Hot metal typesetting

The Linotype and similar Intertype machines came out

with paper tape and electronic automation near the end
of their life cycles that allowed for the news wire services
to send breaking news to remote newspaper oces for
prompt setting into late editions
All these machines were operated by non-qwertykeyboards. There was however another system, where
the matrices for each line were assembled in a stick by
hand:
Ludlow Typograph
This machine was able to cast display body sizes that other
mechanical composition systems were unable to produce.
In this way headings could be produced to complement
text produced on other machines. It also used the same
alloy as Linotype machines, so was a useful adjunct to
page makeup for newspapers as, when complete, all the
metal could be remelted without having to be separated or
the type from the headings redistributed back into case.

Row of Linotype operators at the Chicago Defender newspaper,

1941

In printing and typography, hot metal typesetting (also

called mechanical typesetting, hot lead typesetting,
hot metal, and hot type) refers to technologies for
typesetting text in letterpress printing. This method injects molten type metal into a mold that has the shape of
one or more glyphs. The resulting sorts and slugs are later The success of these machines lay in dierent elds: the
used to press ink onto paper.
Monotype caster was more popular for bookwork that required the ability to make manual corrections and edits
while the slug casting systems found success in newspaper
production where speed of production and make ready for
1 Types of typesetting
print was essential.
There is another essential dierence between Monotype
and all the slug"-producing machines: a Monotype machine functions with a minimal set of matrices: each character needs one matrix. Linecasters cannot function this
way, and these systems need quite large magazines of matrices to be able to set a complete line of text with the
usual character repetitions. Indeed, the nominal 90 chanThe Super-caster, another machine produced by Mononel magazine of a linecaster really has 91 total channels,
type, was similar in function to the Thompson, Bath, pivwith the rst two channels allocated to the lower case 'e',
otal and others casters but designed to produce single type
and with these matrices being alternately selected from
(including even larger sizes) for hand setting.
channel 0 or channel 1, for alternate lines of cast type.
The other approach was to cast complete lines as one slug,
There is an additional dierence: Monotype must use a
usually comprising a whole line of text.
punched paper tape, and the reading frame is always
Of this system there have been at least 5 dierent enter- backwards (right-to-left) in order to achieve justication,
prises:
as justication is not an inherent capability of the machine (however, ush left is an inherent capability);
whereas Linotype may use a punched paper tape, al Linotype,
though this option is seldom-used outside of daily news Intertype Corporation,
papers, and whether a tape is used, or not, the reading
frame is always forwards (left-to-right), with justica the Typograph, produced in Germany
tion being an inherent capability of the machine (and,
The Monoline, a very basic machine
ush right, centered and ush left may be very
Two dierent approaches to mechanising typesetting
were independently developed in the late 19th century.
One, known as the Monotype composition caster system,
produced texts with the aid of perforated paper-ribbons,
all characters are cast separate. These machines could
produce texts also in large-composition up to 24 point.

1 TYPES OF TYPESETTING

easily accommodated manually, or automatically using a the matrices are aligned vertically and face-wise while a
quadder attachment).
bar rises from below to force the movable sleeves on the
space bands upwards to cause them to ll out the line to
the exact width of the mold. If the justication bar has
1.1 Linotype
made a full cycle and the line is still not fully justied, the
second safetythe pump stopprevents the plunger in
Main article: Linotype machine
the metal pot from going down. The space bands were an
important feature of this machine, providing automatic
The key feature of the Linotype is the use of molds which justication of each line by equally adjusting the white
circulate through the machine in its various stages of op- space between each word. Since the type used was proeration. One type is a space band (a special two-part slid- portional and not xed in width, solving this justication
ing wedge) and the other is a letter matrix made of brass. problem mechanically was very important. Some later
The matrices are stored in one or more magazines on top models had a feature that permitted the lines to be cast
of the machine (providing the operator with a choice of with the alignment to either left, right or centered. Opfonts; these can also be exchanged with other extra mag- erators running earlier models would use special blank
azines as desired) while the space bands are stored in a matrices (in 4 sizes) to manually create the proper amount
of whitespace beyond the space bands range.
box closer to the keyboard.
Once a key is pressed, the matrix passes through what
is known as the assembler front, down past a rotating
ber reinforced wheel (known as the star wheel) and into
the assembling elevator which serves the same purpose
as the hand compositors stick. When the space band key
near the keyboard is pressed, one of the space bands drops
out of the box and almost directly into the assembling
elevator. The assembling elevator (or more commonly
just the assembler) is adjustable for dierent lengths of
line (in picas).
Once the line approaches its correct length, the operator is
made aware of this by a bell or other indicator. If the line
is loose or too short, there is too much white space for
the space band wedges to ll out the line, and the matrices could possibly turn sidewise or fail to seal against each
other as the machine prepares for the casting operation.
If the line is tight or too long, the elevator carrying the
matrices and space bands will not seat properly in front of
the mold slot. Both the Linotype and Intertype machines
have two important safeties that act during the casting
operationthe pump stop and the vise automatic'to
prevent a squirt of molten type metal from escaping the
mold, encasing the matrices and the elevator in metal in
the process. Not only is it time-consuming to clean up after a squirt, matrices can often be damaged, so it is considered very poor form for an operator (or the machinist
who cared for the machine) to permit this to happen.

With the matrices aligned and the space bands set to the
correct measure, the machine then locks up the line with
great force and the plunger injects the molten type metal
into the space created by the mold cavity and the assembled line. The machine then separates the mold disk (carrying the freshly cast slug), the metal pot, and the rst elevator. The mold disk then turns to present the line at the
ejecting position, in the process passing by a knife that
trims the base of the slug to type height (0.918 on US
machines). The slug is then forced through an adjustable
pair of knives to trim the slug to the proper body height
before sliding down into a galley of nished lines next to
the operator. Depending on the model of machine, the
mold disk could have 4 (standard), 6, or 2 molds, giving
the operator his choice of line lengths and body sizes.
As the mold disk is turning, the rst elevator simultaneously rises to its upper position and the space bands and
matrices are vertically aligned in preparation for the second transfer. The matrices have a series of teeth in a Vshaped notch on top, and as the transfer is completed,
the matrices slide onto the second elevator bar which carries the matrices by these V-shaped notches. The space
bands, having no such notches, remain in the second
transfer channel and are soon gathered by two levers and
pushed back into the space band box. While the space
bands are being pushed into their box, the second elevator continues rising towards the distributing mechanism
at the top of the machine, which returns the molds to
their proper places in the magazine. At the top of the
machine, a lever moves left to make way before coming
back to push the matrices o the second elevator and into
the distributor box. This mechanism feeds the matrices
at precise intervals such that they travel between three rotating screws. Each matrix is carried along a notched bar
between the three screws until the notches on the bar and
matrix match, whereupon the matrix drops down into its
proper channel in the magazine.

When the line is assembled to the correct length, the operator presses down on a lever which raises the assembling elevator up into the delivery channel and starts the
automatic casting cycle. The delivery channel transfers
the matrices out of the assembler and into the rst elevator. The rst elevator then descends to a position in
front of the mold, and if the elevator has not descended
fully by the time the machine starts the process of aligning the matrices (most often caused by a tight line), the
rst of the two safetiesthe vise automaticbrings the
machine to a full stop before the supporting lugs on the It was a source of pride for trained operators to boast of
matrices are crushed by the mold. Once the matrices are being able to hang a line: to keep a line waiting in the dein proper position, two actions take place in sequence: livery channel while the machine was casting the previous

1.3

Ludlow

line and the operator was composing the next one.

The metal pot was kept lled by the operator tossing in
small ingots of type metal every few lines, or later, by mechanical feeders that carry large ingots of type metal (and
which often carried two pigs at a time to be consumed in
turn, the operator hanging a fresh one when one was consumed). These feeders are actuated by various methods,
but the end result is the same: the ingots are fed little by
little into the pot, keeping it lled to the correct level.
From time to time, the slug galley is transferred to the
composing table to be set in the form, and once the press
run is completed and the slugs removed from the form,
they are tossed into the hell box for remelting into new
ingots. At intervals the lead is remelted and the oxidized
metal (dross) skimmed o. As part of this process, plus
metal is added in the form of small ingots to replenish
that portion of the alloyed metals that was lost by the
formation of dross (by oxidization of the metal in the
machines pot or during the remelting stage). The type
metal is poured into ingot molds: small molds for manually feeding the metal pots or larger molds for the metal
feeders. (In the latter case, special attention must be given
the eye end as it has to support the weight of the entire
ingot; failure often results in it dropping into the pot and
splashing molten metal everywhere.)
Funded largely by the Ridder newspaper interests, the
Intertype Corporation developed (c. 1914) a compatible
version of the Linotype machine when the patents ran out
and it became quite popular as well. This led to a longlasting legal ght by the Mergenthaler Linotype Company
(who eventually lost).
A common 1 2 HP single- or three-phase electric motor
is sucient to operate a Linotype or Intertype, although
very early machines may have been operated from a line
shaft system. Late machines were either 60 Hz or 50 Hz
alternating current, although early machines were made
with direct current or 25 Hz or other alternating current
motors, including two-phase motors.

3
The Ludlow consisted of a very heavy metal table with a
at top about waist high and a depressed slot into which
a stick was inserted. Underneath was a pot of molten
type metal and a plunger. The stick was used to hand
compose the lines of type, typically headlines in 18 point
or larger with 72 point commonly being available, but
the machine could cast type from 4pt to 600pt without
a mould change. This was from brass matrix stored in
cases on either side of the Ludlow. The cases were not the
traditional "California Cases" used to set body type, but
simpler alphabetically arranged wooden or metal cases,
each one containing a given font in a specic size and
style such as bold face, italic or condensed. The metal
type cabinets were built with inclined drawers for easy
access to the matrices.
After a line of type was assembled into the stick a special blocking slug was inserted to seal the end. Then the
stick was placed mold side down into the slot on the table,
a clamp locked down to securely hold the stick and the
Ludlow activated. The plunger would snap down into the
pot with considerable force, injecting molten type metal
into the mold at a high rate of speed to ensure the mold
was lled before the metal solidied. If the stick was not
properly lled out or mounted rmly, or the special terminating block was forgotten, a dreaded splash would
result, often encasing the operators toes in molten lead
and leaving a mess that needed to be peeled o the Ludlow surfaces. Operators were encouraged to wear heavy
boots with steel toes and be quick at removing one. It was
also not uncommon for some of the type metal to be projected up onto the ceiling, no matter the height. As with
the Linotype / Intertype machines, the Ludlow machines
were often tted with metal feeders to keep the pot lled
to optimum level.

Towards the end of its life as a common backshop

type setter, the Ludlow was often joined by the Super
Surfacer a specially designed surface plane that would
smooth the surface of the freshly cast type and ensure it
was exactly type high. A Ludlow slug was just the letThe metal pot could be either electric- or gas-heated, at ters overhanging a central spine about 12 points wide (T
the customers option, for late machines. For early ma- shaped viewed from the end). It needed to be bolstered
chines, kerosene and white gasoline were also options. It by Elrod slugs on either side for support. The number of
was thereby possible to install a Linotype machine in a slugs above and below the central spine could adjust the
white space above and below the type making it a very
premises which was without access to public utilities.
exible system for large type.
The Elrod was a machine used to cast rules and spacing
material (leading), of a specic width 1,1, 2, 3, 4, 6,
12, 18, 24, 30 and 36pt, this was used extensively in page
These machines were bought out by Linotype, to minilayout and line spacing, that is adjusting the white space
mize competition.
between paragraphs and any other area when small bits
of white space were needed. Large areas of white space
were created by wooden or later metal blocks called 'fur1.3 Ludlow
niture'. Smaller odd areas were lled with square or rectA manual linecasting solution known as the Ludlow Ty- angular blocks in various point sizes called quads.
pograph also met with success because it was able to cast All these line-casting machines used various alloys near
display type sizes that other mechanical composition sys- the eutectic point and which typically consisted of aptems were unable to produce.

1.2

Typograph and Monoline

proximately 4% tin and 12% antimony and the balance

being lead. These alloys were proportioned such that the
type metal would solidify as rapidly as possible at the lowest possible freezing point.

1.4

Monotype

EXTERNAL LINKS

ual proof press where it was hand inked and a single very
high quality proof was pulled. This proof could then be
photographed and converted to a negative.
Black paper was inserted before the proof was photographed for each of the photos on the nal page to create clear windows in the negative. The separately made
halftones would be taped into these clear windows on the
negative. This negative could then be used to expose the
photosensitized printing plate for an oset press. In this
way the heavy investment in hot metal typesetting could
be adapted to the newer oset technology during a transition period.

3 Comparison to successors

A Monotype composition case showing engraved matrices.

The Monotype System took a dierent direction in hot

metal typesetting, with the ability of the Composition
Caster to cast loose type using a paper tape operated automatic casting machine. The paper tape would be rst
generated on a keyboard and then used to cast the type,
the tape could be stored for future casting for subsequent
editions. This was a popular system for book work. Text
was produced completely aligned, with all spaces in each
line exactly the same width. Corrections and complex
work could be done on the text by hand after the bulk
of the text had been set by machine. The Super Caster
and Orphan Annie were used to cast fonts of loose type
for hand setting as well as spacing material and patterned
rules.

The nature of text printed via the hot-metal method

is notably dierent from that produced by the
phototypesetting processes that followed it. As the
lead type used to print (letterpress) a page had been
directly formed from the type matrix a good delity to
the original was achieved. Phototypesetting suered (at
least in its early days) from many problems relating to
optical distortion and misalignment. These disappointing
results were a thorn in the sides of many authors and
readers (especially of complex or mathematical texts
that had many small sub- and superscripts). A desire
to re-create the aesthetic qualities of hot lead spurred
Donald Knuth to create one of the rst general purpose
digital typesetting programs, TeX.

Although strictly speaking not typesetting, stereotyping

(electrotype or nickeltype) could be used to cast a reproduction of an entire typeset page (or pages imposed in a
forme) using a mold made with an impression using ong
(similar to papier-mch). The ensuing casting could be
This type was most times made of an alloy (8-10% Tin, made curved for use on a rotary press or at for the slower
15-20% Antimony) slightly harder than the line casting at bed presses. This technique was often used in newsalloys but was not as hard as the foundry type used for paper production.
hand setting of loose letters. This allowed reasonable
print runs or conversion to stereotypes for longer print
runs. But these machines could produce type with all pos4 References
sible alloys, when needed.
The used type, like the slugs from line casters, was remelted when no longer needed. Each time remelting
caused some loss of Tin, through oxidation. This loss
needed to be monitored and compensated.
The Monotype Corporation survived the demise of the
hot metal typesetting era by selling digital type.

[1] A Few Words About Words. Pressed for Time. Retrieved 9 May 2014.

5 External links
British Printing Society

Transition

Towards the end of its life hot metal composition in newspapers was kept alive by the proof press. As each page
was set and locked up, it was moved on a turtle (a rolling
table with an accurately at steel surface[1] ) to the man-

Linotype & Ludlow Working Museums Denmark,

Iowa
National Print Museum, Dublin, Ireland

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

6.1

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Hot metal typesetting Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_metal_typesetting?oldid=705097115 Contributors: DavidWBrooks,

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