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SOLAR SYSTEM
The meaning of solar system is the sun and all other celestial objects ( planets and comets )
which move around the sun. The sun is a stationary object at the centre of the solar system. The
mass of the sun is greater than that of the other celestial objects, thus the celestial objects move
around the sun. Nicolas Copernicus declared the heliocentric theory which stated that the planets
move around the sun. This theory broke the geocentric theory which stated that the planets and the
sun moved around the earth.
The principal component of the Solar System is the Sun, a G2 main-sequence star that
contains 99.86 percent of the system's known mass and dominates it gravitationally. The Sun's four
largest orbiting bodies, the gas giants, account for 99 percent of the remaining mass, with Jupiter
and Saturn together comprising more than 90 percent.
Most large objects in orbit around the Sun lie near the plane of Earth's orbit, known as the
ecliptic. The planets are very close to the ecliptic while comets and Kuiper belt objects are
frequently at significantly greater angles to it. All the planets and most other objects orbit the Sun in
the same direction that the Sun is rotating (counter-clockwise, as viewed from above the Sun's north
pole). There are exceptions, such as Halley's Comet.
The overall structure of the charted regions of the Solar System consists of the Sun, four
relatively small inner planets surrounded by a belt of rocky asteroids, and four gas giants
surrounded by the Kuiper belt of icy objects. Astronomers sometimes informally divide this
structure into separate regions. The inner Solar System includes the four terrestrial planets and the
asteroid belt. The outer Solar System is beyond the asteroids, including the four gas giants. Since
the discovery of the Kuiper belt, the outermost parts of the Solar System are considered a distinct
region consisting of the objects beyond Neptune.
Most of the planets in the Solar System possess secondary systems of their own, being
orbited by planetary objects called natural satellites, or moons (two of which are larger than the
planet Mercury), or, in the case of the four gas giants, by planetary rings; thin bands of tiny particles
that orbit them in unison. Most of the largest natural satellites are in synchronous rotation, with one
face permanently turned toward their parent.
Kepler's laws of planetary motion describe the orbits of objects about the Sun. Following
Kepler's laws, each object travels along an ellipse with the Sun at one focus. Objects closer to the
Sun travel more quickly, as they are more affected by the Sun's gravity. On an elliptical orbit, a
body's distance from the Sun varies over the course of its year. A body's closest approach to the Sun
is called its perihelion, while its most distant point from the Sun is called its aphelion. The orbits of
the planets are nearly circular, but many comets, asteroids and Kuiper belt objects follow highly
elliptical orbits. The positions of the bodies in the Solar System can be predicted using numerical
models.
Due to the vast distances involved, many representations of the Solar System show orbits the
same distance apart. In reality, with a few exceptions, the farther a planet or belt is from the Sun, the
larger the distance between it and the previous orbit. For example, Venus is approximately 0.33
astronomical units (AU) farther out from the Sun than Mercury, while Saturn is 4.3 AU out from
Jupiter, and Neptune lies 10.5 AU out from Uranus. Attempts have been made to determine a
relationship between these orbital distances, but no such theory has been accepted.
A number of Solar System models on Earth attempt to convey the relative scales involved in
the Solar System on human terms. Some models are mechanical called orreries while others
extend across cities or regional areas. The largest such scale model, the Sweden Solar System, uses
the 110-metre Ericsson Globe in Stockholm as its substitute Sun, and, following the scale, Jupiter is
a 7.5 metre sphere at Arlanda International Airport, 40 km away, while the farthest current object,
Its prominence in the sky and its regular cycle of phases have, since ancient times, made the Moon
an important cultural influence on language, calendars, art and mythology. The Moon's gravitational
influence produces the ocean tides and the minute lengthening of the day. The Moon's current
orbital distance, about thirty times the diameter of the Earth, causes it to appear almost the same
size in the sky as the Sun, allowing it to cover the Sun nearly precisely in total solar eclipses. Moon
Composition: Ar, He, Na, K, H, Rn
The Moon is a differentiated body: it has a geochemically distinct crust, mantle, and core.
The Moon has a solid iron-rich inner core with a radius of 240 kilometers and a fluid outer core
primarily made of liquid iron with a radius of roughly 300 kilometers. Around the core is a partially
molten boundary layer with a radius of about 500 kilometers. This structure is thought to have
developed through the fractional crystallization of a global magma ocean shortly after the Moon's
formation 4.5 billion years ago. Crystallization of this magma ocean would have created a mafic
mantle from the precipitation and sinking of the minerals olivine, clinopyroxene, and
orthopyroxene; after about three-quarters of the magma ocean had crystallised, lower-density
plagioclase minerals could form and float into a crust on top. The final liquids to crystallise would
have been initially sandwiched between the crust and mantle, with a high abundance of
incompatible and heat-producing elements. Consistent with this, geochemical mapping from orbit
shows the crust is mostly anorthosite, and moon rock samples of the flood lavas erupted on the
surface from partial melting in the mantle confirm the mafic mantle composition, which is more
iron rich than that of Earth. Geophysical techniques suggest that the crust is on average ~50 km
thick.
The Moon is the second densest satellite in the Solar System after Io. However, the inner core of the
Moon is small, with a radius of about 350 km or less; this is only ~20% the size of the Moon, in
contrast to the ~50% of most other terrestrial bodies. Its composition is not well constrained, but it
is probably metallic iron alloyed with a small amount of sulphur and nickel; analyses of the Moon's
time-variable rotation indicate that it is at least partly molten.
a. Surface geology
The topography of the Moon has been measured with laser altimetry and stereo image analysis. The
most visible topographic feature is the giant far side South Pole Aitken basin, some 2,240 km in
diameter, the largest crater on the Moon and the largest known crater in the Solar System. At 13 km
deep, its floor is the lowest elevation on the Moon. The highest elevations are found just to its
north-east, and it has been suggested that this area might have been thickened by the oblique
formation impact of South Pole Aitken. Other large impact basins, such as Imbrium, Serenitatis,
Crisium, Smythii, and Orientale, also possess regionally low elevations and elevated rims. The
lunar far side is on average about 1.9 km higher than the near side.
b. Volcanic features
The dark and relatively featureless lunar plains which can clearly be seen with the naked eye are
called maria (Latin for "seas"; singular mare), since they were believed by ancient astronomers to
be filled with water. They are now known to be vast solidified pools of ancient basaltic lava. While
similar to terrestrial basalts, the mare basalts have much higher abundances of iron and are
completely lacking in minerals altered by water. The majority of these lavas erupted or flowed into
the depressions associated with impact basins. Several geologic provinces containing shield
volcanoes and volcanic domes are found within the near side maria.
Maria are found almost exclusively on the near side of the Moon, covering 31% of the surface on
the near side, compared with a few scattered patches on the far side covering only 2%. This is
thought to be due to a concentration of heat-producing elements under the crust on the near side,
seen on geochemical maps obtained by Lunar Prospector's gamma-ray spectrometer, which would
have caused the underlying mantle to heat up, partially melt, rise to the surface and erupt. Most of
the Moon's mare basalts erupted during the Imbrian period, 3.03.5 billion years ago, although
some radiometrically dated samples are as old as 4.2 billion years, and the youngest eruptions, dated
by crater counting, appear to have been only 1.2 billion years ago.
The lighter-coloured regions of the Moon are called terrae, or more commonly highlands, since they
are higher than most maria. They have been radiometrically dated as forming 4.4 billion years ago,
and may represent plagioclase cumulates of the lunar magma ocean. In contrast to the Earth, no
major lunar mountains are believed to have formed as a result of tectonic events.
hemisphere are far from the sun, which is apparently located at the equator.
From September 23rd to December 21st,the northern hemisphere is far from the
sun, so it experiences autumn, meanwhile the southern hemisphere is spring
because it is close to the sun.
4.
On December 21st
On December 21st, the sun is apparently located at 23.5oS latitude from
December 21st to March 21st, the southern hemisphere is getting closer to the
sun, thus this region is in summer. On the cuntrary, the northern hemisphere is
in winter because its position is getting farther from the sun
From the explanation above, we can see that the sun seems to move from the
equator (march 21st ) to the 23.5oN latitude ( June 21st ), go back to the equator
(September 23rd) , move again to the 23.5oS latitude (December 22nd), and go
back again to the equator (March 21st). The displacement is called the apparent
motion of the sun.
The effects of the earths revolution are :
a. Changes in season
b. Changes in the length of daytime
c. The apparent motion of the sun
d. The appeareance of different constellations every month
h.
Neptune
The condition at Neptune is almost the same as the condition at Uranus. That is why these planets
are considered as twin planets. The temperature at Neptune surface can reach -120 C
THE EARTH
Earth (or the Earth) is the third planet from the Sun, and the densest and fifth-largest of the
eight planets in the Solar System. It is also the largest of the Solar System's four terrestrial planets.
It is sometimes referred to as the world, the Blue Planet, or by its Latin name, Terra. Composition of
the Earth 78.08% nitrogen , dry air, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.038% carbon dioxide, and 1%
water vapor (varies with climate).
Earth formed 4.54 billion years ago, and life appeared on its surface within one billion years.
The planet is home to millions of species, including humans. Earth's biosphere has significantly
altered the atmosphere and other abiotic conditions on the planet, enabling the proliferation of
aerobic organisms as well as the formation of the ozone layer which, together with Earth's magnetic
field, blocks harmful solar radiation, permitting life on land. The physical properties of the Earth, as
well as its geological history and orbit, have allowed life to persist during this period. Estimates on
how much longer the planet will to be able to continue to support life range from a mere 500
million years, to as long as 2.3 billion years.
Earth's outer surface is divided into several rigid segments, or tectonic plates, that migrate
across the surface over periods of many millions of years. About 71% of the surface is covered by
salt water oceans, with the remainder consisting of continents and islands which together have
many lakes and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere. Earth's poles are mostly
covered with solid ice (Antarctic ice sheet) or sea ice (Arctic ice cap). The planet's interior remains
active, with a thick layer of relatively solid mantle, a liquid outer core that generates a magnetic
field, and a solid iron inner core.
Earth interacts with other objects in space, especially the Sun and the Moon. At present,
Earth orbits the Sun once every 366.26 times it rotates about its own axis, which is equal to 365.26
solar days, or one sidereal year. The Earth's axis of rotation is tilted 23.4 away from the
perpendicular of its orbital plane, producing seasonal variations on the planet's surface with a period
of one tropical year (365.24 solar days). Earth's only known natural satellite, the Moon, which
began orbiting it about 4.53 billion years ago, provides ocean tides, stabilizes the axial tilt, and
gradually slows the planet's rotation. Between approximately 3.8 billion and 4.1 billion years ago,
numerous asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment caused significant changes to the
greater surface environment.
Both the mineral resources of the planet and the products of the biosphere contribute
resources that are used to support a global human population. These inhabitants are grouped into
about 200 independent sovereign states, which interact through diplomacy, travel, trade, and
military action. Human cultures have developed many views of the planet, including personification
as a deity, a belief in a flat Earth or in the Earth as the center of the universe, and a modern
perspective of the world as an integrated environment that requires stewardship.
The comets tail (in form of gas) always points away from the sun due to the suns radiation
pressure. A comet is often called as a star with hair.
The orbital period of each comet is different. One of the famous comets is the Comet Halley which
has an orbital period of 76 years. The comets which are originated from the Kuiper belt and Orbit
cloud can have an orbital period from 1 to 30 million years.
A meteoroid is formed from debris or fragment of comets which keep moving in the space.
If a meteoroid reaches the earths surface, then it is keep moving in the space. If a meteoroid
reaches the earth surface then it is called a meteorite. A huge crater named Barringer Crater is
predicted to be the place where a meteor down.
Small celestial objects (smaller than meteoroid) which revolve around the
sun are called asteroid belt is located between Mars and Jupiter. The biggest
asteroid is called Ceres with diameter 1,000km. Jearus asteroid was once
approaching the earths orbit.
Sun: The brightest star of our solar system is sun. The approximate
diameter and mass of sun is approximately 1.392 X 109m and 1.98 X 1030kg
respectively. The sun is 109 times bigger than that of earth.
Earth and sun have an average distance of near about 1.496 X 10 11m. This distance can be
called as1 Astronomical unit. Basically two types of rotations are there one is rotation around some
other body and other is rotation around own axis. For a complete rotation around its axis sun needs
25 days. As we all know it is a ball of heat and gases. So there is no need to explain that the
temperature and pressure inside the sun are extremely high. By conducting experiments the
approximately calculated temperature on the surface of sun is near about 6000k. The light from the
sun reach at the earth surface in near about 8.3 minutes.
Planets: The heavenly body which doesnt have light of its own. These bodies revolve
around the sun. They have the capability to reflect the light of sun that falls on them. Nine planets
are present in our solar system. All of these are rotating in different orbital around the sun and also
on their own axis.
Mercury: The planet nearest to sun is mercury. Its radius and mass are 2410km and 3.35 X
1023 respectively. Time taken by it to complete one revolution around sun is 88 days. Due to high
temperature on the planet no water is present there. Hence occurrence of life on mercury is
impossible.
Venus: The planet present after mercury in sequence is Venus. This planet is similar to that
of earth. Its density, radius, mass etc are approximately similar. Due to its similarities it is also
known as Earths sister. The percent of carbon dioxide on Venus is extremely large as compared to
that of other gases. 95% composition is of Carbon Dioxide and 5% composition is of the other
gases. Force exerting per unit area on Venus is approximately 100 times more than that of earth.
Temperature present on the surface of Venus is also very high as compared to earth. It is near about
450oC. Due to such high temperature the life on Venus is also not possible. It takes about 225 days
to complete its one revolution around the sun. It is also known as morning star. It is called so
because it is the brightest planet in the solar system. It does not have any satellite of its own.
Earth: Starting from the sun and moving towards Pluto it is the third planet. It takes near about
365.25 days to complete one revolution around the sun. After the passage of four years we get a
leap year because the rotation time .25 after four years (.25+.25+.25+.25=1day) becomes 1 .So, one
day is increased after 4 years. In a leap year rather than having 365 days we have 366 days.
Atmospheric conditions are suitable for life thats why we are living on earth. Water is also present
in plenty.
Mars: Planet next to earth is mars. Its radius is about 3400km. It takes near about 1.9 years
to complete its one revolution around the sun. Like Venus carbon dioxide gas is present here in
plenty. But atmosphere is not so thick like other planets. Some patches are present on its surface.
They contract and expand according to the environmental conditions. Mostly expansion can be seen
in winters and contraction can be seen in summers. Its like chameleon which changes color as the
season changes. Yet no life has been founded on mars. Mars is also called as the red planet of the
solar system. Fobos and Dimos are the names of its two moons.
Remaining planets: As we go farther from the sun the atmospheric temperature goes on
decreasing. So, on the other planets the temperature on their surfaces is low. On the remaining
planets most of the poisonous gases like methane, ammonia etc can be found. Due to these
poisonous gases no occurrence of life can be seen there.
Moon: Earth has only one natural satellite i.e. Moon. Moon is present at a distance of near
about 3.84 X 10 5. Radius of moon is about 1740km. Total mass of moon is 7.35 X 10 22. The
gravitational pull of moon is 1/6 then the gravitational pull of earth. Moon completes its one
revolution around the earth in 27.3days. It is also called Radio moon because it has the capability
of emitting of electromagnetic waves in radio wave region. Moon face that is towards earth remains
always the same. Temperature ranges of moon in day time and at night are 110oc and -150oc. Both
water and atmospheric conditions are absent on moons surface. Earlier it was said that there was no
water and atmosphere present on the moons surface. But Scientists have found some evidences of
water molecules on the moons surface. So, we can say that at some later stage their may be the
possibility of life on moons surface. According to the estimations, it is said that age of moon is near
about four billion years.
Asteroids: This is an area also we can say it as a belt between mars and Jupiter in which
large no of bodies having irregular shapes are present. These bodies are called asteroids. These are
large no of rock pieces moving at higher speed between both mars and Jupiter and around the sun.
The largest asteroid is Ceres. It is about 350km.The smallest asteroid of all is having a radius of
near about 50m. It is supposed that these rock pieces are the broken pieces of any large planet,
which were broken due to the string gravitational pull of the planet Jupiter. The asteroids which is
larger in size, completes its one revolution around sun in approximately 4.6 years.
Comets: Comets are heavenly bodies made up of hard and soft rocks mostly covered with
substances that can be changed into vapors easily like water, ice methane etc. Their revolution
around sun is in fixed orbits. When the comets are passing near to the sun they show a long tail
behind them with a bright head. On the other hand when the comets are far from the sun then their
tail disappears.
When the comets came near to sun then due to the extreme hot temperature of sun some of
the material present in the comet gets evaporated. The vapors of comet feel great pressure due to
sun light. The light of the sun also compel them to leave the comet. This process helps in formation
of tail of the comet.
Halley comet completes its one revolution around the sun in 76 years. Last it was seen in the
year 1986. Now it is expected that we will able to see it again in the year 2062.
Meteors: Due to the damage of the comets some small pieces of metals and rocks are
formed. These are called Meteors. But these cases are very rare. As we know that friction is present
in our atmosphere. It is due to the presence of air and the gravitational pull of earth. As the meteors
enter the region of earths gravitational pull these are burnt out due to the friction. When the
meteors catch fire then the bright light is produced. The light produced can be seen easily from the
earths surface. These luminous meteors are called as fire balls or shooting stars. Meteors can be of
any size. Some large meteors, after entering the earths atmosphere did not burn completely. Then
those meteors reach the earths surface in state of stones, iron balls, etc and cause destruction in the
form of large craters.