 1). If I tried
to extend it by 3 bits only, the maximum subnets allowed would be only 8 subnets
(rule 2 in lesson 29). So, I must use 4 bits and the result is: 192.168.1.0/28
(192.168.1.0 255.255.255.240).
Question 2
Given the host address 192.168.1.177/29, what are the subnet and broadcast
addresses?
Answer 2
In order to determine the subnet and broadcast address of the subnet of this host
address, we must look at the length of the network mask first. It is 29 bits (24+5).
This tells us that the last byte of the address has 5 bits masked (subnet bits) and 3
bits unmasked (host bits). It is a good idea to look at the the last byte of the address
(177) with its network mask using binary notation. Pic. 5 below shows you this
clearly.
Pic.5 - 192.168.1.177/29 in Binary.
Since we must determine the the subnet in which the host resides (177 =
10110001), the host portion of the prefix (host bits reside in the last byte) must all
be set to '0'. The byte value with the host zeroed is the address of the subnet (rule 1
pkt.1 in lesson 29). This is the result:
The second part of the question relates to the broadcast address of the subnet. As
you remember, in order to obtain the broadcast address, you must put '1' on all host
bits of the subnet/network. The subnet has already been determined (pic. 6), so let's
put '1' on all bits of the host portion:
.10110111
.10110000 = 176 <- subnet address
..00000111 = 7 <- host bits set to '1'
In decimal it is: 176 + 7 = 183
The broadcast address is: 183.
The below picture illustrates it using binary numbers.
Pic. 7 - Host Bits Set to '1' = Broadcast Address.
Question 3
Given the prefix 172.16.0.0/17, how many subnets can you create?
Answer3
This is a bit tricky isn't it? In order to answer this question, you don't need any
calculator, paper or pen. You must trust the rule 2 in lesson 29. The address and its
network mask (called prefix) converted into binary look like presented below:
Pic. 8 - The Number of Subnets for 172.16.0.0/17
As you see the number of bits we have extended the class B address is: 1. So, the
number of subnets we can create with it is: 2 subnets, since this subnet bit can be
either 1 or 0.
Pic. 9 - Questions 3 Answer
Question 4
What length of network mask would be the most optimal for router's point-to-point
connection?
Answer 4
The key to this question is to understand that point-to-point connection needs only
2 host addresses (two points that are connected together). Knowing this, the rest is
a piece of cake. We use rule 3 in lesson 29 to determine the length of the network
mask that allows 2 host addresses. Check out the picture 10.
Pic. 10 - Calculating Point-to-Point Connection Host Addresses.
If you count ones above the optimal network mask for point-to-point connection is /
30. The decimal value is: 255.255.255.252.
Question 5 - Variable Length Subnet Masking (VLSM)
It's time for a big one. Given the topology (pic. 11), calculate IP addresses for each
subnet trying to optimize them according the host address requirements. The IP
address you should use to create subnets is: 192.168.1.0/24. The number of host
addresses in the subnets are as follows:
Subnet 1 = 46 host addresses
Subnet 2 = 16 host addresses
Subnet 3 = 10 host addresses
Subnet 4 = 2 host addresses
Subnet 5 = 2 host addresses