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Notes
Department of Mineralogy, Earth Sciences Section, University of Geneva, 13 rue des Marachers, CH-1205 Geneva, Switzerland
Department of Geology, Trinity College Dublin, College Green, Dublin 2, Ireland
3
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Bergen, Allegaten 41, N 5007 Bergen, Norway
4
Institute of Mineralogy and Petrography, University of Lausanne, BFSH 2, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
2
ABSTRACT
The results of a coupled, in situ laser
ablationinductively coupled plasmamass
spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) U-Pb study on
zircon and geochemical characterization of
the Eastern Cordilleran intrusives of Peru
reveal 1.15 Ga of intermittent magmatism
along central Western Amazonia, the Earths
oldest active open continental margin. The
eastern Peruvian batholiths are volumetrically dominated by plutonism related to
the assembly and breakup of Pangea during the Paleozoic-Mesozoic transition. A
Carboniferous-Permian (340285 Ma) continental arc is identified along the regional
orogenic strike from the Ecuadorian border
(6S) to the inferred inboard extension of
the Arequipa-Antofalla terrane in southern
Peru (14S). Widespread crustal extension
and thinning, which affected western Gondwana throughout the Permian and Triassic
resulted in the intrusion of the late- to posttectonic La MercedSan Ramn-type anatectites dated between 275 and 220 Ma, while
the emplacement of the southern Cordillera
de Carabaya peraluminous granitoids in the
Late Triassic to Early Jurassic (220190 Ma)
represents, temporally and regionally, a separate tectonomagmatic event likely related to
resuturing of the Arequipa-Antofalla block.
Volcano-plutonic complexes and stocks associated with the onset of the present Andean
cycle define a compositionally bimodal
*Current address: Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue (54-1224), Cambridge,
Massachusetts 02139, USA.
E-mail: miskovic@mit.edu
INTRODUCTION
Whereas the Cretaceous to recent Andean
orogenic cycle is well characterized (e.g.,
Ramos and Aleman, 2000), our knowledge of
the early Phanerozoic and Proterozoic evolution of the Andes becomes increasingly fragmentary with age due to paucity of exposed
lithologies. The problem is less pronounced
along the Peruvian segment of the orogen
where a lacuna in the ubiquitous Cenozoic volcanic cover is interpreted to have resulted from
the flat-slab subduction of the Nazca ridge during the Neogene (Jaillard et al., 2000). Batholiths of the Eastern Cordillera of Peru straddle
the tectonic boundary between the Western
Amazonian tectonic provinces of San Ignacio
(1.571.24 Ga) and Sunss (1.190.92 Ga;
Cordani and Sato, 2000) and parautochthonous
to allochthonous crustal domains (1.91.8 Ga
Arequipa-Antofalla; 150 Ma Olmos-Amotape
terrane), thus providing a continuous record of
the nature and rate of crustal growth at a longlived cratonic margin. Despite its fortuitous
setting, however, the timing of magmatism in
the central Andes is relatively poorly understood with most of the geochronological work
to date relying heavily upon whole-rock Rb-Sr
and K-Ar techniques, both of which are known
to yield ambiguous dates due to low retention
temperatures and the possibility of isotopic
disturbance by subsequent thermal episodes
(Dodson, 1973). This is a particularly acute
problem in Peru when we consider ca. 150 Ma
of uninterrupted subduction during the last
Andean orogenic cycle (Benavides, 1999).
We use a combination of in situ U-Pb geochronology, major- and trace-element geochemical characterization of plutonic rocks along the
1400 km of the orogenic strike of the Eastern
GSA Bulletin; September/October 2009; v. 121; no. 9/10; p. 12981324; doi: 10.1130/B26488.1; 12 figures; 1 table; Data Repository item 2009052.
1298
Foreland
Huancabamba
deflection
Ventuari
Rio
Negro
o
60 Maroni
10o
or
i dg
e
Pacific
Ocean
600 km
F
Na
zc
aR
300
Co
20
di
San
Ignacio
I
-fo
rd
ld
ill
be
l
e t
l l Altiplano r a
e
ra
50 W
Central
Amazon
O-A
s
ru
th
n
ea rn
nd te
-A Eas
rn
ste
We
Morphogeological Units
70
ub
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
80o
Cordillera of Peru to construct a detailed chronologic framework, and identify tectonic regimes
that shaped the central proto-Andean margin of
Amazonia. By relating the secular changes in
magma composition to the tectonomagmatic
cycles of continental assembly and breakup
over the past 1.1 Ga along the western Rodinia
and Gondwanaland, we can holistically test the
current geodynamic scenarios for the evolution
of the Amazonian shield, with particular focus
on the poorly understood breakup of Rodinia
(Cordani et al., 2003; Loewy et al., 2003; Meert
and Torsvik, 2003; Fuck et al., 2008; Li et al.,
2008; Ramos, 2008).
Our data demonstrate the existence of a composite continental margin heavily dominated
by three distinct intrusive pulses related to the
assembly and breakup of Gondwana (middle
Carboniferous to Late Triassic), together with
volumetrically subordinate plutons emplaced
during the initiation of the modern Andean
cycle of subduction in the Early Jurassic. Plutonic remnants belonging to the early Paleozoic
Famatinian, middle Neoproterozoic Braziliano,
and the late Mesoproterozoic Sunss orogens
are located in south-central Peru and indicate
the presence of a periodically reworked latest
Mesoproterozoic crust, 200 km east of the confirmed limit of the Arequipa terrane and 225 km
from the present-day coast, making them the
westernmost exposures of the Amazonia craton
in South America.
Juruena
Sunss
Brazilides
Su
ns
s
So
Francisco
Puna
aulacogen
Arica bend
A-A
Phanerozoic platform
sediments
SP
Rio
de la
Plata
Atlantic
Ocean
Figure 1. Map of the central South American continent with the generalized major tectonic
provinces and ages of their most recent tectonothermal episodes. Black triangles representing volcanic centers of the Northern and Central Volcanic Zone are superimposed on the six
morphogeological belts of Peru. Modified after Tassinari and Macambira (1999), Cordani
and Sato (2000), and Loewy et al. (2004).
1299
AMOT
APE
80 S
O
78
76
74
72
70 W
OL
FORELAND
BALSAS
0
SITABAMBA
R
oM
WE
ara
ER
HUANUCO
ST
ru
Pe
CO
LIMA
12 S
SAN RAMON
TARMA
TICLIO
CARRIZALES
HUANCAYO
HUANCAVELICA
PARACAS
N
NI
S
BA
Tit
i
ca
Arequipa
id
ge
A-A TERRANE
Tarma
San Ramon
WESTERN CORDILLERA
YA
LIMBANI
TH
ca
BA
COASA
I
OL
TH
az
Lima
RA
LA
Cuzco
CA
ALTIPL
CO
10 km
PTP PAUCARTAMBO
Transform
CO
RD
. DE
ALLINCAPAC
QUEROBAMBA
(SUCRE)
Paleozoic basement
(Maraon phyllites, paraschists)
Neo/Mesoproterozoic granites
ABANCAY
DEFLECTION
SA
Permo-Triassic granodiorites/
S-type granites-monzogranitoids
Carbo-Permian rhyodacites/
I-type diorites - granitoids
Ordovician- Early Silurian granitoids
BRAZIL
ALTIPLANO
Sira
Anticline
ca
IA
h
nc
ER
e
Tr
ILL
CR. PASCO
LIV
ile
SIRA
OXA PAMPA
RD
Ch
10 S
400 km
300
200
WESTERN AMAZONIA
ga
lla
ua
Trujillo
100
BO
oH
Ri
PATAZ
B
Ucayali Basin
FORELAND
Figure 2. Geologic map of the Eastern Cordilleran plutonic belt of Peru illustrating the presently known extent of tectonic domains and
locations of the sampled intrusives. The upper Rio Maran of the northern Eastern Cordillera marks the inferred boundary between
Western Amazonia and craton-free zone underlying much of the coastal Western Cordillera (Haeberlin, 2002). The cratonic edge east
of the thickened Altiplano crust is suggested to lie along the Mitu Group (Gr.) basin (Sempere et al., 2002), while the eastern limit of the
Arequipa-Antofalla terrane is currently defined by 206Pb/ 204Pb isotopic contrast from the Neogene volcanic centers sampling the southern
Peruvian crust (Mamani et al., 2005). The E-W fault system subparallel to the Abancay deflection at the latitude of the Paracas Peninsula
(14S) bounds the AA terrane from the north. The NNE-striking tectonic lineament east of the Lancones basin in the NW coastal Peru
demarcates the extent of the Loja-Olmos terranes (Litherland et al., 1994). Geological cross section modified after Mgard (1967).
1300
phase of regional uplift in the Early Pennsylvanian, associated with the regional orogenic
type Au-Ag mineralization (Haeberlin, 2002).
Late Permian to Early Jurassic lithospheric
thinning in Peru and Bolivia resulted in emplacement of the central San RamonLa Merced-type
monzogranitoids, associated with localized migmatization (Soler, 1991). The plutonism predated
or was contemporaneous with synrift deposition
of calc-alkaline, Mitu Group bimodal volcanics
and continent-derived sediments in transcurrent
half grabens and pull-apart basins that opened
along the western margin of the orogen (Figs. 1
and 2; Sempere et al., 2002). The genetically
similar but younger pulse of Late Triassic,
syntectonic, peraluminous granitic plutonism
occurred in a localized transpressional setting
in the southern Cordillera de Carabaya, and was
broadly coeval with mantle-derived Mitu Group
alkali basalts and shoshonites of the Cuzco basin
(Kontak et al., 1985, 1990). With the onset of the
modern Andean tectonic regime, and renewed
easterly subduction of the protoPacific plate
below the western South American margin in the
Early Jurassic, the newly formed continental arc
developed along the present-day Coastal (Western) Cordillera, thus leaving the Eastern Cordillera in a backarc position, which consequently
affected both the volume and type of plutonism
during the past 150 Ma. Except for the easternmost porphyritic monzonite and granitoid
stocks of the Miocene metallogenic belt along
the central and northern Western Cordillera of
Peru (Noble and McKee, 1999), the inferred
Early Jurassic age for the peralkaline Allincapac
volcano-plutonic complex in the Cordillera de
Carabaya of southern Peru (Fig. 2; Kontak et al.,
1990) makes it the only volumetrically significant intrusive locality of the Andean cycle in the
Peruvian Eastern Cordillera. In summary, alternating passive margin sedimentation, volcanic
arcs and rift-related magmatism, including tectonothermal events associated with both strikeslip displacements and crustal shortening over
the past 1.0 Ga, has led to a composite magmatic
belt displaying complex lateral and along-strike
variations throughout the Peruvian cordilleras.
Previous Geochronology
A compilation of radiometric ages from
the Eastern Andes of Peru (Jacay et al., 1999)
reveals that the majority of the reported dates
are based either on whole-rock Rb-Sr and K-Ar
isotopic analyses of biotite and K-feldspar, or
U-Pb chronometry of bulk-zircon separates with
relatively few, high-precision, single-grain U-Pb
zircon or 40Ar/39Ar dates. Moreover, previous
work was mainly of local focus, and no attempts
were made at a regionally integrated survey. A
1301
tite, hornblende granodiorites, and minor granites. Fragmented diorite dikes and mafic magma
pulses intrude most of the granodioritic rocks
and occur together with abundant microgranular
enclaves as well as partially fused xenoliths of
the Maran Complex. There is widespread textural evidence supporting the coexistence and
mingling of compositionally contrasting magmas (Fig. 3A). Similar intrusive facies prevail
across the belt at 8S with the upper Huallaga
River granitoids exhibiting variable proportions
SAMPLING
Five orthogonal and three margin-parallel
sampling transects were conducted throughout the Eastern Cordillera of Peru between the
latitudes of 6S and 15S. Traverses varied in
length between 70 and 250 km and spanned the
total orogenic strike length of 1300 km (Fig. 2).
Northeastern Cordillera
The northern sector was surveyed along two
traverses covering: (1) the Balsas-Callangate
plutons (6S to 7S), and (2) the intrusive
belt between the Pataz Batholith, bounded
by the Maran River to the west and the Ro
Huallaga to the east, between 7S and 9S. The
Balsas, Callangate, and Pataz intrusive complexes are emplaced subparallel to a NNWtrending fault zone associated with the upper
Maran River valley and locally intrude the
Ordovician Maran biotite schists and phyllites,
Contaya Formation meta-arenites and Ordovician to Devonian Vijus metabasalts. The plutonic
rocks define a compositional spectrum from
medium- to coarse-grained, hornblende-bearing
diorites, through amphibole-rich tonalites into
volumetrically dominant, medium-grained bio-
1302
Figure 3. Field photographs illustrating the typical mineralogical and structural features of
the Eastern Peruvian intrusives; (A) mingling of microdioritic and granodioritic magmas
in the calc-alkaline Pataz Batholith (8S), (B) mineralogically monotonous monzogranite of
the San Ramon pluton (11S) cut by up to 1-m-thick aplite dikes, (C) a partially absorbed
metasedimentary xenolith (restite) in the area of high-grade migmatization along the Chanchumayo River segment of the San RamonLa Merced batholith, (D) medium-grained
Machu Picchu biotite granite (13S), (E) a close-up photograph of the Allincapac complex
nepheline syenite (13.5S) with arfvedsonite and biotite as the principal Fe-Mg phases,
(F) Coasa Batholith K-feldspar megacrystic leucogranites (14S) displaying the classic
horse tooth texture.
Southeastern Cordillera
RESULTS
Zircon Characterization
A total of 738 grains extracted from 60
intrusives were imaged and examined for
morphology and internal textures. Representative subsets were analyzed for trace-element
content and were dated by the U-Pb method.
Ages are shown in Table 1. The results of
individual U-Pb spot analyses are presented
1303
Sample
SCAM-04
SCAM-08
NAM-11a
SAM-21
SAM-20
Locality
ColcabambaHuancavelica
ColcabambaHuancavelica
Huayillas-Pataz
Chillacori-Puno
Chillacori-Puno
Common Pb
Pb loss
Moderate
Minor
12.5
Granodiorite
15
31.36
0.64
94
Minor
8.2
13.8
13.8
19
11
2
172.9
184.1
195
2.0
3.7
11
Minor
11
190.3
2.5
Minor
Ayapata-Carabaya
13.8
Quartz syenite
Nepheline syenite
Nepheline
monzosyenite
Granite
San Gabn
E. CoasaCarabaya
13.7
13.8
Granite
Monzodiorite
12
7
191.2
207.0
3.5
3.4
281
20
Minor
E. CoasaCarabaya
14.0
Monzodiorite
13
208.4
4.9
294
25
Minor
S. San Gabn
13.8
12
216.1
3.1
274
13
Minor
San Ramn
San Ramn
La Merced
11.3
11.3
11.2
11
17
8
223
265.5
250.0
12
7.3
5.9
279
268
21
12
Moderate
Strong
CAM-16
CAM-24
Satipo
Sacsacancha
11.0
11.5
13
10
256.3
260
4.8
18
309
Strong
Minor
CAM-33
CAM-35
CAM-39
Oxapampa
Oxapampa
Rio Huachn
10.7
10.8
10.7
13
17
9
238.0
246.8
227.4
3.6
4.6
3.8
351
25
Minor
Minor
Minor
CAM-45a
NAM-05
SCAM-01
SCAM-02
SCAM-22
CAM-19a
CAM-40
COCA
268
CAM-45c
SAM-08
CAM-10
Paucartambo-Pasco
SE Pataz
Ayacucho
Ayacucho
Ayacucho
Mariposa-Junin
Rio Huachn
C. CoasaCarabaya
10.7
8.1
13.3
13.0
13.4
11.4
10.7
14.0
Alkali feldspar
granite
Granite
Granite
Alkali feldspar
granite
Granite
Alkali feldspar
granite
Granite
Granite
Alkali feldspar
granite
Granite
Granite
Quartz monzonite
Granite
Granite
Granodiorite
Granodiorite
Granodiorite
13
7
6
21
7
19
18
5
258.4
244.5
243.4
217.8
238.4
254.5
260.9
227.7
4.4
3.3
6.7
3.5
4.9
4.2
4.2
5.6
288
289
291
7
35
Strong
Moderate
Moderate
Minor
Minor
Minor
Paucartambo-Pasco
Urubamba
San Ramn
10.7
13.3
11.3
CAM-41
COCA
362
COCA
362
COCA
358
SAM-17
SCAM-06
Rio Huachn
Limbani-Carabaya
COCA
302
SAM-22a
COCA
262
COCA
269
COCA
298
CAM-11a
CAM-12
CAM-15
CAM-03
CAM-26
CAM-30
CAM-49a
CAM-52
CAM-54
CAM-54
CAM-55b
CAM-57
NAM-02a
SAM-09
SAM-12a
CAM-04
CAM-04
AM-80
NAM-28a
CAM-44a
NAM-27a
NAM-30
NAM-18
NAM-22
1304
14
8
2
253.6
284.8
259.7
6.3
4.6
8.1
296
14
Minor
Strong
10.7
14.2
Tonalite
Quartz syenite
Alkali feldspar
granite
Granite
Granite
18
10
255.6
227.4
7.4
5.4
402
278
11
28
Minor
Limbani-Carabaya
14.2
Granite
468
23
Aricoma-Carabaya
14.1
Granite
227.4
4.2
245
12
Minor
Santa RosaPuno
ColcabambaHuancavelica
Parcamayo
13.3
12.4
Rhyolitic tuff
Granite
8
8
226
257.6
10
8.6
Strong
Minor
11.3
18
315.2
4.3
Moderate
Minor
Huancayo
Parihuanca
Huachn
Tingo Maria
Upper Rio Huallaga
valley
Upper Rio Huallaga
valley
Nuevo Progresso
Nuevo Progresso
SE Pataz
Urubamba
11.8
12.0
10.7
9.2
8.7
Alkali feldspar
granite
Granite
Granite
Granite
Granite
Granite
5
15
15
17
17
292
284
309.4
313.4
293.3
20
15
4.0
5.2
5.0
343
349
363
513
24
7
24
17
Strong
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Minor
8.7
Granite
934
26
8.6
8.5
8.1
13.3
16
10
12
5
316.7
304.5
301
291.5
5.9
7.2
5.2
5.8
497
351
23
8
Strong
Moderate
Machu Picchu
Parcamayo
Parcamayo
Central Pataz
San Vincente
Amazonas
Junin
Balsas
Golln-Callangate
West Balsas
East Balsas
13.2
11.3
11.3
7.8
7.0
Granite
Granite
Quartz monzonite
Alkali feldspar
granite
Granite
Granite
Granite
Monzogabbro
Tonalite
14
19
5
16
324.1
317.4
333.2
313.5
5.3
4.4
7.7
4.5
376
687
7
27
Minor
Moderate
10.8
7.0
7.2
6.9
6.8
Granodiorite
Granodiorite
Granodiorite
Granodiorite
Granodiorite
9
17
15
17
17
303.8
313.9
313
320.0
309.0
5.3
4.3
4.3
3.8
4.0
354
1303
35
Minor
Minor
(Continued )
granite
SAM-04a East Cusco batholith
13.2
Alkali feldspar
1110
26
Minor
granite
CAM-22
Carrizales
11.5
Quartz monzonite
16
752
21
1011
34
Moderate
Minor
CAM-23
Carrizales
11.5
Alkali feldspar
7
691
13
Minor
granite
SCAM-18 Querobamba-Sucre
13.9
Alkali feldspar
13
751.7
8.1
Minor
Minor
granite
CAM-17
Satipo
11.3
Tonalite
18
985
14
1149
17
CAM-17
Satipo
11.3
Tonalite
1226
18
CAM-18
Mariposa-Junin
11.4
Alkali feldspar
17
1071
23
1305
33
Minor
granite
CAM-18
Mariposa-Junin
11.4
Alkali feldspar
1668
28
Moderate
granite
SCAM-17 Querobamba-Sucre
14.0
Granite
8
1123
13
1200
38
Note: The concordia ages are calculated using the routines of Ludwig (2003) and following Th and U decay constants of Steiger and Jger (1977). See Figure 2 for
sample locations. LA-ICP-MSLaser ablationinductively coupled plasmamass spectrometry.
1305
AMOT
APE
80 S
O
78
OL320.0
N-18
N-27a
N-22
333.2 7.7
o
74
309.0 4.0
3.8
313.9 4.3
76
R
ar o
a
n
AM-4-80
N- 28a
N -30
313.5 4.5
313.0 4.3
244.5 3.3
N-5
304.5 7.2
Trujillo
N-2a
301.0 5.2 N-11a C55b
C-57
C-54
72
70 W
WESTERN
AMAZONIAN
TECTONIC
PROVINCES
293.3 5.0
Hu R
al io
la
ga
ru
Pe
172.9 2.0
316.7 5.9
313.4 5.2
100
200
300
400 km
C-52
ile
Ch
ch
en
Tr
SA
LA
CO
NI
BO
LIV
TH
LI
IA
HO
T
BA
Figure 4. Regional distribution of the intrusive ages along the Peruvian Eastern Cordillera with the errors presented as 2. Sample
name abbreviations: NNAM; CCAM; SCSCAM. Two Oligocene ages for SCAM-04 and SCAM-08 of 29.37 Ma and 31.36 Ma,
respectively, are not shown.
1306
Neoproterozoic
Aside from the parautochthonous ArequipaAntofalla basement rocks (Loewy et al., 2004),
concordant Precambrian ages have been recovered along the central segment of the protoAndean margin of Amazonia from two disparate
localities in the south-central Eastern Cordillera
of Peru. The emplacement of a quartz monzonite
(CAM-22) and alkali feldspar granites (CAM-23)
in the Carrizales and Querobamba (SCAM-18)
plutons has been constrained to 752 21,
Gondwanides
35
n = 476
278
Bin width: 20 Ma
Mean efficiency: 68.7 %
Frequency
30
25
20
Serra da
Nova Brasilndia /
Providncia /
Sunss belts
E. Braziliano /
PampeanLomas
(1.07 - 1.19 Ga)
Pan-African
Famatinian
Aguape belt
San Igncio Meneches
orogeny
orogeny
suite
(0.96-92 Ga)
orogeny
0.65 0.77 Ga)
(0.63-0.75
(0.44-0.53 Ga)
(Sunss orogeny) (1.32 -1.34 Ga) (1.52-1.57 /
1.66-1.69 Ga)
Andean
cycle
15
10
5
0
0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
206
16
B
n = 393
217
Bin width: 5 Ma
Mean efficiency: 33.5%
14
12
Frequency
Carbo-Permian Gondwanides
(Pangea assembly)
Permo-Triassic Gondwanides
(Pangea break-up)
10
Late Triassic
(Cordillera de Carabaya)
Early Jurassic
175
200
225
250
206
Pb/
275
300
325
350
238
U age (Ma)
Figure 5. Zircon 206Pb/ 238U age histograms summarizing the known intrusive episodes represented by the granitoids of the Eastern Cordillera of Peru; (A) cumulative
Mesoproterozoic-Oligocene diagram, (B) blow-up of the volumetrically most dominant plutonism of Gondwanide age (350160 Ma). Empty bins represent crystallization ages; black
boxes correspond to the ages of inherited zircons.
Late Mesoproterozoic
Closely associated with the Neoproterozoic
granitoids are partially foliated and compositionally more diverse late Mesoproterozoic
to earliest Neoproterozoic intrusives. These
include: (1) the Satipo tonalite (CAM-17),
which yields an age of 985 14 Ma, with a
strong inherited component between 1150 and
1250 Ma, (2) the Mariposa alkali feldspar granite (CAM-18) with a Mesoproterozoic age of
1071 23 Ma and exhibiting bimodal inheritance recorded by xenocrystic cores at 1305 Ma
and 1668 Ma, and (3) the Querobamba gran-
1307
SCAM-08
NAM-11a
100 m
100 m
ierror ellipses are 2
SAM-21
COCA-302
100 m
100 m
COCA-262
COCA-298
.
100 m
.F
100 m
100 m
Figure 6 (on this and following three pages). Chronologically arranged concordia diagrams for selected samples from the Figure 4. Dashed
lines correspond to the inherited zircon component. Cathodoluminescence (CL) images of zircon crystals illustrate the respective mineral
domains analyzed. MSWDMean square of weighted deviates.
1308
CAM-11a
CAM-33
50 m
100 m
NAM-05
CAM-35
.
50 m
100 m
CAM-40
CAM-45c
.
100 m
50 m
100 m
Figure 6 (continued).
1309
NAM-02a
CAM-54
CAM-03
NAM-30
.
100 m
100 m
50 m
NAM-18
SAM-12a
100 m
100 m
Figure 6 (continued).
1310
SAM-04a
CAM-23
50 m
100 m
100 m
ierror ellipses are 2
SCAM-18
CAM-17
100 m
100 m
CAM-18
SCAM-17
.
100 m
100 m
100 m
Figure 6 (continued).
1311
Modal Q (vol.%)
Oligocene (Andean)
E. Jurassic(N)
E. Jurassic (S)
L. Triassic
Granite
Permo-Triassic
Carbo-Permian
Granodiorite
Alk.-feldspar
Granite
Late Ordovician
Early Ordovician
Neoproterozoic
Mesoproterozoic
Modal A
(vol.%)
Neph.-bear
Alk.-feldspar
Syenite
Qtz. Syenite
Neph.-bear
Syenite
Qtz. Monzonite
Qtz.
Monzodiorite
Neph.-bear
Monzonite
Modal P
(vol.%)
Neph.
Monzosyenite
Nepheline
Syenite
Modal F (vol.%)
Figure 7. Modal composition of the Eastern Peruvian Cordilleran intrusives plotted on
the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) classification diagram (Streckeisen,
1974). Modal proportions were determined by staining 10 10 cm polished rock slabs
for K-feldspar and plagioclase with Amaranth (C20HllN2Na3OlOS3) and Na-cobalt nitrite
[Na3CO (NO2)6] respectively. Slabs were digitally scanned and an image processing software
JMicroVision created by Nicols Roduit was used for calculating the modal surface areas
that were projected into the ternary Qtz-Ab-Plag space.
periods, (3) Late Triassic syncollisional plutons and an Early Ordovician post-collisional
intrusive, and (4) Early Jurassic within-plate,
peralkaline plutons forming the cores of alkaline volcanic complexes, and usually located in
backarc settings. The metaluminous granite porphyries of the modern Andean orogenic cycle
that were emplaced in the Oligocene are magnesian and calcic, and exhibit cationic ratios that
overlap those associated with continental arc
settings (Fig. 10).
Trace-element data from the Eastern Peruvian intrusives broadly corroborate tectonic
regimes inferred from the major-element
chemistry. Although primarily dependent on
the sources and crystallization history of the
melt (Frost et al., 2001), trace-element compositions of granitoids have long been used
as first-order tectonic discriminators for granitoids (Harris et al., 1986; Barbarin, 1999).
The oceanic plagiogranite normalized, multi
trace-element plots (Pearce et al., 1984) for the
Peruvian granitoids reveal a lack of heavy rareearth element (HREE) fractionation characteristic of a garnet-dominated source, and display
an overall positive correlation between the
extent of the large-ion lithophile to high fieldstrength element enrichment (LILE/HREE)
1312
and known episodes of subduction-related magmatism (Fig. 11). Negative Nb-Ta anomalies
are observed in both the late Mesoproterozoic
plutons and within the Carboniferous-Permian
suite but are also mildly present in the Late
Ordovician and Oligocene intrusive rocks
(Figs. 11A, 11E, 11F, and 11H). In contrast,
the Permo-Triassic, Early Ordovician quartz
monzonite, and especially Neoproterozoic
(monzo)granitoids, exhibit strong Ba/Th and
Ba/Rb anomalies characteristic of anorogenic
magmatism, in addition to the lack of a typical high LILE/HFSE trace-element pattern
associated with subduction (Figs. 11D, 11F,
and 11G). However, such time-dependent
tectonomagmatic classification is somewhat
complicated by the regional variability within
coeval intrusive suites along the proto-Andean
margin. For example, uniformly elevated HFS
elements that are characteristic of rift- or
backarc-related plutonism displayed by the
southern, Early Jurassic, peralkaline nepheline
syenites are markedly different from a mild
subduction-zone, trace-element signature of
the contemporaneous quartz syenites from the
northern Pataz region (Fig. 11B). On a more
local scale, the early Mississippian, northern
Balsas-Callangate pluton shows consider-
1.0
A-type
Lachlan FB
Peraluminous
high-SiO2
granites
0.8
0.7
Ferroan
0.6
Cordilleran I-type
granitoids
0.5
S-type
Lachlan FB
Magnesian
0.4
12
A-type Lachlan FB
B
8
Na2O+K2OCaO
Fe # (FeO/FeO+MgO)
0.9
Increasing
f(H2O)
in source
Alkalic
lcic
Peraluminous
high-SiO2 granites
S-type
Lachlan FB
ca
ali-
Alk
0
Ca
lc-
a
alk
lin
-4
Calcic
Cordilleran I-type
granitoids
Oligocene (Andean)
Carbo-Permian
E.Jurassic(S)
Late Ordovician
E. Jurassic(N)
Early Ordovician
L. Triassic
Neoproterozoic
Permo-Triassic
Mesoproterozoic
-8
50
60
70
80
SiO2 (wt%)
ages of 1113 56 Ma and 1110 8 Ma; Rizzotto, 1999), and a Ro Pichari granulite-grade,
garnet-bearing charnockite from southeastern
Peru that yielded an upper intercept U-Pb zircon
age of 1140 30 Ma (Dalmayrac et al., 1988).
Taken together, the Peruvian Mesoproterozoic intrusives represent the northern extension
of the 1.100.92 Ga collisional Sunss province
1313
3.0
Excess H2O melting of mafic source /
melting (semi)pelitic source
2.5
Al/(Na+K)
Peraluminous
2.0
Metaluminous
1.5
1.0
Peralkaline
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.3
1.4
1.5
Figure 9. Aluminum saturation index (ASI) plot for the Eastern Cordillera plutons of Peru
(Maniar and Piccoli, 1989). Al/Na + K and Al/Ca + Na + K are defined as molecular ratios
and take into account the presence of apatite so that rocks with ASI>1.0 are corundum normative and are termed peraluminous (Zen, 1988). For weakly peraluminous rock additional
Al-bearing in addition to feldspars may be Al-biotite, but more strongly peraluminous granitoids are usually characterized by muscovite, magmatic cordierite, and garnet or Al2SiO5
polymorph, depending on pressure of formation. Intrusives with ASI<1.0 and Na + K<Al
are labeled metaluminous and contain excess Ca usually accommodated by hornblende and
Ca-rich augite but lack either muscovite or Fe-Mg pyroxene. Water-saturated partial melts
of a mafic source tend to be increasingly peraluminous with an increase in H2O content due
to feldspar destabilization (Ellis and Thompson, 1986). Peralkaline rocks have Na + K>Al,
which results in crystallization of leucite and nepheline, with the excess Na being accommodated in Fe-Mg silicates such as sodic amphiboles and jadeite. See Figures 7 and 8 for
the symbol key.
Neoproterozoic (pre-Braziliano)
Three middle Neoproterozoic A-type quartz
monzonite and alkali feldspar granites from
this study are the first identified outcrops of
Neoproterozoic granitoid plutonism along the
western margin of ancestral Amazonia. The
752691 Ma, mostly metaluminous, alkalic to
alkali-calcic, K-feldspar-bearing granitoids are
found in spatially distinct localities proximal to
the Sunss-age plutonic rocks (Fig. 4), and exhibit
high LILE and HFSE abundances characteristic
of anorogenic, A-type plutonism (Bonin, 2007;
Figs. 10 and 11). Other intrusives of similar ages
have been identified in the northern segment
of the parautochthonous Arequipa-Antofalla
terrane of southern Peru, where zircons from
syntectonic dacitic dikes that cut the gneissic
basement yield lower concordia intercepts at
635 5 Ma (Loewy et al., 2004). Middle Neo-
1314
1500
Continental arc
Post-collisional
uplift
1000
Peralkaline
intrusives
Late orogenic
500
Anorogenic
Post-orogenic
0
0
1000
2000
3000
R1 = 4Si 11[Na+K] 2[Fe+Ti] (millications)
Figure 10. Geotectonic discrimination plot for the Peruvian Eastern Cordilleran granitoid
rocks based on de la Roche et al. (1980) multicationic R1R2 diagram (after Batchelor and
Bowden, 1985). Symbols are the same as those in Figures 7, 8, and 9.
1988). The resuturing of Paracas-ArequipaAntofalla terrane closed the marginal basin that
hosted the pre-Famatinian Old Maran sediments of Chew et al. (2007), and resulted in the
emplacement of peridotite lenses as thrust slices
within thermally overprinted Maran metasediments (Haeberlin, 2002). To the south, the
original west Gondwana (passive) metasedimentary sequences inboard of the present
Arequipa terrane are probably only preserved
as thrust slices flanking the inverted Triassic rift
from Ayacucho to the northern Bolivian border.
Following the collision, a new continental arc
would have been established upon the mature
and thickened Paracas-Arequipa-Antofalla crust
at ca. 473464 Ma, in response to westward
jumping of the subduction zone over the newly
accreted block (Fig. 12D). Granitoids intruded
into the western margin of Famatina, in response
to subduction of the intervening Iapetus oceanic
lithosphere during the approach of the Cuyania
terrane farther south (Ramos, 2004), correspond
to arc-derived granites of the San Nicols batholith emplaced along the coastal Arequipa block
and would have likely extended northward
along the suspect Paracas terrane. We suggest
that a major shift in plate motions that produced
a rapid northward drift and clockwise rotation
of the Antofalla segment during the Middle
Ordovician (>12 cm/a; Forsythe et al., 1993),
effectively ceased arc activity, and impinged
the Paracas-Arequipa-Antofalla block upon the
south Eastern Cordillera due to the shape of
the Arica orocline. The resultant detachment
of the Oaxaquia terrane left behind the (Paracas)
mafic and isotopically primitive lower crustal
substrate that has been modeled by Couch et al.
(1981) and Polliand et al. (2005) as 3.0 g/cm3
dense basaltic underplate. The northeastward
transport might have occurred along a strikeslip fault system that is represented by the
600-km-long Ro Maran crustal lineament
(Fig. 12E). The present-day location of Paracas
terrane as the Oaxaquia-Acatln microcontinent in Mexico is suggested on the basis of the
early Paleozoic faunal and paleomagnetic correlations with Gondwanan of NW Argentina
(Snchez Zavala et al., 1999; Keppie et al., 2008).
The 20 Ma magmatic gap in the Late Ordovician was characterized by turbiditic sedimentation within newly formed depocenters that were
underlain by isotopically juvenile lower crust,
both north of the Arequipa (Contaya Formation, Dalmayrac et al., 1980; Young Maran;
Chew et al., 2007), and behind the rotated Antofalla block (Puna turbidites; Bahlburg and Herv,
1997). In the terminal phase of the Maran
orogeny, and following a reversal in subduction
vectors, the trench stepped in to the modern-day
position along the Peruvian coastline and the
1315
100
.A
Oligocene
(Andean)
.B
E. Jurassic
Cordill. Carabaya (south)
Pataz (north)
10
0.1
.C
100
Late Triassic
.D
Permo-Triassic
10
0.1
100
.E
Carbo-Permian
.F
Balsas-Callangate (north)
Late Ordovician
Early Ordovician
10
0.1
100
.G
Neoproterozoic
.H
L. Mesoproterozoic
10
0.1
K RbBa Th Ta Nb Ce P Hf Zr SmTi Y Yb K RbBa Th Ta Nb Ce P Hf Zr SmTi Y Yb
Figure 11. Ocean-ridge, granite normalized, selected trace-element patterns for the Eastern Peruvian
Cordillera intrusives through time. Normalizing values taken from Pearce et al. (1984).
1316
1317
.A
.B
L. Mesoproterozoic
(1.001.15 Ga)
Baltica
PAA
RN
nvil
Gre
W.
Africa
SU
?
?
Late Cambrian
(485500 Ma)
Iapetus
Ocean
W.
Africa
SL
AM
RN
.C
Neoproterozoic
(0.570.77 Ga)
SL
SF
SU
PAA
RP
le
Laurentia
AM
Laurentia
Baltica
Vijus
arc
Iapetus
Ocean
RN
SU
PAA
Laurentia
eanas
Pamp
Congo
Proto-Iapetus
Ocean
SF
.E
Middle Ordovician
(465480 Ma)
E. Iapetus
Ocean
Av
alo
Rheic nia
Pacococha/
Balsas
AM
BR SF
YM A SU
-A
OM
ia.a
atin
rc
Sedimentary platforms
Ophiolitic lenses
AM CENTRAL AMAZONIA
Magmatism arc/rift-extension
BR BRASILLIANO PROV.
C CHILENIA
F FAMATINIA
(MARONI,VENTUARI)
Plate vector
SU
AA
BR SF
BR SF
RP
SL
RP
PC
AM
RN
Panthalassic
Ocean
SL
AM
RN
Panthalassic
Ocean
RP
L. OrdovicianSilurian
(420445 Ma)
Sitabamba
Paracas
Contaya
turbidites
OM
am
A
-F
PA icolas
n
Sa
PC
E. Rheic Ocean
Maran
lineament
SL
SU
.F
Late Ordovician
(450460 Ma)
Ocean
RN
W. Iapetus
Ocean
RP
Congo
.D
BR SF
OM
RP
SL
AM
C
PC
OM
P
PAA
PC
PT
OLD MARAN
PAMPIA
PARACAS-AREQUIPA
PRECORDILLERA
PATAGONIA
RN
RP
SF
SL
SU
Figure 12 (on this and following page). Schematic cartoon of the tectonic evolution of the present-day western proto-margin of the Amazonian craton. Boundaries of autochthonous tectonic provinces modified after Cordani and Sato (2000) and Tassinari et al. (2000). Dashed
areas encompass non-Gondwanan domains. Sequence of tectonic events for Mesoproterozoic are adopted and modified after Hoffman
(1991), Ramos and Aleman (2000), and Ramos (2008).
1318
a deep-sourced, garnet-bearing, residual mineralogy (Sm/Yb <2.5; Fig. 11), (3) decreasing Sr concentrations and larger Eu anomalies
(Eu/Eu* = 0.710.08) with increasing SiO2 content, combined with a lack of middle rare-earth
element (MREE) depletions (i.e., amphibole-
.G
.H
Mississippian
(320345 Ma)
Ophiolitic lenses
Pennsylvanian
(310315 Ma)
Magmatism arc/rift-extension
Plate vector
N. America
A-
SU
A
Rheic
Ocean
BR SF
c
du
ub
RP
PC
RP
Africa
Panthalassic C
Ocean
PT
.J
PermianTriassic
(225280 Ma)
Africa
SL
RN AM
Euramerica
.K
SL
RN AM
SU
BR SF
BR SF
ar
RP
C
PT
A-A
Fm
PC
PaleoPacific
Ocean
SU
e
at
South
Africa
SL
RN AM
ol
RP
C. A
tla
Oce ntic
an
oc
PT
EarlyMid. Jurassic
(160180 Ma)
Allincapac
A-A
Africa
Carabaya
anatexis
BR SF
A
-A
C
Panthalassic
Ocean
L. TriassicE. Jurassic
(190220 Ma)
BRASILLIANO PROV.
CHILENIA
FAMATINIA
OLD MARAN
PAMPIA
PARACAS-AREQUIPA
PRECORDILLERA
PATAGONIA
RIO NEGRO PROV.
RIO DE LA PLATA
SO FRANCISCO
SO LUIS
Ch
SU
N S slab
roll-back &
break off
BR
C
Iberia
F
OM
P
PAA
PC
PT
RN
RP
SF
SL
SU
Euramerica
Euramerica
Mitu Gr.
PC
PT
.I
BR SF
AA
n
tio
(MARONI,VENTUARI)
SL
AM
SU
s
at
Fl
AM CENTRAL AMAZONIA
Africa
RN
Panthalassic
Ocean
Sedimentary platforms
Ouachita Alleg
SL
AM
RN
ian
n
he
P
South
Africa
Pacific
Ocean
PT
PC
RP
South
Africa
PC
Figure 12 (continued).
1319
1320
disappeared in the Middle Triassic when rifting eventually tapped the lower crustal magma
sources and gave rise to the bimodal Mitu Group
volcanics. The terminal phase of Mesozoic tectonism between 220 Ma and 190 Ma was characterized by thermal subsidence and formation of
the post-rift Pucar Group limestones landward
of the Cusco-Puno Swell (Rosas et al., 2007),
together with the anatexis of the preheated and
fertile uppermost crust beneath the Cordillera de
Carabaya (Fig. 12J). The reduced Nb-Ta anomalies of the Late Triassic granites relative to their
Early Permian protoliths, yet largely overlapping
Sr-Nd isotope systematics, are consistent with
melting of an upper crustal, arc-derived igneous
protolith contaminated by a substantial metasedimentary component (Mikovi et al., 2007).
The systematic pattern of plotting inside the
field of within-plate granites and post-tectonic
granitoids on the genetic classification diagrams
of Pearce et al. (1984) and Harris et al. (1986),
respectively, further suggests a late orogenic to
anorogenic granitoid suite (Fig. 10).
Jurassic to Miocene (Andean)
The transition to compressional tectonism
along the western South American margin most
likely occurred as a consequence of its westward
drift away from the locus of the Karoo plume,
recorded by progressively younging, silicic magmatic episodes in NE Patagonia (188187 Ma),
the northern Antarctic peninsula (172162 Ma),
and western Patagonia (157153 Ma; Pankhurst
et al., 2000). It heralded the ultimate dispersal
of Gondwana in the Cretaceous and was followed by the establishment of a continental
arc that has intermittently characterized the
modern Andean orogeny for the past 180 Ma.
Evidence for renewed Jurassic magmatic activity along coastal Peru comes from the southern ca. 177 Ma Chala basalts (Romeuf et al.,
1995), and fossiliferous volcano-carbonates of
the Pelado Formation (190170 Ma; Roperch
and Carlier, 1992). Our age data indicate that
backarc intrusives were emplaced in both the
northern Pataz area (NAM-11a) and the southern Allincapac province (SAM-21; Figs. 2 and
12K). Although coeval and confined to the
same segment of the arc architecture, the Early
to Middle Jurassic plutons clearly illustrate
dramatic differences in the composition of the
post-Triassic crust below the Peruvian Eastern Cordillera (Figs. 7, 8, and 11). The highly
HFSE-enriched, SiO2-undersaturated magmas
of the Allincapac complex probably formed by
small degrees of partial melting of the shallowest asthenospheric mantle below the thinned
Mitu basin crust, and markedly contrast not only
with the coeval Huayillas quartz monzonites at
Samples from the central Coasa, Aricoma, Limbani, and the southernmost Limacpampa plutons
were generously donated by Dr. Daniel Kontak and
Professor Allan Clark of Queens University, Canada.
Victor Carlotto and Jos Machar of the Peruvian
National Institute of Geology, Mines and Metallurgy
(INGEMMET) are thanked for the logistical support
and expertise in the field. We are particularly thankful to Ing. Seijas and Ing. Santillana of the Compaa
(CIA) Minera Poderosa for their continual logistical
support during the 20042006 field seasons. Massimo
Chiaradia provided many useful comments and advice
on granitoid petrology that helped focus and clarify
the ideas presented. This research was supported by
the Fonds Nationale Suisse de la Recherch Scientifiques (FNS) grant awarded to Urs Schaltegger.
APPENDIX
Zircons were extracted from 58 selected samples
ranging in weight between 1 and 5 kg following the
conventional mineral separation procedures using
gravimetric and magnetic methods including Wilfley
table (sub-300 micron, densest mineral concentrate),
heavy-liquid separation (diiodomethane; >3.32 g/cm2)
and Frantz magnetic separation (>1 A). Nonmagnetic,
euhedral and inclusion-free grains between 50 and
200 m in length were handpicked, and a representative set of 20 grains per sample was mounted in 1-cmthick epoxy blocks. These zircons were ground and
polished to reveal internal surfaces. They were subsequently carbon coated and imaged at the University
of Lausanne scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
facility using the CamScan MV 2300 scanning electron microanalyzer in the CL mode under the operating conditions of 15 kV of accelerating potential and
1520 nA beam current. Prior to isotopic analyses,
the sample mounts were ultrasonically cleansed in a
5 vol% HNO3 solution for 30 min and wiped clean.
LA-ICP-MS U-Pb Analytical Technique
U-Pb dating of zircons was conducted using a
Thermo-Finnigan Element2 sector field ICP-MS
coupled to a New Wave UP-213 Nd YAG laser at Bergen University following the procedure of Koler et al.
(2002). The sample introduction system was modified
to enable simultaneous nebulization of a tracer solution and laser ablation of the solid sample (Horn et al.,
2000). Natural Tl (205Tl/203Tl = 2.3871; Dunstan
et al., 1980), 209Bi and enriched 233U and 237Np (>99%)
were used in the tracer solution, and aspirated to the
plasma in an Ar-He gas mixture through an Apex
desolvation nebulizer and a T-piece tube attached to
the back of the plasma torch. Helium, as the sample
carrier gas, was fed to plasma via the T-piece tube
by a separate line. The laser was operated at a repetition rate of 10 Hz and constant beam diameter of
20 m resulting in an energy density of ~5.56 J/cm2.
An automated stage was used to produce a 100 m
linear raster. Typical acquisitions consisted of a 30 s
measurement of reference gas blank analytes (203Tl,
205
Tl, 209Bi, 233U, and 237Np), followed by a 150 s long
measurement of U and Pb signals from zircon along
with the continuous signal from the aspirated solution. The data were acquired in time-resolved, peakjumping, pulse-counting mode with 1 point measured
per peak for atomic masses of 202 (fly back), 203 and
205 (Tl), 206 and 207 (Pb), 209 (Bi), 233 (U), 237
(Np), 238 (U), 249 (233U oxide), 253 (237Np oxide), and
254 (238U oxide). Analyses of zircon reference material
91500 (1065 Ma; Wiedenbeck et al., 1995) systematically bracketed every 15 zircon unknowns. Raw data
were corrected for dead time of the electron multiplier
and processed off line in a spreadsheet-based program
(LAMDATE; Koler et al., 2002). Concordia diagrams were generated by the Microsoft Excelbased
tool, Isoplot version 3.41 (Ludwig, 2003). Data reduction included correction for gas blank, laser-induced
elemental fractionation of Pb and U, and instrument
mass bias (Koler and Sylvester, 2003). Formation
of oxides of U and Np was corrected by adding signal intensities at masses 249, 253, and 254 to the
intensities at masses 233, 237, and 238, respectively.
Although no common Pb correction was applied to
the data, great care was taken during the integration
of time-resolved signals in LAMDATE, and only the
most stable segments were selected, therefore largely
reducing the effect of 204Pb and Pb loss on the age calculation (Jackson et al., 2004). Furthermore, a graphical approach was employed whereby all data points
plotting to the right of apparent common Pb discordia
arrays in Tera-Wasserburg diagrams were interpreted
as having lost radiogenic Pb and were rejected (<3%
of the total of 770 analyses).
Bulk-Rock, Trace-Element Geochemistry
Selected minor- and trace-element concentrations were determined by X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
on pressed powder pellets using a Phillips PW 2400
sequential spectrometer equipped with a rhodium tube
at the University of Lausanne, Switzerland. A protocol developed by J. Michael Rhodes (University of
Massachusetts, USA) and based on modified procedures of Norrish and Chappel (1967) and Reynolds
(1967) was used for correction of nonlinear background, inter-element interferences, and variations in
mass absorption ( coefficients and/or Compton scatter). The trace-element accuracy by the XRF method
is 5%. Fragments of the Li2B4O7 diluted and fused
glass disks were analyzed for additional trace elements by laser ablationinductively coupled plasma
mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) at the University of
Lausanne. The assembly consisted of a Perkin-Elmer
ELAN 6100 quadrupole ICP mass spectrometer
equipped with a dynamic reaction cell and coupled
to a Lambda Physik 193 nm EXCIMER (ArF) laser
that was fired at a frequency of 10 Hz delivering beam
energies between 140 and 200 mJ. The trace-element
data were acquired by averaging three 80120 m
analyses per disk (sample) over time intervals of 40
50 s on the peak transient signal and were repeatedly
normalized to the National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST) standard reference material
(SRM) 612 standard glass. Off-line data reduction of
time-resolved signals was performed on a Lotus 123
macrobased spreadsheet package (LAMTRACE)
written by Simon Jackson of Macquarie University,
Australia. The LA-ICP-MS REE data are accurate to
within 1% (La) or 6% (Lu) on the basis of duplicate analyses. We have chosen to use Y, Zr, Nb, Sr, Rb,
Ni, Cr, V, Ga, Co, and Sc obtained by XRF, and the
ICP-MS values for Ba, Ta, Hf, Cs, REE, Pb, Th, and U.
LA-ICP-MS Zircon Geochemistry
The selected trace-element (Sc, Ti, Rb, Sr, Y, Nb,
Ba, Hf, Ta, Pb, Th, and U) and REE contents of previously dated zircon domains were also analyzed
by the LA-ICP-MS technique at the University of
Lausanne. We modified the protocol used to acquire
trace-element data from fused disks by lowering the
repetition rate and energy output to 5 Hz and 120 mJ,
1321
1322
1323
1324
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