Biotechnology

May 2003 (revised)

BIO-3

Use of Biotechnology in Agriculture

Benefits and Risks
AniaWieczorek
DepartmentofTropicalPlantandSoilSciences
Many other terms are in popular use to
describetheseaspectsoftodaysbiotechnology.
The term genetically modified organism or
What is biotechnology,
GMO is widely used, although genetic
and how is it used in agriculture?
modificationhasbeenaroundforhundredsif
Biotechnology isthe applicationofscientific
techniques to modify and improve plants,
animals,andmicroorganismstoenhancetheir
value. Agriculturalbiotech nology isthearea
of biotechnology involving applica tions to
agriculture. Agricultural biotechnology has
beenpracticedforalongtime,aspeoplehave
sought to im prove agriculturally important
organisms by selection and breeding. An
example of traditional agricultural bio
technology is the development of disease
resistant wheat varieties by crossbreeding
differentwheattypesuntilthedesireddisease
resistance was present in a resulting new
variety.
In the 1970s, advances in the field of
molecularbiol ogyprovidedscientistswiththe
ability to manipulate DNAthe chemical
buildingblocksthatspecifythechar acteristics
oflivingorganismsatthemolecularlevel.This
technologyiscalled geneticengineering.Italso
allowstransferofDNAbetweenmoredistantly
related or ganisms than was possible with
traditional breeding tech niques. Today, this
technologyhasreachedastagewherescientists
cantakeoneormorespecificgenesfromnearly
any organism, including plants, animals,
bacteria,orvi ruses,andintroducethosegenes
into another organism. An organism that has
been transformed using genetic engineering
techniques is referred to as a transgenic or
ganism,orageneticallyengineeredorganism.

notthousandsofyears,sincedeliberatecrosses
ofonevarietyorbreedwithanotherresultin
offspring that are genetically modified
compared to the parents. Similarly, foods
derived from transgenic plants have been
called GMO foods, GMPs (genetically
modified products), and biotech foods.
While some refer to foods devel oped from
genetic engineering technology as biotech
nologyenhanced foods, others call them
frankenfoods.Forthereasonsdiscussedlater
inthispublication,controversyaffectsvarious
issues related to the growing of genetically
engineered organisms and their use as foods
andfeeds.

How does genetic engineering

differ from traditional
biotechnology?

Intraditionalbreeding,crossesaremadeina
relatively uncontrolled manner. The breeder
choosestheparentstocross,butatthegenetic
level,theresultsareunpredictable.DNAfrom
the parents recombines randomly, and
desirable traits such as pest resistance are
bundledwithundesirabletraits,suchaslower
yieldorpoorquality.
Traditional breeding programs are time
consumingandlaborintensive.Agreatdealof
effortisrequiredtoseparateundesirablefrom
desirable traits, and this is not always
economically practical. For example, plants
must be backcrossed again and again over
many growing seasons to breed out
undesirable characteristics produced by
randommixingofgenomes.
Current genetic engineering techniques
allowsegmentsofDNAthatcodegenesfora
specific character istic to be selected and
individuallyrecombinedintheneworganism.
Oncethecodeofthegenethatdeter

Published by the College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources (CTAHR) and issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension
work, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Andrew G. Hashimoto, Director/Dean,
Cooperative Extension Service/CTAHR, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822. An Equal Opportunity / Affirmative
Action Institution providing programs and services to the people of Hawaii without regard to race, sex, age, religion, color, national
origin, ancestry, disability, marital status, arrest and court record, sexual orientation, or veteran status. CTAHR publications can be
found on the Web site <http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu> or ordered by calling 808-956-7046 or sending e-mail to ctahrpub@hawaii.edu.

BIO- 3

Use of Biotechnology in AgricultureBenefits and Risks

minesthedesirabletraitisidentified,itcanbeselected
andtransferred.Similarly,genesthatcodeforunwanted
traitscanberemoved.Throughthistechnology,changes
inadesirablevarietymaybeachievedmorerapidlythan
withtraditionalbreedingtechniques.Thepresenceofthe
desiredgenecontrollingthetraitcanbetestedforatany
stageofgrowth,suchasinsmallseedlingsinagreen
housetray.Theprecisionandversatilityoftodaysbio
technology enable improvements in food quality and
productiontotakeplacemorerapidlythanwhenusing
traditionalbreeding.

Transgenic crops on the U.S. market

Althoughgeneticallyengineeredorganismsinagricul
turehavebeenavailableforonly10years,theircom
mercial use has expanded rapidly. Recent estimates
arethatmorethan6070percentoffoodproductson
storeshelvesmaycontainatleastasmallquantityof
cropsproducedwiththesenewtechniques.
Majorcropplantsproducedbygeneticengineering
techniqueshavebeensowelcomedbyfarmersthatcur
rentlyathirdofthecornandaboutthreequartersofthe
soybeanandcottongrownintheUSAarevarietiesde
veloped through genetic engineering (see http://usda.
mannlib.cornell.edu/reports/nassr/field/pcpbbp/
pspl0302.pdf). Twelve transgenic crops (corn, tomato,
soybean,cotton,potato,rapeseed[canola],squash,beets,
papaya,rice,flax,andchicory)havebeenapprovedfor
commercial production in the USA. The most widely
grownareBtcornandcottonandglyphosateresistant
soybeans. Bt corn and cotton have had DNA from a
naturally occurring insecticidal organism, Bacillus
thuringiensis, incorporated into their genome; it kills
someofthemostseriousinsectpestsofthesecrops(Eu
ropean and southwestern corn borers, and cotton bud
worms and bollworms) after they feed on the plant,
whilebeneficialinsectsareleftunaffected.Glyphosate
resistantsoybeansareunharmedbythebroadspectrum
her bicide glyphosate, a characteristic that allows
farmers to kill yieldreducing weeds in soybean fields
withoutharmingthecrop.

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What are the benefits of genetic

engineering in agriculture?
Everythinginlifehasitsbenefitsandrisks,andgenetic
engineeringisnoexception.Muchhasbeensaidabout
potentialrisksofgeneticengineeringtechnology,butso
far there is little evidence from scientific studies that
these risks are real. Transgenic organisms can offer a
rangeofbenefitsaboveandbeyondthosethatemerged
from innovations in traditional agricultural biotechnol
ogy.Followingareafewexamplesofbenefitsresulting
from applying currently available genetic engineering
techniquestoagriculturalbiotechnology.
Increased crop productivity

Biotechnologyhashelpedtoincreasecropproductivity
byintroducingsuchqualitiesasdiseaseresistanceand
increaseddroughttolerancetothecrops.Now,research
ers can select genes for disease resistance from other
species and transfer them to important crops. For ex
ample, researchers from the University of Hawaii and
Cornell University developed two varieties of papaya
resistanttopapayaringspotvirusbytransferringoneof
the virus genes to papaya to create resistance in the
plants.Seedsofthetwovarieties,namedSunUpand
Rainbow,havebeendistributedunderlicensingagree
mentstopapayagrowerssince1998.
Furtherexamplescomefromdryclimates,where
cropsmustusewaterasefficientlyaspossible.Genes
fromnaturallydroughtresistantplantscanbeusedto
increasedroughttoleranceinmanycropvarieties.
Enhanced crop protection

Farmers use cropprotection technologies because

theyprovidecosteffectivesolutionstopestproblems
which, if left uncontrolled, would severely lower
yields. As mentioned above, crops such as corn,
cotton,andpotatohavebeensuccessfullytransformed
through genetic engineering to make a protein that
killscertaininsectswhentheyfeedontheplants.The
protein is from the soil bacterium Bacillus
thuringiensis,whichhasbeenusedfordecadesasthe
activeingredientofsomenaturalinsecticides.
Insomecases,aneffectivetransgeniccropprotection
technologycancontrolpestsbetterandmorecheaplythan
existing technologies. For example, with Bt engi neered
intoacorncrop,theentirecropisresistantto

BIO- 3

Use of Biotechnology in AgricultureBenefits and Risks

certainpests,notjustthepartoftheplanttowhichBt
insecticidehasbeenapplied.Inthesecases,yieldsin
creaseasthenewtechnologyprovidesmoreeffective
control.Inothercases,anewtechnologyisadopted
becauseitislessexpensivethanacurrenttechnology
withequivalentcontrol.
Therearecasesinwhichnewtechnologyisnot
adopted because for one reason or another it is not
com petitive with the existing technology. For
example,organicfarmersapplyBtasaninsecticideto
control in sect pests in their crops, yet they may
considertransgenicBtcropstobeunacceptable.
Improvements in food processing

Thefirst foodproduct resulting from genetic engineer

ingtechnologytoreceiveregulatoryapproval,in1990,
was chymosin, an enzyme produced by genetically en
gineeredbacteria.Itreplacescalfrennetincheesemak
ingandisnowusedin60percentofallcheesemanu
factured.Itsbenefitsincludeincreasedpurity,areliable
supply, a 50 percent cost reduction, and high cheese
yieldefficiency.
Improved nutritional value

Geneticengineeringhasallowednewoptionsforim
proving the nutritional value, flavor, and texture of
foods. Transgenic crops in development include
soybeans with higher protein content, potatoes with
morenutritionallyavailablestarchand an improved
aminoacidcontent,beanswithmoreessentialamino
acids,andricewiththeabilityproducebetacarotene,
aprecursorofvitaminA,tohelppreventblindnessin
peoplewhohavenutritionallyinadequatediets.
Better flavor

Flavor can be altered by enhancing the activity of

plant enzymes that transform aroma precursors into
flavoringcompounds.Transgenicpeppersandmelons
withimprovedflavorarecurrentlyinfieldtrials.
Fresher produce

Genetic engineering can result in improved keeping

propertiestomaketransportoffreshproduceeasier,giv
ing consumers access to nutritionally valuable whole
foodsandpreventingdecay,damage,andlossofnutri
ents.Transgenictomatoeswithdelayedsofteningcan

CTAHR May 2003

bevineripenedandstillbeshippedwithoutbruising.
Researchisunderwaytomakesimilarmodifications
tobroccoli,celery,carrots,melons,andraspberry.The
shelflifeofsomeprocessedfoodssuchaspeanutshas
alsobeenimprovedbyusingingredientsthathavehad
theirfattyacidprofilemodified.
Environmental benefits

When genetic engineering results in reduced pesticide

dependence, we have less pesticide residues onfoods,
wereducepesticideleachingintogroundwater,andwe
minimizefarmworkerexposuretohazardousproducts.
With Bt cottons resistance to three major pests, the
transgenicvarietynowrepresentshalfoftheU.S.cotton
cropandhastherebyreducedtotalworldinsecticideuse
by 15 percent! Also, according to the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration (FDA), increases in adoption of
herbicidetolerantsoybeanswere associated withsmall
increases in yields and variable profits but significant
decreasesinherbicideuse(ouritalics).
Benefits for developing countries

Genetic engineering technologies can help to improve

healthconditionsinlessdevelopedcountries.Research
ersfromtheSwissFederalInstituteofTechnologysIn
stituteforPlantSciencesinsertedgenesfromadaffodil
andabacteriumintoriceplantstoproducegoldenrice,
whichhassufficientbetacarotenetomeettotalvitamin
Arequirementsindevelopingcountrieswithricebased
diets. This crop has potential to significantly improve
vitaminuptakeinpovertystrickenareaswherevitamin
supplements are costly and difficult to distribute and
vitaminAdeficiencyleadstoblindnessinchildren.

What are the possible risks associated

with using transgenic crops in agriculture?
Some consumers and environmentalists feel that inad
equateefforthasbeenmadetounderstandthedangersin
the use of transgenic crops, including their potential
longterm impacts. Some consumeradvocate and envi
ronmental groups have demanded the abandonment of
genetic engineering research and development. Many
individuals, when confronted with conflicting and con
fusingstatementsabouttheeffectofgeneticengineering
onourenvironmentandfoodsupply,experiencea

BIO- 3

Use of Biotechnology in AgricultureBenefits and Risks

dreadfearthatinspiresgreatanxiety.Thisfearcanbe
arousedbyonlyaminimalamountofinformationor,in
somecases,misinformation.Withpeoplethusconcerned
fortheirhealthandthewellbeingofourplanetaryecol
ogy,theissuesrelatedtotheirconcernsneedtobead
dressed.Theseissuesandfearscanbedividedintothree
groups:health,environmental,andsocial.

Health-related issues
Allergens and toxins

Peoplewithfoodallergieshaveanunusualimmunere
actionwhentheyareexposedtospecificproteins,called
allergens,infood.About2percentofpeopleacrossall
agegroupshaveafoodallergyofsomesort.Themajor
ityoffoodsdonotcauseanyallergyinthemajorityof
people.Foodallergicpeopleusuallyreactonlytooneor
afewallergensinoneortwospecificfoods.Amajor
safetyconcernraisedwithregardtogeneticengineering
technologyistheriskofintroducingallergensandtoxins
into otherwise safe foods. The Food and Drug
Administration(FDA)checkstoensurethatthelevelsof
naturally occurring allergens in foods made from
transgenic organisms have not significantly increased
above the natural range found in conventional foods.
Transgenictechnologyisalsobeingusedtoremovethe
allergens from peanuts, one of most serious causes of
foodallergy.
Antibiotic resistance

Antibioticresistancegenesareusedtoidentifyandtrace
a trait of interest that has been introduced into plant
cells.Thistechniqueensuresthatagenetransferduring
thecourseofgeneticmodificationwassuccessful.Use
ofthesemarkershasraisedconcernsthatnewantibiotic
resistantstrainsofbacteriawillemerge.Theriseofdis
easesthatareresistanttotreatmentwithcommonanti
bioticsisaseriousmedicalconcernofsomeopponents
ofgeneticengineeringtechnology.
Thepotentialriskoftransferfromplantstobacteria
issubstantiallylessthantheriskofnormaltransferbe
tweenbacteria,orbetweenusandthebacteriathatnatu
rallyoccurwithinouralimentarytracts.Nevertheless,to
beonthesafeside,FDAhasadvisedfooddevelopersto
avoid using marker genes that encode resistance to
clinicallyimportantantibiotics.

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Environmental and ecological issues

Potential gene escape and superweeds

Thereisa belief amongsomeopponents of genetic

en gineeringtechnologythattransgeniccropsmight
cross pollinatewithrelatedweeds,possiblyresulting
insuperweedsthatbecomemoredifficulttocontrol.
Oneconcernisthatpollentransferfromglyphosate
resistantcropstorelatedweedscanconferresistance
to glyphosate. While the chance of this happening,
although extremely small, is not inconceivable,
resistancetoaspecificherbicidedoesnotmeanthat
theplantisresis tanttootherherbicides,soaffected
weedscouldstillbecontrolledwithotherproducts.
Somepeopleareworriedthatgeneticengineering
could conceivably improve a plants ability to
escape into the wild and produce ecological
imbalances or disasters. Most crop plants have
significant limitations in their growth and seed
dispersalhabitsthatpreventthemfromsurvivinglong
withoutconstantnurturebyhumans,andtheyarethus
unlikelytothriveinthewildasweeds.
Impacts on nontarget species

Some environmentalists maintain that once transgenic

crops have been released into the environment, they
couldhaveunforeseenandundesirableeffects.Although
transgeniccropsarerigorouslytestedbeforebeingmade
commerciallyavailable,noteverypotentialimpactcan
beforeseen. Bt corn,forinstance,producesaveryspe
cificpesticideintendedtokillonlypeststhatfeedonthe
corn. In 1999, however, researchers at Cornell Uni
versityfoundthatpollenfrom Bt corncouldkillcater
pillarsoftheharmlessMonarchbutterfly.Whentheyfed
Monarch caterpillars milkweed dusted with Bt corn
polleninthelaboratory,halfofthelarvaedied.Butfol
lowup field studies showed that under reallife condi
tionsMonarchbutterflycaterpillarsarehighlyunlikely
tocomeintocontactwithpollenfrom Bt cornthathas
driftedontomilkweedleavesortoeatenoughofitto
harmthem.
Insecticide resistance

Anotherconcernrelatedtothepotentialimpactofagri
culturalbiotechnologyontheenvironmentinvolvesthe
question of whether insect pests could develop resis
tancetocropprotectionfeaturesoftransgeniccrops.

BIO- 3

Use of Biotechnology in AgricultureBenefits and Risks

ThereisfearthatlargescaleadoptionofBtcropswill
result in rapid buildup of resistance in pest
populations.Insectspossessaremarkablecapacityto
adapt to selec tive pressures, but to date, despite
widespread planting of Bt crops, no Bt tolerance in
targetedinsectpestshasbeendetected.
Loss of biodiversity

Many environmentalists, including farmers, are very

concernedaboutthelossofbiodiversityinournatural
environment.Increasedadoptionofconventionallybred
cropsraisedsimilarconcernsinthepastcentury,which
ledtoextensiveeffortstocollectandstoreseedsofas
many varieties as possible of all major crops. These
heritage collections in the USA and elsewhere are
maintainedandusedbyplantbreeders.Modernbiotech
nologyhasdramaticallyincreasedourknowledgeofhow
genesexpressthemselvesandhighlightedtheimportance
of preserving genetic material, and agricultural bio
technologistsalsowanttomakesurethatwemaintain
thepoolofgeneticdiversityofcropplantsneededforthe
future. While transgenic crops help ensure a reliable
supply of basic foodstuffs, U.S. markets for specialty
cropvarietiesandlocallygrownproduceappeartobe
expandingratherthandiminishing.Thustheuseofge
neticallymodifiedcropsisunlikelytonegativelyimpact
biodiversity.

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instead,theycloneindividualplantsofknownquality
throughtechniquessuchasgrafting.
Indevelopingcountries,manyfarmerswhoarenot
growinghybridssaveharvestedseedsforreplantingthe
nextyearscrop.Atechnologyhasbeendevelopedthat
mightbeusedtopreventpurchasersoftransgeniccrop
seedsfromsavingandreplantingthem.Suchtermina
torseedsaregeneticallyengineered,alongwithother
improvements more acceptable to farmers, to produce
plantswithseedsthathavepoorgermination.Thisforces
farmerswhootherwisesaveseedtopurchaseitifthey
wishtousetheseimprovedcommercialvarieties.And,
in the USA, the crops engineered with various charac
ters are sold alongside nontransgenic alternatives for
whichgrowersalsotypicallypurchaseseedsannually.
Despitethesemitigatingcircumstances,thisisseri
ous issue among organic growers and in developing
countries,wherethepracticeofsavingseedsisthenorm
forfarmerswhoarenotgrowinghybridcrops.Inclusion
ofterminatorgenesmeansthatthesefarmerscan not
take advantage of improvements brought about by
geneticengineeringwithoutbeingbroughtintotheeco
nomic cycle that profits the seed companies. Without
profitincentive,however,thesecompaniesareunlikely
toinvestinimprovingcrops.Thisissueisanalogousto
thatfacedbypharmaceuticalcompaniesdevelopingnew
medicationsagainsthumandiseases.Clearly,itisadif
ficultanddivisivesocialissue.

Social issues
Labeling

Someconsumergroupsarguethatfoodsderivedfrom
geneticallyengineeredcropsshouldcarryaspecialla
bel.IntheUSA,thesefoodscurrentlymustbelabeled
onlyiftheyarenutritionallydifferentfromaconven
tionalfood.
Terminator technology
MostfarmersintheUSAandelsewherebuyfreshseeds
each season, particularly of such crops as corn, green
peppers, and tomatoes. Anyone growing hybrid varieties
must buy new seeds annually, because seeds from last
yearshybridsgrownonthefarmwillnotproduceplants
identical to the parent. For this same reasonto avoid
randomgeneticdiversityduetoopenpollinationfarmers
donotplantmango,avocado,ormacadamiafromseed;

Safety and regulations

TransgeniccropsandtheirresultingfoodsintheUnited
Statesareextensivelyresearchedandreviewedbythree
federal government agencies: the U.S. Department of
Agriculture(USDA),theU.S.EnvironmentalProtection
Agency (EPA), and the U.S. Food and Drug Ad
ministration (FDA). Each agency is responsible for a
differentpartofthereviewprocess.
USDAhasprimaryresponsibilityfordetermining
ifanewproductissafetogrow,whileEPAreviews
theproductforpotentialimpactontheenvironment.
FDAisconcernedwithprotectingtheconsumerand
hasfinalauthoritytodeclareifaproductissafetoeat.
Considerationsaboutfoodfromgeneticallyengi
neeredcropshaveraisedahostofquestionsaboutef
fectsontheenvironment,economicimpacts,andeth

BIO- 3

Use of Biotechnology in AgricultureBenefits and Risks

ics. However, perhaps the most fundamental question

aboutsuchfoodiswhetheritissafeandwholesometo
eat.Beforefieldtestinganynewtransgeniccrop,com
panies and research institutions must register with
USDA for field testing permission. Researchers must
ensurethatpollenandplantpartsofthetestedplantsare
not released into the environment during this period.
Transgenic crops must also pass scrutiny of the EPA,
whichhastheauthoritytoregulateallnewpesticidesand
genetically engineered crops. EPA is concerned with
potentialimpactsonnontargetspeciesandendangeredor
threatened species. Finally, any foods derived from
transgeniccropsmustpassFDAinspection.Currentlaw
requiresthatfoodsfromtransgenicorganismsmustbe
labeled as such if their nutritional content or composi
tion differs significantly from their conventional coun
terparts or if they pose any health risks. Both the Na
tional Academy of Sciences and the FDA have deter
minedthat,ingeneral,foodsderivedsofarfromgeneti
callyengineeredorganismsareassafeorsaferthancon
ventionalcounterparts.Themainconcernisremaining
vigilantforpotentialallergens.

CTAHR May 2003

Summary
Responsiblescientists,farmers,foodmanufacturers,and
policy makers recognize that the use of transgenic or
ganismsshouldbeconsideredverycarefullytoensure
thattheyposenoenvironmentalandhealthrisks,orat
least no more than the use of current crops and prac
tices. Modern biotechnology represents unique applica
tionsofsciencethatcanbeusedforthebettermentof
society through development of crops with improved
nutritionalquality,resistancetopestsanddiseases,and
reducedcostofproduction.Biotechnology,intheform
ofgeneticengineering,isafacetofsciencethathasthe
potentialtoprovideimportantbenefitsifusedcarefully
and ethically. Society should be provided with a bal
anced view of the fundamentals of biotechnology and
genetic engineering, the processes used in developing
transgenicorganisms,thetypesofgeneticmaterialused,
andthebenefitsandrisksofthenewtechnology.