Background/Introduction

The Apollo 11 landing was faked. Lee Harvey Oswald was framed. The government is
concealing evidence of intelligent extraterrestrial life. Everybody knows of at least one such idea
claiming a conspiracy thats a bit out there, paranoid or overall lacking in evidence. They seem to
permeate all aspects of our culture, from our politics to our healthcare to our entertainment and
beyond. The Obama-birth certificate issue was on every major news network in America during
the 2008 election season, and major network TV shows such as The X-Files are built around
conspiracy theories. They arent even limited to any specific culture or ideology, they exist
throughout the world. There is something about conspiracy theories that is fundamentally
appealing to humanity, and in this paper I will be researching what it is that draws people to
them.
I am of course biased on the subject; I am limited to my own perception of what is and
isnt interesting, and Im more likely to notice and focus on what matches with what I believe
(confirmation bias). While I certainly dont subscribe to any particular conspiracy theory, I do
find them highly entertaining, which may color my perception. In addition, my own perception
would obviously bias what I consider to be a conspiracy theory or not, since I doubt that anyone
who held such a belief would think they were anything but completely rational, and would want
to avoid being associated with the stigma attached to conspiracy theories. That being said, I do
believe that the wide variety of conspiracy theories, the variety of groups that hold them and the
way they are entrenched in our pop-culture is evidence enough to overcome my personal bias.
Literature review
A conspiracy theory is defined as a secret plan on the part of a group to influence events
partly by covert action. Most people, particularly the well-educated, dismiss conspiracy theories

as harmless garbage held by a relatively inconsequential group of nutballs. Examples of such

nutballs would be the Holocaust-deniers, those who believe the moon-landing was faked, and
(less recently) those who believe water-fluoridation was a communist plot (Clarke, 2002).
However, the popularity of conspiracy based shows, the rise of recent political groups (i.e. the
Tea Party) and the recent reemergence of easily preventable diseases in America suggest that not
only are such beliefs widespread, but are in fact quite harmful. In urban areas where an
increasing number of parents are refusing to vaccinate, causing outbreaks of preventable
illnesses such as measles, the flu, and others. This stems largely from the belief spread by model
Jenny McCarthy and one discredited former doctor that the vaccines will cause autism, and/or
are a plot by big pharma/the government to coerce people into buying medicine thats harmful
to them (Jolley, 2013). Similar behavior can be observed in the climate change debate.
Overwhelming empirical evidence exists supporting the role of mankind in creating meaningful
change to the climate, but skeptics continue to deny this. Its important to note that there is an
important distinction in these skeptics which make them conspiracy theorists and not a healthy
form of scientific inquiry: they are not interested in empirical evidence, and no amount of said
evidence will sway their opinion. (Goertzel, 2010).
At the heart of The X-Files is a persistent sense of paranoia on behalf of the main
characters, a constant feeling that the agents and the American people are being conspired
against by some unknown force. The overarching narrative consists of incremental steps in
gaining knowledge of an alien-government conspiracy. As the narrative advances, and even as
the agents gain more knowledge of the conspiracy, the conspiracy only deepens, increasing the
sense of paranoia with another element to the conspiracy, such as the revelation that human were
working with the aliens, that there was a second alien faction engaged in civil war with the

invading force, that Mulders father was part if the conspiracy, etc (Johnson, 2016). This sense of
paranoia resonates well with the American people, as varying levels of skepticism have been a
key part of our national identity since our before our nations birth. From the Salem witch trials
to the Red Scare to the Cold War to the Satanic Panic to Michelle Bachmanns Brown Scare,
paranoia has been a persistent part of our culture. It permeates our politics with conflicts such as
the Obama birth issue. Part of the population believes in a cabal of homosexuals seeking to exert
their influence on the American people (Walker, 2013). They seem to follow as an almost
instinctive reaction to any major national event. One of the biggest examples is 9/11 terror
attacks. Some claim it was a false-flag attack used to further oil interests. Others claim the jews
did it. Still others believe that it was a Saudi plot (Knight, 2008). The advent of the internet and
social media have created the perfect breeding ground for such discussions. The popular
(debunked) documentary detailing conspiracy theories about the 9/11 attacks Loose Change was
originally distributed online (Montagne, 2006). Recent developments provide the perfect bedrock
for further X-Files material. The show ended early 2002, well before we saw the extent of the
Patriot Act, the vilification of hispanic immigrants, and the rise of PMCs in our military
operations. These events, along with others such as FEMAs handling of Hurricane Katrina, the
recent ebola scare, etc all serve as potential new source material for the show (Simon, 2016).
Conspiracy theories are a natural form of political expression, and will vary in scope and
detail between groups. They can take many different forms within a culture, from political
extremism, to the foundation of a religious faction, to an interpretation/explanation of the groups
existence in relation to others or to history (i.e. black-white racial relations, protestant-catholic
relations, parts of Rastafarianism). They can be viewed as an expression of a desire of the group
for some measure of control via concrete knowledge of a complex situation (Fenster, 2008).

The beliefs tend to represent a view held by at least a small portion of their respective faction.
For example, research and anecdotal experience suggest that white people are more likely to
believe that the Democratic party is conspiring to tax the rich to support minorities in exchange
for their votes. Black communities are more likely to believe that government agencies are
planted in their midst to distribute drugs to keep them powerless. Religious conservatives are
more likely to believe Obama is a Muslim who wasnt born on American soil, liberals are more
likely to believe that big pharma is pushing vaccines that cause autism, etc (Shermer, 2014).
These beliefs can stem from a need for control of some kind in the face of adversity, such as a
struggling economy, poverty, holding religious beliefs at odds with mainstream society, or a
tragic illness in a child. People use blame as part of a coping mechanism, and in the absence of
an obvious culprit, they may invent one of their own. This represents a great deal of the appeal of
conspiracy theories: they offer an affirmation of our suspicion, a feeling of vindication (I knew
it!), but require no additional factual input beyond our own speculation of intent (Brotherton,
2015).
Entering The Conversation
Taking into account the body of literature and the various forms of conspiracy theories
held at large, one way to further define the appeal of such theories and related media would be
through a survey that would attempt to find a any relationship between the two groups. The
survey would aim for the largest possible sample pool for the lowest amount of resources
required, making an online survey via facebook or other social media ideal, and would consist of
questions falling into 2 categories with each group focusing on specific pieces of information.
The first set of questions would be used to divide the responders by their demographics.
This section would try to determine age, race, religion, nationality, sex, level of education,

income level, and political affiliation. These different groups represent some of the most
common bases for forming a community. Gathering this particular set of data would allow us to
observe if there is any correlation between any of these factors and the answers to questions
pertaining to any conspiracy beliefs.
The second set of questions would form the real meat of the survey, and will pertain to
conspiracy beliefs, These will consist of a mix of true/false and multiple choice answers, as any
kind of free response or fill-in option would be too prohibitive for a large sample size. The
questions would be sub-categorized based on whether they focused on medicine, politics,
business, racial relations, geopolitics, and miscellaneous. Overlap between these subcategories is
probable and would be noted. Example questions could include:
1. President Obama is a legal U.S. citizen who was born on U.S. soil, true/false? (political, racial)
2. The Democratic party uses entitlement spending as a means of bribing minorities for political
power at the expense of hard-working Americans, true/false? (political, racial)
3. The Republican party seeks to keep the bulk of power in the hands of a wealthy white-male elite,
true/false? (political, racial)
4. The Bush administration knew that Iraq had nothing to do with 9/11, but convinced the American
people otherwise in order to further oil interests, true/false? (political, business)
5. The U.S. government is being infiltrated by agents of the Muslim Brotherhood to undermine the
nation from within, true/false? (religious, political)
6. In the 1970s, the Nixon administration was involved in the illegal wiretapping of the
Democratic National Convention, true/false? (questions like this would demonstrate groups who
actively dismiss any notion of a conspiracy, even ones known to be true, in this case the
Watergate scandal)
7. Apollo 11 (the moon landing) was faked as part of a propaganda operation against the Russians,
true/false? (geopolitics)
8. Pharmaceutical companies are trying to cover up the fact that vaccines cause autism to keep their
profits high, true/false? (medicine)

9. Antidepressants and antipsychotics are part of a plot to keep the masses docile, true /false?
(medicine)
10. The only study ever supporting a link between vaccines and autism was faked by a former doctor
attempting to increase demand for his own alternative treatment, true/false? (medicine)
11. Flu shots contain mind-altering substances designed to get consumers to buy more stuff around
christmas, true/false? (medicine, business)
12. HIV/AIDS was created by the government to exterminate the gay population, true/false?
(politics, medicine)
13. JFK was killed by:
a) Lee Harvey Oswald
b) Somebody hiding in a grassy knoll
c) An ice bullet
d) Agents of Lyndon B. Johnson
e) Dont know
14.) Michael Jackson died because of:
a.) accidental overdose
b.) foul play
c.) dont know
d.) hes not dead
15.) Kurt Cobain:
a.) killed himself
b.) was killed by Courtney Love
c.) I dont know who that is
16.) The news is controlled by:
a.) ratings
b.) Rupert Murdoc
c.) The Jews
d.) current events

17.) Area 51:

a.) doesnt exist
b.) is an airforce base housing classified government property
c.) contains proof of intelligent alien life covered up by the government
18.) Alternative medicine:
a) Is being kept down by big pharma and the FDA
b) Is medicine that doesnt work
19.) 9/11
a.) was an inside job
b.) was a Jewish plot
c.) was an Iraqi plot
d.) was a Saudi plot
e.) none of the above
20.) Scientology
a.) is a tax shelter
b.) is a legitimate religion
Its important to note that for a responder to be considered believing in conspiracy
theories does not require believing in numerous examples. The answers to these questions would
be compared against the responders demographic. This would allow for us to observe if there is
any correlation between groups and a particular conspiracy belief. For example, those who
identify as Republican may be less likely to answer true to example question 3 than those who
dont, and those who practice Scientology may be more likely to answer b to example question
20 than those who arent. Comparing the results against the various demographics may yield

further insight into the appeal of each individual conspiracy theory or category of conspiracy
theories.
Conclusion
Throughout this paper I have demonstrated examples of the variety of conspiracy theories
that exist today and have researched potential underlying causes for the development of such
theories. The sources Ive reviewed have suggested that while the form of the conspiracy theory
is influenced by external factors such as race, culture, gender, or political affiliation, the
development of the theory in the first place has roots in psychology, such as how we socialize
and approach problem solving. If such is the case, then it stands to reason that a significant part
of the appeal of media such as The X-Files, which is heavily influenced by conspiracy related
pop-culture, comes from appealing to that same part of human psychology, which is in line with
my own observations (Johnson, 2016).
My proposed model survey provide a means of further narrowing what theories are
attached to which demographics, as well as providing evidence of the prevalence of that belief
within said demographic if the sample size is large enough. This information could be used to
pursue further research on the external factors that contributes to the nature of each specific
theory or category of theories, such as why is it that middle-class suburban mothers flock to antivaccination conspiracy theories. This topic could greatly benefit from further research,
particularly from qualified psychologists and anthropologists. From a psychology perspective,
case studies on individuals who subscribe to any particular conspiracy theory yet do not exhibit
any other signs of paranoia or other psychiatric problems may yield further insight into what
causes our minds to move toward suspicion of conspiracy so organically. Anthropologists could
observe how the theories develop within a group or culture, why they developed, and how their

existence influences behavior within the group and between concerned groups. If meaningful
results are produced from either line of inquiry, they could possibly be used to avoid the
development of theories that prove harmful to those who hold them, such as those which lead
patients to refuse medical treatment. Alternatively, they could be used to develop television that
plays more strongly to the part of our mind that is obsessed with conspiracies.
Works Cited
Brotherton, R. (2015). Suspicious Minds: Why We Believe Conspiracy Theories.

Clarke, S. (2002). Conspiracy Theories and Conspiracy Theorizing. Philosophy of the Social
Sciences, 32(2), 131-150.

Fenster, M. (2008). Conspiracy Theories: Secrecy and Power in American Culture.

Goertzel, T. (2010). Conspiracy theories in science. EMBO Rep EMBO Reports,11(7), 493-499.

Johnson, S. (2016). X-Files Observations. Unpublished manuscript, University of North Carolina at

Charlotte, Charlotte.

Jolley, D. (2013). Are conspiracy theories just harmless fun? Psychologist, 26(1), 60. Retrieved
March 14, 2016.

Knight, P. (2008). Outrageous Conspiracy Theories: Popular and Official Responses to 9/11 in
Germany and the United States. New German Critique, 35(1 103), 165-193. Retrieved March 14,
2016.

Montagne, R. (2006, August 9). Conspiracy Theories Find a Home on the Internet. Retrieved March
14, 2016, from http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5629332

Shermer, M. (2014). Conspiracy Central. Sci Am Scientific American, 311(6), 94-94. Retrieved March
14, 2016.

Simon, S. (2016, January 25). Mulder And Scully On Why The World Is Ready For An 'X-Files'
Reboot. Retrieved March 14, 2016, from http://www.npr.org/2016/01/23/463726029/mulder-andscully-on-why-the-world-is-ready-for-an-x-files-reboot

Walker, J. (2013, September 7). Suspicious? In 'United States Of Paranoia,' It's Not Just You.
Retrieved March 14, 2016, from http://www.npr.org/2013/09/07/219718597/suspicious-in-unitedstates-of-paranoia-its-not-just-you

Teacher comments
Sections of the Paper:
Background

Excellent introduction overall. You immediately "hook" the reader, set up some relevant
background info, and expose your own personal bias. The tone is formal, but also indicates a
sense of humor about the subject. You are clear, concise, and use language variety that keeps
the reading interesting.

Some work to be done on the intro: Your intro seems to stop short, and though you have a
statement which indicates what this paper will do, there is still a bit missing. The sentence There
is something about conspiracy theories that is fundamentally appealing to humanity, and in this paper I will be researching
what it is that draws people to them. indicates WHAT the paper is about, but we need more specifics.

How are you going to address this issue? Have you designed a study? Is there a solution? etc.
In your case, it seems that you have developed a study, so some sort of explanation that is

along the lines of "To further explore our fascination with conspiracy theories, I have developed a
study which..."

Small formatting issue: every time you are discussing the "X-Files" it needs to be in quotation
marks because it is a show. This is proper formatting when naming a show, but like italics is
used for larger works such as film.

Literature Review

Loved the idea of conspiracy theories as a form of political expression; I have always been
fascinated by them, but have never thought of them in this way.

Your lit review was one of the best that I have read amongst my two classes. It is cohesive,
progresses naturally from one topic to the next, and covers all the relevant information with
regards to conspiracy theories and the connection the "X-Files."

Entering the Conversation

Fantastic transition between the lit review and ETC. You connect back to the "body of
literature" while pushing forward to your contribution.

What are you going to do with the data you have collected? How will the data be displayed?
What will we learn as a result, and what can this help us do? You need to address these
questions in a concluding section to the ETC.

Conclusion

The conclusion is very strong; it addresses the major parts of the paper without being
repetitive.

One issue, however, is that the conclusion seems to stop short. The final sentence does not
really bring the paper to a close. I would recommend ending with some questions for further
research, and if you aren't too concerned with being too cliche...perhaps the best last line to the
paper would be "Whether or not there is some grain of truth to be found in conspiracy theories,
two things are clear: 1. We are always going to be fascinated by the notion that somehow "big
brother" is hiding something from us, and 2. The truth is out there."

Checklist:
The paper incorporate reputable sources: Yes.
The citation style used for this paper appeared to be: APA.

 The citation style was correct: Yes.

The paper included a works cited page: Yes. Formatting is a bit off. Second and third lines of
entries should always be indent five spaces.
Grammatical issues? No.