Archives of Sexual Behavior, Vol. 20, No.

2, 1991

Psychopathology and Personality

Characteristics of Criminal Sexual Offenders
as a Function of Victim Age
Seth C. Kalichman, Ph.D. 1,2

The affective, personality and psychopathological characteristics of incalverated

adult sex offenders was studied. Subjects' were 144 men divided into three
groups based on the age of their victims: prepubescent children, postpubescent
adolescents, and adults. Results indicated significant differences between groups
in trait anxiety and anger, self-esteem, and 7 of13 M M P I scales. Results suggest
a linear relationship between victim age and psychopathology, with chiM
offenders displaying the greatest affective and thought disturbance. Adolescent
offenders scored between child and adult offenders" on most measures'. Results
are discussed in the context of theoretical explanations fbr sexual aggression
and treatment.
KEY WORDS: sex offenders; rapists; child molesters; deviant behavior; criminal personality.

INTRODUCTION

Sex offenders are a heterogeneous population whose psychological

characteristics are poorly understood (Erickson et al., 1987; Hall et al., 1986;
Levin and Stava, 1987). While several theories have been developed to explain the psychological makeup of sex offenders, they have primarily
been psychoanalytic in nature, based on clinical interviews, and difficult to

1University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina.

2Correspondence should be sent to: Psychology Department, Damen Hall, Loyola University
of Chicago, 6525 N. Sheridan Rd., Chicago, Illinois 60626.
187
0004-000219J/0400-0187506,5010 1991 Plcnunl PublishingCorporation

188

Kalichman

research (e.g., Groth, 1979; Groth and Birnbaum, 1978; Prentky et al., 1985).
Based on an extensive review of the literature, Finkelhor and Araji (1986)
have suggested a multifactorial model of pedophilia. This model
hypothesizes that men who sexually molest children are socially and
emotionally immature, and have poor social skills, low levels of self-esteem,
poor impulse control, and more signs of psychotic thinking (Araji and
Finkelhor, 1985; Finkelhor and Araji, 1986). Finkelhor and Araji (1986) suggested that the personality characteristics of sex offenders tend to be congruent with the developmental period of their victims. While Finkelhor and
Araji do not provide a description or explanation for sex offenders of adult
victims, their model of pedophilia implies that affective and personality differences can be found between child and adult sex offenders.
Few studies have examined sex offenders using psychological assessment instruments. However, some studies using the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) provide support for describing child
offenders as emotionally and socially immature. Child sex offenders frequently have high scores on scales Depression ( D ) , Paranoia (Pa),
Schizophrenia (Sc), and Social Introversion (Si) on the MMPI as compared
to sex offenders against adults (Levin and Stava, 1987). In addition, the
MMPI has been shown to make reliable distinctions among incarcerated
rapists (Kalichman, 1990). Although studies using the MMPI provide information about psychopathology, they are limited in their ability to
describe personality functioning (Butcher and Tellegen, 1978). Thus,
most of the studies using psychometric instruments fail to identify affective and personality characteristics of sex offenders independent of
psychopathology.
The present study investigates the psychopathological and psychological characteristics of sex offenders as they are differentiated by their
victim's age. Sex offenders are discussed in three groups formed on the
basis of their victim's age: prepubescent child offenders, offenders against
postpubescent adolescents, and offenders against women (Araji and Finkelhot, 1985). Based on previous research (Levin and Stava, 1987; Shealy,
1989) and Finkelhor and Araji's (1986) model, it is hypothesized that signs
of psychopathology will be greater in offenders of younger victims. Specifically, offenders with younger victims are expected to show higher levels of
emotional disturbance, psychotic thinking, social alienation, and social inadequacy. In addition, offenders of younger victims are expected to report
lower levels of self-esteem and less of a tendency to present themselves in
a socially desirable fashion.

Personality Characteristics of Sex Offenders

189

METHOD

Subjects and Procedures

The subjects were adult male criminal sex offenders incarcerated in

state prisons. Subjects were grouped on the basis of their victim's age into
three offender groups. The first group consisted of 54 men who assaulted
or molested children of prepubescent age, defined as 12 years and under
(Araji and Finkelhor, 1985; Levin and Stava, 1987). The second group
consisted of 42 men with postpubescent adolescent victims, between the
ages of 13 and 17 years. The third group included 48 offenders of adult
victims, 18 years of age and older. Subjects in each group had no previous
history of criminal Sexual offenses against victims of varying ages.
Demographic characteristics for each of the three groups are presented
in Table I.
Data were collected as a part of initial psychological evaluations for
a sex offender treatment program conducted within state prisons. Entry
into the treatment program was required for inmate advancement within
the corrections department programs. Psychological assessments were conducted prior to any treatment procedures. All the assessment instruments
were administered in groups of 10 to 15 subjects. Standardized audio tape
administration procedures were used with all subjects to control for
variability in reading level (Wolf et al., 1964).
Measures

Demographic Variables. Correction department files were used to obtain subject age, race, victim age, criminal history information, highest level
of education, and Revised Beta Examination IQ scores.
State-Trait Personality Inventory. The STPI is a 60-item empirically
derived self-report measure that yields six subscales: State and Trait
Anxiety, Anger, and Curiosity (Spielberger et al., 1979). The State scales
reflect the intensity of these emotions at the time of testing, while the Trait
scales measure an individual's propensity to experience these emotions
across a variety of situations. Only the Anxiety and Anger scales were used
in the present study. Spielberger et al. (1979) have demonstrated this
measure to be reliable and valid.
Self-Esteem Scale. The SES is a 20-item self-report inventory
developed to measure the self-perception of adults (Kalichman, 1988).

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Kalichman
Table I. Demographic Characteristics of the Sample

Demographics
Offender

Beta IQ

Education

SD

SD

SD

SD

W%

B%

Child
offenders

32

10.5

8.7

2.4

85

17

10

2.4

65

35

Adolescent
offenders

31.3

9.7

14.6

1.3

89

14

10.9

2.4

48

52

Adult
offenders

31.5

7.9

25.2

3.3

90

15

10.8

2.2

42

48

group

Age

Victim age

Race

Items were taken from the Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventory (1967) and
are endorsed as either "like me" or "unlike me," scored in the positive
self-esteem direction. Scores are summed to reflect an individual's tendency
to view himself or herself in a positive light. The SES has demonstrated
sufficient reliability with alpha coefficients of .74 and 2-week interval testretest reliability of .87. The SES has also shown convergent and divergent
validity with other measures of self-esteem and personality functioning
(Kalichman, 1988).
Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale. The MC-SDS was developed
to measure an individual's need for social approval (Crowne and Marlowe,
1960). The 33 true-false items are summed to yield a score reflecting the
endorsement of culturally approved attitudes and behaviors.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). Raw scores from
the three validity and 10 clinical scales of Form R were utilized for group
comparisons (Butcher and Tellegen, 1978), and K-corrected T scores were
used to present group profiles.

RESULTS
Preliminary analyses indicated that there were no significant differences between groups on any of the demographic variables, with the
exception of victim age. Because victim sex has been identified as a significant variable in child sex offenders (Hall et aL, 1986; Levin and Stava,
1987), preliminary analyses were conducted to investigate differences between child offenders with male (n = 13) and female (n = 41) victims.
Results indicated that there were no significant differences between subjects on any measure. All 54 child offenders were therefore combined

Personality Characteristics of Sex Offenders

191

for further analyses. All of the victims for the other two groups were
female.
A multivariate analysis of variance was conducted between the three
groups with the raw scores of the validity and clinical scales of the MMPI,
state and trait anxiety and anger, self-esteem, and social desirability scores
entered as dependent factors. Results indicated that the multivariate effect
reached statistical significance, F ( 3 8 , 236) = 1.48, p < 0.04. For the
MMPI, univariate tests of significance indicated that there were significant
differences on scales F, F (2, 141) = 5.2, p < 0.01, Hypochondriasis (Hs),
F (2, 141) = 4.8, p < 0.01, Hysteria (Hy), F (2, 141) = 3.4, p < 0.04, Pa,
F (2, 141) = 5.6, p < 0.01, Psychasthenia (Pt), F (2, 141) = 4.9, p < 0.01,
Sc, F ( 2 , 141) = 4.7, p < 0.01, and Si, F ( 2 , 141) = 6.2, p < 0.01. Also,
scale D approached significance, F ( 2 , 141) = 2.5, p < 0.08. For the
measures independent of the MMPI, univariate tests indicated significant
differences on the Trait Anxiety, F (2, 141) = 3.5, p < 0.05, Trait Anger,
F ( 2 , 141) = 6.1, p < 0.01, and Self-esteem scales, F ( 2 , 141) = 5.6,
p < 0.01.
Pairwise comparisons were conducted using Tukey's Honest Significant Difference (HSD) tests at the p < 0.05 level of significance.
Results indicated that child offenders scored significantly higher on scales
Hs, Hy, Pt, Sc, and Si than the adult offenders, and the adolescents offenders were not significantly different from either of the other two groups
on these scales. On scale F, the child offenders scored significantly higher
than the adolescent offenders while the adult offenders did not differ from
either group. Finally, the child offenders scored significantly higher than
both the adolescent and adult offenders on scale Pa and the latter two
groups did not differ from each other on this scale (see Table II). This
pattern of results suggests that offenders with younger victims evidence
greater degrees of psychopathology as reflected in the scales of the MMPI.
However, offenders against adolescents obtained scores on most scales that
fell between the child and adult offenders.
Tukey's HSD tests for the scales independent of the MMPI showed
a similar pattern of results. The child offenders were significantly higher
in trait anxiety and trait anger and lower in self-esteem than the adult offenders and the adolescent offenders were not different from either of
these groups (see Table III). Thus, converging with the MMPI, measures
of affectivity and self-esteem provide further support for the prediction that
sexual offenders against younger victims display greater degrees of emotional disturbance.
Figure 1 presents the mean K-corrected MMPI profiles for the three
offender groups. While group profiles obscure individual profiles and are
difficult to interpret (Butcher and Tellegen, 1978), they provide aggregate

Kalichman

192

Table II. Mean MMPI Raw Scores and Significant Differences for the
Three Offender Groupsa
Offender group
Child
(n = 54)
Scale
L
F
K
Hs
D
Hy
Pd
Mf
Pa
Pt
Sc
Ma
Si

X
5.1
11.4 a
11.8
9.6 a
22.4
21.2 a
23.5
25.4
14.9 a
17.9 a
22.7 a
20.5
31.1 a

SD
2.8
6.3
5.9
6.5
5.6
6.8
5.7
5.1
5.4
10.3
13.2
5.6
9.8

Adolescent
(n = 42)
X
5.2
8b
13.9
7
20.9
19.2
22.8
24.1
12.3 b
13.5
17.5
20
28.6

SD
2.1
6
5.1
5.3
4.7
5.4
5.4
4.1
4.6
8.9
11.8
5.7
8.2

Adult
(n = 48)
X
5.7
8.8
13.7
6.1 b
20.1
17.8 b
21.8
23.9
12b
12.4 b
15.8 b
20.5
24.9 b

SD
2.1
4.9
4.9
5.2
4.8
5.3
5.2
4.4
4.4
9.1
9.8
4.8
6.5

a Subscripts a and b represent significantly different groups p < 0.05.

information about the groups. In addition, Table IV presents the frequencies of K-corrected T scores over 70 on the MMPI for each group.

DISCUSSION

These results support descriptions of sex offenders that have been

based on clinical interviews and theoretical propositions. In concert with
Finkelhor and Araji's (1986) model of pedophila, the prepubescent child
molesters in this study demonstrated significantly more psychopathology,
emotional disturbance, and lower levels of self-esteem than the adult offenders. Offenders with postpubescent adolescent victims scored between
the child and adult offenders on most measures. These findings suggest a
somewhat linear relationship between victim age and psychological disturbance in criminal sexual offenders.
Results from the MMPI suggest that men who commit sexual offenses
may be differentiated psychologically when grouped on the basis of the
developmental period of their victims. The child offender group presented
higher scores than the adult offenders on 7 of the 13 scales of the MMPI,
and offenders of adolescents fell between these two groups on most scales.
The child offenders presented higher scores on two of the three scales of
the so-called "neurotic triad" (Hs and Hy), on three of the four scales on

Personality Characteristics of Sex Offenders

193

Table III. M e a n Scores and Significant Differences on the State-Trait Anxiety

and A n g e r Inventories, the Self-Esteem and Social Desirability Scales a
Offender group
Child
(n = 54)
Scale

Adolescent
(n = 42)

Adult
(n = 48)

SD

SD

SD

State anxiety

41.9

12.5

37.4

12.1

38,5

10.3

Trait anxiety

43.6 a

11.9

38.9

11.4

38,4 b

9.9

State anger

21

18.7

6.2

19.3

5.6

Trait anger

27.5 a

8.2

24.5

6.2

22.7 b

6.1

Self-esteem

13.1a

4.1

14.8

3.1

15.3 b

3.4

Social desirability

19.7

6.6

19.9

5.4

22.5

a Subscripts a and b represent significantly different groups p < 0.05.

the "psychotic tetrad" (Pa, Pt, and Sc) and scale Si (Graham, 1987). This
pattern of scores on the MMPI has been described as characteristic of
pedophiles (Meyer, 1989). High scores on scales Hs and Sc suggest significant difficulties in developing interpersonal relationships and the
experience of social alienation (Duckworth and Anderson, 1987; Meyer,
1983). Also, higher scores on scales Hy and Sc suggest consistent immaturity in a variety of behavior settings and the frequent experience of
unusual sexual ideations (Duckworth and Anderson, 1987; Meyer, 1989).
In addition, their higher scores on scales F, Pa, and Pt provide further
evidence that offenders of children experience higher levels of emotional
disturbance and psychopathology (Graham, 1987). Scores on scale Si indicate that child offenders are socially inadequate and that they find
themselves uncomfortable with others (Graham, 1987). Thus, offenders of
younger victims present themselves as more psychologically distressed than
offenders of adult victims, and adolescent offenders fall somewhere between the two.
The results observed on the affective and self-esteem measures
showed a similar pattern. While all of the groups were higher than normal
populations in trait anxiety, the child offender group was nearly 1 standard
deviation higher than normative samples (Spielberger et al., 1983). In addition, the child offender group was higher than the adult offender group
in trait anxiety. The child offenders also reported greater levels of trait
anger than adult offenders. In addition, the pattern of self-esteem scores
suggests that offenders of younger victims experience greater selfdegradation than offenders of older victims. Taken together, these results
show offenders of children to be more emotionally expressive, lacking in

194

Kalichman

Table IV. Frequencies of Scale Elevations Over T Scores of 70 for the

Three Offender Groups
Offender groups
Child
(n = 54)

Adolescent
(n = 42)

Adult
(n = 48)

Scale

L
F
K
Hs
D
Hy
Pd
Mf
Pa
Pt
Sc
Ma
Si

5
25
4
15
9
13
32
7
29
17
31
19
6

9
46
7
28
17
25
59
13
54
32
57
35
11

1
11
1
7
4
7
25
3
14
6
14
15
1

2
26
2
16
9
16
58
7
33
14
33
35
2

1
11
2
6
4
6
26
3
12
8
15
20
1

2
22
4
12
8
12
53
6
25
16
31
41
2

self-confidence, and more self-effacing than offenders of adults, with offenders of adolescents falling between child and adult offenders on each
of these characteristics.
The mean M M P I profile provides additional information about the
groups. Figure 1 shows that the three profile patterns track each other
closely. Thus, while the three groups appear quite similar in profile pattern,
they present a number of differences in scale elevations. Each group approximates the widely reported mean profile for sex offenders, the 4/8-8/4
profile pattern (Kalichman, 1990; Levin and Stava, 1987).
T a k e n together, these results suggest that offenders of children
present a different level of psychological disturbance than sexual offenders
against adults. The child offenders in this study appeared more emotionally
disturbed, immature, and distressed than their adult offender counterparts
who appeared more antisocial, sociopathic, and defensive. These data support Finkelhor and Araji's (1986) hypothesis that the personality of sex
offenders tends to be congruent with the developmental period of their
victims. Thus, it appears that offenders of children are more regressed in
their pathology whereas sexual offenders against adults are more emotionally r e s t r a i n e d a n d antisocial in their p a t h o l o g y . O f f e n d e r s against
adolescents also appear developmentally congruent with their victims,
showing pathology that is intermediate with respect to child and adult offenders.

Personality

Characteristics

195

of Sex Offenders

100--

0.-

@Child

.......

z~i~Ado]escen t

[ ] . . . . . . . ,~]Adult

0--

80-m

nq

>

7O
Z
-4
03
('3
O 60--

/ .~ . \

/.:

~ . ~

".'x\. /_.m. \ / / l

.... I',

rIq

40-

"I-

Ha

Hy

Pd

Mf

Pa

Pt

Sc

Ma

Si

groups.
= adult.

Solid

MMPI SCALES

Fig. l. Mean MMPI p r o f i l e s f o r t h e t h r e e o f f e n d e r

Broken

= adolescent;

Dotted

= child,

The differences observed in this study suggest that the offender

groups should be separated in treatment and that different treatment approaches should be implemented. For example, child offenders appear
more amenable to traditional psychotherapies. Also, offenders of younger
victims should be exposed to such programs as assertiveness and social
skills training (Meyer, 1983). In contrast, offenders of adults present a
less promising picture for treatment. Consistent signs of characterological
disturbance and excessive denial make most traditional psychotherapies
difficult to implement. The characteristics of these offenders suggest the
use of more direct and confrontive approaches. It is difficult to make
treatment suggestions for the offenders with adolescent victims. Because
their levels of pathology and psychological characteristics fell between
the other two groups with considerable consistency, it is possible that
adults who sexually victimize adolescents present a clinical picture that
combines moderate levels of psychological distress and sociopathy. Thus,
blending the approaches to treatment described above may be an effective approach.

196

Kalichman

The results also support the use of psychological tests in designing

and implementing treatment programs for sexual offenders. G r e a t e r levels
of psychopathology, as indicated on psychological tests, may be used to
index levels of psychological distress. Higher levels of distress may be indicative of greater levels of motivation to change. Although it is difficult
to induce motivation to change deviant sexual behaviors, offenders who
are motivated to change at the outset of treatment may represent better
treatment candidates. For example, offenders presenting higher levels of
psychopathology, across victim ages, may be better suited for traditional
models of psychotherapy.
T h e r e are several considerations that should be noted concerning the
present study. First, the lack of significant differences between groups on
the state affectivity and the social desirability measures suggests that reactivity to the assessment procedures and test-taking response sets may not
be differentiated among groups of sexual offenders. These results provide
evidence in support of the internal validity of this study. Second, the subjects were incarcerated criminal sex offenders. Therefore, caution should
b e taken in attempting to generalize these results to nonconvicted and
forensic hospital populations. Finally, while this study attempted to reduce
the heterogeneity of this population by grouping offenders on the basis of
victim age, other factors were not investigated, such as victim--offender
relationships, and psychosocial history. Future research with large samples
should investigate differences within the offender groups and further characterize this highly heterogeneous population.

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