Mechanical testing and

microscopy

Types of mechanical testing

: (a) (Tension), (b)

(Compression), (c) (Indentation hardness), (d)
(Cantilever bending), (e) 3 (Three-point bending), (f) 4 (Four-point
bending) (g) (Torsion)

 (Universal testing machine)

Some examples of specimens before and after tensile testing and a

typical arrangement for threaded-end specimens are shown below.

( ) ()

Types of test specimens

3 : (a) , (b)
(Notched) (c) (Precracked)

A0
L0

Tensile test
Engineering stress = = F/A0 (MPa)
(1 Pa = 1 N/m2)
Engineering strain = = (l-l0)/l0

A unidirectional force is applied to a

specimen in the tensile test by means of the
moveable crosshead

Stress-strain curve for gray cast iron in

tension showing brittle behavior

2
=

1
=

0.002

Elastic properties
Modulus of elasticity (Youngs modulus) = E = / (GPa or psi)
This relation ship is Hookes law and can be seen from stressstrain curve (elastic region)

Schematic of the engineering stress-strain

curve of a typical ductile metal that
exhibits necking behavior

Engineering stress-strain curve and geometry

of deformation typical of some polymers

The stress-strain curve for an aluminium alloy

Comparison of the elastic behaviour of

steel and aluminium

Necking behaviour
Deformation in a tension test of a
ductile metal: (a) unstrained, (b)
after uniform elongation and (c)
during necking

Fractures from tension tests on (left) rotrolled AISI 1020 steel and (right) gray cast
iron

0.002

Engineering measures of energy capacity

Resilience (ur): the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it
is deformed elastically.
Toughness (uf): a measure of the ability of a material to absorb
energy up to fracture
Resilience
ur = p2/2E
In case that it is difficult to define
p, it can be used with the offset
yield strength replacing p (see
the picture)

Areas under engineering stress-strain curves

corresponding to resilience ur and tensile
toughness uf

ur = o2/2E

True stress and true strain

It is often not requiring true stress and true strain because when
the material exceed the yield strength, it deforms.
This leads to failure of component because it no longer has the
original intended shape.

True stress (t)

t = F/Ai
True stain (t)
t = ln (li/l0)
Fig. 20 The relationship between the
true stress-strain diagram and the
engineering stress-strain diagram

Engineering measures of ductility

Ductility: a measure of the amount of plastic deformation that a
material can withstand without breaking
There are two approaches to measure ductility.
% Elongation = (lf-l0)/l0 x 100
% Reduction in area = (A0-Af)/A0 x 100
where lf = the distance between gauge marks after the specimen
breaks
Af = the final cross-sectional area at the fracture surface

Standard test methods

ASTM
The American Society for
Testing and Materials
ISO
The International Organization
for Standardization
Publication
The Annual Book of ASTM
Standards

Some of the major ASTM standards

for basic mechanical tests

Trends of tensile behaviour for different materials

Tensile properties for some engineering metals

Mechanical properties for polymers at room temperature

Tensile properties for various SiC reinforcements in a 6061-T6 aluminum

matrix

Engineering stress-strain curves

tension tests on three steels

from

Engineering stress-strain curves from

tension tests on three aluminum alloys

Effect of temperature
Tensile properties depend on temperature.
Hot working (deformation of material at a high temperature takes
advantage of the higher ductility and lower required stress

The effect of temperature (a) on the stress-strain curve and (b) on the tensile
properties of an aluminium alloy

Effect of strain rate

Effect of strain rate on the ultimate tensile strength of copper for tests at various
temperatures

Compression test
A typical arrangement for a compression test is shown in the below figure.
Uniform displacement rates in compression are applied in a manner similar
to a tension test, except the direction of loading

Compression test in a universal testing machine using a

spherical-seated bearing block

Some examples of compression specimens of various materials both

before and after testing are shown as the following figures.

Compression specimens of metals (left to

right): untested specimen, and tested specimen
of gray cast iron, aluminum alloy 7075-T651,
and hot-rolled AISI 1020 steel

Untested and tested 150 mm diameter

compression specimens of concrete with
Hokie limestone aggregate

Trends in compressive behaviour

Initial portions of stress-strain curves

in tension and compression for 7075T651 aluminum

Stress-strain curves for plexiglass (acrylic,

PMMA) in both tension and compression

Hardness test
Brinell hardness test
The Brinell hardness number is defined
as HB and can be calculated as follows.
HB = 2P/[ D{D-(D2-d2)0.5}]
HB can also be found from table for
hardness values of materials
elsewhere.
Plastic deformation under a Brinell
hardness indenter

Vickers hardness test

The Vickers hardness number (HV) is defined as below.
HV = (2P/d2)sin(/2)

Vickers hardness indentation

Approximate relationship between UTS and Brinell

and Vickers hardness of carbon and alloy steels

Approximate relative hardness of various

metals and ceramics

Vickers hardness and bending strengths for some ceramics and glasses

Rockwell hardness test

The Rockwell hardness number (HV) is

defined as below.
HRX = M-(h/0.002)
Where h = h2-h1
M = the upper limit of the scale

Rockwell hardness indentation made by application

of (a) the minor load and (b) the major load, on a
diamond Brale indenter

Commonly used Rockwell hardness scales

Brinell and Rockwell hardness indentations

Hardness correlations and

conversions
u = 3.45 (HB)

MPa

where u = the ultimate tensile

strength

Approximate equivalent hardness numbers

and UTS for carbon and alloy steels

Impact test
The two most common tests are Charpy V-notch and Izod tests.

Specimens and loading configurations for (a) Charpy V-notch and (b) Izod tests

Broken Charpy specimens

Charpy testing machine, shown with

the pendulum in the raised position
prior to its release to impact a
specimen

Properties obtained from the impact test

Results from a series of Izod impact tests

for a supertough nylon thermoplastic
polymer

The Charpy V-notch properties fro a BCC

carbon steel and a FCC stainless steel.

Variation in Charpy V-notch impact energy

with temperature for normalized plain
carbon steels of various carbon contents

Temperature dependence of Charpy Vnotch impact resistance for different alloy

steels of similar carbon content all
quenched and tempered to HRC 34

Bending test
By applying the load at three points and causing bending, a tensile
force acts on the material opposite the midpoint. Fracture begins at this
location
Flexural strength (modulus of rupture)
Flexural strength = 3FL/2wh2

(a) The bend test often used for measuring the strength of brittle materials and (b) the
deflection () obtained by bending

Stress-deflection curve for MgO obtained from a bend test

Types of metallurgical etch

Flow lines
Flow lines caused by the concentration altering during the cooling
cycle results in banding where the different metal constituents
occur at different concentrations.

Flow line in forging highlighted after sectioning and etching

Microscope Basics
Standard required the following
real image formed at a tube length
of 160mm
the parfocal distance set to 45 mm
object to image distance set to 195
mm

Object to
Image
Distance
= 195 mm

Mechanical
tube length
= 160 mm

Focal length
of objective
= 45 mm

J.Paul Robinson
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The Conventional Microscope

Mechanical
tube length
= 160 mm

Focal length
of objective
= 45 mm

Object to
Image
Distance
= 195 mm

Upright Scope

Epiillumination
Source

Brightfield
Source

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Inverted Microscope

Brightfield
Source

Epiillumination
Source

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Typical inverted microscope

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An example of SEM

Scanning coils
In SEM the specimen is traversed by an electron beam.
Movement is achieved by scanning (raster) coils in the microscope
column controlled by a scan generator.
Primary beam is electronically deflected over a given area of the
specimen:

Raster Pattern of the primary electron beam is synchronised with

the scanning pattern of the cathode ray tube yielding a point-topoint translation.