Introduction

Theaimofthisdissertationistoexaminethesocialhistoryofthehighheelthrough
thelensofgender,statusandsexuality.Thehighheelisanobjectofclothing,which
hasgeneratedmuchinterestthroughoutthecenturies.Throughmanydifferenttypes
ofmediaincludingart,literature,andmusic,theheelhasprovokedmuchdiscussion
and is acause of contention amongst modern feminists.In Inge Blackmans and
Kathryn Perrys feminist review titled Skirting the issue, they state that the
argumenthasbeenthatfashionepitomizedwomensconstantstrivingtowardsthe
feminine.Seasonaladjustmentsofstylekeptthemasmuchontheirtoesasthehigh
heelsthatruinedtheirspines.1

Overthepastfewyearshighheelshavebecomemoreextreme,movingfromthe
demure1.5inchto6inchesinelevation.Asof2004thehighestheelscommercially
availablearebootsboastingacombinationof43cm(17in)platformsand51cm(20
in)heels,producedbyJamesSyiemiong(India)forboldnbootiful.cominFebruary
2004.2 Althoughthisheightofshoeisnotsoldinthevastmajorityofhighstreet
stores,thesartorialinfluenceoffiguressuchasthepopstar,LadyGaga,andfashion
designer,VictoriaBeckham,ledtothesaleof9inchheelsin2011.AlistFrench
designersYvesSaintLaurentandChristianLouboutinhavelongfavoredextremely
highstilettoheelsandtheircreationshavegainedthemafirmfollowingofcelebrities
andeverydaypeoplealike.Perhapsmoreworryingthoughisthegrowingtrendof
1IngeBlackmanandKathrynPerry,SkirtingtheIssue:LesbianFashionforthe1990sfeminist
Review,No.34,PerversePolitics:LesbianIssues.PalgraveMcMillanJournals,(1990),accessed
January10,2013.
2GuinnessWorldRecords,accessedMarch1st,2013,www.guinnessworldrecords.com.

2
womenreceivingfootsurgeryinordertogoonwearingheels.Thesurgeryinvolves
collageninjectionsinthepadsofthefeetandhavingyourtoessurgicallyshortened.
Podiatrist Ali Sadrieh who founded the Beverly Hills Aesthetic Foot Surgery in
StudiocityCalifornia,states,It'sunrealistictotellwomennottowearhighheels. 3
Ali has trademarked three unique cosmetic foot procedures called Cinderella
procedure a treatment, which is used to prevent bunions by narrowing the feet.
Secondly there is the Perfect 10!Aesthetic Toe Shortening which trims toes to
prevent them from hanging over sandals. Lastly there is also the FatTuck Pad
Augmentation,whichtakesfatfromthepatientsabdomenandthenisinjectedinto
theballsofthefeettoalleviatepainandpressureonthefeet.AliSadriehgoesonto
explainthat;Icameupwithproceduresthatallowthewomentofunction,painfree,
intherealworld.4 Howeverthishasraisedhugecontroversyamongstorthopedic
foot surgeons, who have blasted the new procedures in a news release in 2010.
Shorteningatoetogetintoatightfittingshoeshouldnotbeastandardofcarein
anyphysician'soffice5,saysDonaldR.Bohay,anorthopedicfootsurgeonandthe
cochairman of Public education for the American Orthopedic Foot and Ankle
Society.

Itisoftenassumedthatthehighheelisarathermoderninventionandalthoughthere
ismuchconfusionastowhenthehighheelwasinvented,researchshows,thatthe
3MelindaBeck,ToetheLine:DoctorsFightCosmeticFootSurgery,TheWallStreetJournal:
HealthJournal,accessedMarch1st,
2013,http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703700904575391033879156718.html.
4MelindaBeck,ToetheLine:DoctorsFightCosmeticFootSurgery,TheWallStreetJournal:
HealthJournal,2010,accessedMarch1st,2013,
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703700904575391033879156718.html.
5MelindaBeck,ToetheLine:DoctorsFightCosmeticFootSurgery,TheWallStreetJournal:
HealthJournal,accessedMarch1st,2013,
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703700904575391033879156718.html.

3
heel can be traced back to ancient Egypt. While there are few extant records to
indicatewhoworeheelsduringtheEgyptianperiod,ithasbeenassumedthatthe
aristocracyworethemtosetthemapartfromthelowerclasses.SteeleF.Stewarts
papertitledFootgearItsHistory,UsesandAbuses,pointsoutthatinthemiddleof
thesecondmillenniumBC,Egyptiansbegantofrequentlyusessandals,Retention
was obtainedgenerallybytheEgyptians byaT orVthong passingthrough the
soleamongthepriestlysandalswhichhavecomedowntousisawoodenpair
elevatedondelicatepiers.6
InadditionEgyptianbutchersusedelevatedshoesformuchmorepracticalpurposes,
inordertokeeptheirfeetcleanofanybloodwhileslaughteringanimals.However
muralshavebeenfounddatingbackto3500BC,whichdepictanearlyversionof
whatisthoughttobehighheels,beingwornbythearistocracy.Bothmenandwomen
worethemanditisthoughttheywereusedforceremonialpurposes.

Thepurposeofthisdissertationistodeterminewhichsectionsofsocietyworehigh
heels and, more importantly, why. Secondly, it will be examined whether status,
gender and sexuality played a significant role. Europe between the sixteenth and
eighteenthcenturywillprovidethegeographicalfocus,withreferencetoNapoleonic
France.AlthoughitshouldbenotedthatshoefashioninAmericawasofverylittle
importance,somuchsothatBernardMursteinnotesItwouldntbeuntilthemid
1800swhenAmericawouldcatchuptoEuropeshoefashion. 7Howeverthesixteenth

6SteeleF.Stewart,FootgearItsHistory,UsesandAbuses,ClinicalOrthopedicsandRelated
Research,Ohio,121122.
7BernardI.Murstein, Love,Sex,andMarriagethroughtheAges, NewYork:SpringerPublishing
Company,1974.

4
toeighteenthcenturyinEuropewillbethemainfocussincethereareafewother
countrieswithsucharichhistoryconcerningthehighheel.

Recent studies on France in this period demonstrate the influence of gender and
status,aswellassexuality,inareasoffashionandtheconsumptionofluxurygoods.
Forexample,duringtheEuropeanrenaissance,thehighheelbecameastatussymbol
wornbybothmaleandfemalesfromthehighersocialstatuses.Ithasbeensuggested
thatwearinghighheelsasafashionstatementwaspioneeredbyCatherinedeMedici
aFranco/Italiannoblewomen.CatherinedeMediciisbelievedtohavewornthemto
impress the French court when she wed the Duke of Orleans, the future king.
Contemporaryaccountsstatethatsheworeheels toboosthertinystatureandto
improve her somewhat plain looks. Her heavy cheeks and bulging eyes were
stubborn features that could not be coaxed away by paint.8 In addition another
referenceismadeaboutherlackofbeautyinabiographyofCatherinedeMedici,

GiorgioVasaripaintedCatherineslifesizeportraitforFrancisandfoundhis
subjectspersonality,ifnotherlooks,quitebeguiling.WhenVasarileftthe
roomtotakeashortbreakduringasitting,Catherineissaidtohavepickedup
the brushes and remodeled her features to resemble those of a Moorish
women.9
Catherine de Medici would often wear heels around the twoinch mark and the
accessorywassoonpopularizedamongstmenandwomenatcourt.Bytheendofthe
sixteenth century high heels became so synonymous with the aristocracy that, a

8LeonieFrieda,CatherinedeMedici,London:Phoenix,2005,P55.
9LeonieFrieda,CatherinedeMedici,London:Phoenix,2005,p48.

5
personofclasswassaidtobewellheeled.CatherinedeMedicihasbeencredited
withassociatingtheheelwithpoweratcourtandwiththeupperechelonsofsociety.

TwohundredyearslaterKingLouisXIVofFrancedecreedthatonlynobilitycould
wear heels. Seventeenthcentury portraits of King Louis XIV depict the various
intricateheelswornbythekingandtheywereoftendecoratedwithminiaturebattle
scenes.TheycametobeknownasLouisheels,andwereintheregionoffive
inchestall.Louissdecreelestalonsrougeprohibitedanyonebutthenobilitytowear
redshoes,whichfurthermorecouldbenohigherthenhis own.Theheelwasso
readily adopted by seventeenthcentury men and by Medicis successor, that two
hundredyearslaterconsequentlygavewaytoculturalfootfetishism.
Additionally,famednovelistRestifdeBretonnethreweroticemphasisonthefinely
archedfootanddelicatelycurvedheel.10AccordingtoDavidKunzlelikethecorset,
highheelssculptedthebodytomakeitappearmorearistocratic,pure,refined,and
desirable.11 ThePuritansintheNewWorldalsonotedthedesirablyaestheticand
erotic nature of the high heel. Bernard Murstein also points out that the
MassachusettsColonyevenpassedalawbanningwomenfromwearinghighheelsto
ensnareamanortheywouldbetriedasawitch.12

A number ofdifferent source materials willbe toucheduponin this dissertation.

Secondaryliteraturewillplayalargerole,withbothhistoricalandfashiongenres
10DavidKunzle,FashionandFetishism:Corsets,TightLacing,andOtherFormsofBody
Sculpting,London:TheHistoryPress,2004.
11DavidKunzle,FashionandFetishism:Corsets,TightLacing,andOtherFormsofBody
Sculpting,London:TheHistoryPress,2004.
12BernardI.Murstein,Love,Sex,andMarriagethroughtheAges,NewYork:SpringerPublishing
Company,1974.

6
beingexaminedtogainawiderperspectiveonthethreeissuesraised.Additionally
primarysourceshavealsoplayedasignificantpartinunderstanding,notonlywho
worehighheelsbutwhytheydid.Theuseofprimarysourceshavegivenamuch
widerperspectiveondifferentsubjectslivesandproblemsfromtheirpointofview.

This study will also draw on a range of media, from examples of historic heels
preserved in fashion museums topaintings and portraits offigures wearing these
items.Cataloguesofshoes,andtextualaccountswillprovideawiderperspectiveon
issuesofgender,sexualityandstatusinthisperiod.
Chapterone:SixteenthcenturyEurope:Anintroductiontothehighheelasasymbol
ofpowerandstatus.

Historians have considered the sixteenth century to be one of the most pivotal
centuriesinthehistoryofhumansduetothefundamentalchangesthattookplace
withinsociety.Thesixteenthcenturywasalsopartoflargerhistoricalerasknownas
the Renaissance and the Baroque period, the former which lasted from the late
fourteenthcenturyallthewaythroughtothesixteenthcentury.

Thebaroqueeraisaperiodinhistorythatcoincidedwiththeseventeenthcentury,
howeveronlytheyearsbetween16001650willbeverybrieflytouchedupontoput
prevailingideasofstatus,genderandsexualityintowidercontext.TheBaroqueera
beganaround1600inRomeandItalybeforespreadingtotherestofEurope.Itwasa
periodofartisticstyleusedtoimplyeccentricity,abnormalityandextravagance.The
RomanCatholicChurchpropagatedthenewartisticstyleinresponsetotheProtestant
Reformation. The Catholic Church felt that the art form should convey religious

7
themes in relation to ones emotional involvement. In reality it was a form of
propagandausedbytheCatholicChurchtorenewpeoplesfaithinthem.

Despitethereligiousandpoliticalagenda,theBaroqueperiodintroducedacolorful,
passionateandextravagantmirageofnewartform.Whichsawadramaticchangein
fashion,waistlinesbecamehigherandtheruffdisappearedinfavoroflinenandbroad
lace. Changes in footwear appeared too, where once the rounded shape of the
previousperiodhaddominated,thesquaretoecameintovogueandlastedthroughout
theentirecentury.
The sixteenth century in England saw the introduction to the one of the most
extravagantperiodsknowntoEuropeintermsofcostumehistory.Itisalsothefirst
periodinhistorywhichmodernideasofhowweclotheourselveshadanimpactand
influenced what people wore. The reason behind this influence was due to
geographicalexpansionoftrade,andexploration.Furthermoreanincreaseinpower
and wealth of monarchies and kingdoms internationally, in France, England and
Spain,heavilycontributedtotheemergenceofideasandfrequentchangesinfashion.
Howeveroneofthemainpiecesofgarmentwhichallowedthepeopleofthesixteenth
centurytoexhibittheirwealth,wastheelevatedshoe. Oneparticularstyleofthe
elevated shoe that became popular around the time of the Renaissance was the
chopine,duetoarenownedinterestinancientGreekandRomanculture.13Figure
oneisanexampleofapairofsixteenthcenturyVenetianchopines.

13 ElizabethSemmelhack,HeightsofFashion:AHistoryoftheElevatedShoe,Toronto:Periscope,
2008,p8.

8
Figure1.CollectionoftheBataShoeMuseum.
P83.338.Venetianlate16thcenturychopine.
These two different styles of Chopines were
considered modest, with the gold velvet covered
chopinemeasuringfiveandahalfinchesinheight.
The Chopine in the background consists of a
wooden platform covered in silk velvet with
embellishmentsandtracksofbraid.Furtheronin
thisdissertation,thereisdiscussionofthechopine
beingworninordertoprotectthewearersclothes
from dirt on the streets. However the use of
luxuriousmaterialswouldsuggestthatmanyofthe
chopineswerewornindoors.

Theexactoriginofthechopineis unknownandtherehavebeenseveraldebates
aboundamonghistoriansonMediterraneanfashion.Ontheonesideoftheargument,
historians have concluded that the Chopine originated from Turkish womens
bathhouseclogsascanbeseeninfigure2.

Thebathhouseclogswereforpracticaluses,
inthattheykepttheirfeetfromcominginto
contact with the heated and slick marble
floors.Howeverothersourcescontendthat
theplatformstylecametoEuropebeforethe

Figure 2. This illustration is taken from Nicolas

Nicolays book Navigations et Peregrinations
orientales, avec les figures et les habillements au
naturel,tantdeshomesquedesfemmes, whichwas
publishedinLyonin1567/68.
TheintentofthebookwastoprovideEuropeanswith
information about the customs and clothing of the
peopleoftheOrient.
Thisillustrationisfromaneditionpublishedin1580,
depictingaTurkishwomanliftingherskirttoreveal
hernalin.

Renaissance and were from the Orient.

Althoughmosthistoricalandfashionarticles
simplyattributeVenicetobethebirthplace
of the chopine in the sixteenth century.
Elizabeth Semmelhack wades into the
argumentbysuggestingthatSpaindeserves
considerationasitsplaceoforigingiventhattheplatformsofmanychopineswere

10
crafted from cork rather than wood.14 Regardless of the endless debate and
discussion over where the chopine originated, the chopine was a popular
accouterment amongst Venetian women and functioned both as a practical and
symbolic function. Harold Koda a fashion scholar and curator for The Costume
Institute,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,explains; thethicksoled,raisedshoe
wasdesignedtoprotectthefootfromirregularlypavedandwetormuddystreets.But
theenhancementofthewearer'sstaturealsoplayedarole.15
In2010anexhibitionattheBataShoeMuseuminTorontoshowcasedmorethan
sixtypairsoftherarestshoesintheworld.AmongsttheshoeswasapairofSpanish
Chopines circa 15801620 and another pair of Chopines from Venice measuring
nearly 20 inches. Elizabeth Semmelhack the museums senior curator states
excessively high chopines in Italy offered the opportunity formore fabric to be
displayedbutitalsoofferedtheopportunityforservantstobedisplayed.16
ElizabethSemmelhackgoesontoexplainthat,
Womenwearingexcessivelyhighchopinescouldnotmanagetowalkwithout
theassistanceofatleasttwoservants.Infact,thereasonwhymenstilloffer
womentheirarmtodaydatesbacktowhenwomenworechopinesandneeded
thatlittleextrahelptobeabletogoforward.17
Itisimportanttonotethatatthebeginningofthefifteenthcentury,thechopinewas
themainsubjectinsermonsandsumptuarylaws.

14ElizabethSemmelhack,HeightsofFashion:AHistoryoftheElevatedShoe,Toronto:Periscope,
2008,p8.
15HaroldKoda,TheChopine.InHeilbrunnTimelineofArtHistory,NewYork:TheMetropolitan
MuseumofArt,2000,accessedMarch1st,2013,
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/chop/hd_chop.htm.
16ElizabethSemmelhack,HeightsofFashion:AHistoryoftheElevatedShoe,Toronto:Periscope,
2008,p8.
17ElizabethSemmelhack,HeightsofFashion:AHistoryoftheElevatedShoe,Toronto:Periscope,
2008,p8.

11
In 1427, saint Bernardino da Siena, whose order, the Zoccolanti, were
renowned for their stilted clogs, criticized womans hand breadth high
chopines(pianelle)asfoolish,dangerousandextravagant,sincetheyrequired
womentospendmoremoneyonclothforlongerdresses.18
In1430theVenetianMajorCouncilprohibitedchopinesmorethanthreeandahalf
inchesinheightanddeclaredthatanywomenwhobrokethelawwouldbeissueda
fine.DespitereligiousclericscondemningchopinesasanaffronttoGodandadanger
tothewearerandtheirsouls,chopinescontinuedtobeworn.Themainreasonforthe
publiccensureofthechopinewasduetotheimproprietysurroundingthem,asthey
were the preferred choice of footwear by Venetian prostitutes. Numerous images
fromthisperiodillustratethispointascanbeseeninfigure3.

Figure3.TheprintistakenfromCesareVecellio,Habiti
antichietmodernidituttoilmondo(AncientandModern
ClothesfromVariousPlacesoftheWorld),1598.
This is a 16th century print of a public prostitute from
Venice.Theprostituteisdepictedherepullingupherskirt
inascandalousmanner.Revealingintheprocessapairof
chopinesandherbraghesse,whichtranslatestounderpants
andisanOttomaninspiredgarment.

18ElizabethSemmelhack,heightsoffashion:AHistoryoftheElevatedShoe,Toronto:Periscope,
2008,p8.

12

However many respectable women still continued to wear chopines albeit more
modestversionscomparedtotheeroticallycharged 19versionsoftheircounterparts.
Figures4and5areexamplesofthemoremodestversionofthechopine.
Figure 4. Portrait of a Genoese Noblewoman, Sir
Anthony van Dyck, 16221627. The Frick Collection,
NewYork.
Figure 5. Collection of the Bata Shoe Museum.
Eventhoughhershoesarehiddenfromtheviewer,this
P91.80.Venetian,late16thcentury.
Genoese noble woman in the portrait painted by
Anthony
van Dyck is most likely wearing a pair of
Displayedhereisanexampleofapairofchopines,
reasonably
high chopines. This conclusion has been
whichtheGenoesenoblewomaninthepaintingabove
arrivedatduetotheoddlyelongatedproportionsofthe
probablywouldhaveworn.Thechopinesdatefrom
lowerbody,whichhavebeenfurtheremphasizedbythe
thelaterpartofthe16thcentury.Howeverbythemid
verticalembellishmentontheskirt.
17thcentury,thechopinehadfallenoutoffashion.

19ElizabethSemmelhack,HeightsofFashion:AHistoryoftheElevatedShoe,Toronto:Periscope,2008,p9.

13

GenderandStatusinthesixteenthcentury

The Orient was a source of great inspiration within Europe during the sixteenth
century,withtheEuropeansbecomingincreasinglyfascinatedwithitscustomsand
clothing. This new interest was further fortified by two particular authors, Pieter
Coecke van Aelst who wrote Moeurs et fachons des Turks in 1553 and Nicolas
Nicolays Navigations et Peregrinationd orientales, avec les figures et les
habillements au naturel, tant des homes que des femmes, 1567/8. In addition
Semmelhackpointsoutthatagentsondiplomaticmissionsplayedapivotalrolein
providingsamplesofNearEasterndress.20Aswithanynewsartorialtrendtheupper

20ElizabethSemmelhack,HeightsofFashion:AHistoryoftheElevatedShoe,Toronto:Periscope,
2008,p12.

14
echelonsofsocietywerealwaysthefirsttodisplaythemastheyhadthefinanceand
resourcestodoso.

Menwerethefirsttostartwearinghighheelsintheearlysixteenthcentury.Itwasa
practicedonnedbytheEuropeanaristocracyinthe1600sasasignofstatus.The
reasoningbehindthischoiceoffootwearwasthatonlysomeonewhodidnthaveto
partakeinmanuallaborcouldtravelaroundinsuchimpracticalfootwear.InJanuary
2013theBBCpublishedanarticletitled,WhydidMenstopwearinghighheels?
chroniclingthemaleandhischoiceoffootwear.ElizabethSemmelhack,curatorof
theBatashoemuseum,states,Thehighheelwaswornforcenturiesthroughoutthe
neareastasaformofridingfootwear.21Theheelwasoriginallywornforpractical
purposesonlyandallowedsoldierstosecuretheirstancewhenengagingincombat,
allowingthemtoshootwithabowandarrowmoreeffectively.Persianowknownas
modern day Iran was in affect the birthplace of the first model of the sixteenth
centuryheel.Anexampleofhowthefirstmodelmayhavelookedcanbeseenin
figure6.

21WilliamKremer,Whydidmenstopwearinghighheels?,BBCNews,January25th,2013,
accessedFebruary17th,2013,http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine21151350.

15

Figure6.CollectionoftheBataShoe
Museum.P90.201.
Thisshoecontainsastackedwoodenheel,
withthebottomsoriginallypaintedredto
indicatepoliticalprivilegeandstatusofthe
wearer.
Theheeledshoeisachildsanddatesback
topossiblythemiddleoftheseventeenth
centuryandmaybeFrenchinorigin.

16
In1559PersiasShahAbbasI,sentadiplomaticmissiontoEurope,callingonthe
courtsofRussia,GermanyandSpain.ThisledtoademandforallthingsPersianin
WesternEurope.ThearistocratsatcourteagerlyadoptedPersianstyleheelsinan
attempttogivetheirimageamasculineedge.Howeverthistrendsoonfiltereddown
to the lower echelons of society, like with all fashions adopted by the elite. A
responsetothiswasforthearistocracytoincreasetheheightoftheheel,thusthe
birthofthehighheel.Semmelhackfurtherexplainswhenthelowerclassesbeganto
wear heeled shoes, the wealthy increased the height of their own heels
dramatically.22 Semmelhack does go on to note that it isnt possible to provide
specificmeasurementstodenotewhentheheelbecomesahighheel.Furthermoretalk
ofwhentheheelbecamehighissubjectiveanddependsentirelyonthecontextofthis
particularperiod.
Inregardstogender,Semmelhackbringsthesubjectofwomenandhighheelsback
intofocus,
Inthe 1630s youhadwomencuttingtheirhair, addingepaulettes totheir
outfitsthey would smoke pipes; they would wear hats that were very
masculine.Andthisiswhywomenadoptedtheheelitwasinaneffortto
masculinizetheiroutfits.23
Itshouldbenotedhoweverthatwomen,eventhosebornintothearistocracywere
stillseenaslesserpeople,andthiswasanotherreasonwhytheheightoftheheel
wasincreased.Inordertomaintainthisdistinctionbetweenmaleandfemale,theheel
wasdividedintotwotypes,fatandskinny.Menworethefatheelandanexamplecan
beseeninfigure7,andthelatterforwomen.
22 ElizabethSemmelhack,heightsoffashion:AHistoryoftheElevatedShoe,Toronto:Periscope,
2008,p17.
23 WilliamKremer,Whydidmenstopwearinghighheels?,BBCNews,January25th,2013,
accessedFebruary17th,2013,http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine21151350.

17

Figure7.CollectionoftheBataShoe
Museum.P06.13.
Thisisanexampleofaseventeenth
century male highheeled shoe.
Heelswornatthistimewereoften
highandwereasignofmasculinity.

Theimageofthemalehighheelinfigure7isaperfectexampleofPierreBourdieus
theoryofclassdistinction.InBourdieusbook

Towardstheendofthesixteenthcenturyanewinventionunfolded,thehighheel.
Likeitspredecessorthechopine,thehighheelwashighlyimpracticalandcouldnot
beusedforleisurelypursuits;itswearersfoundthattheheelwouldsinkintothe
groundaswalkwaysandroadswerenotpavedatthetime.
To rectify the problem the shoe was placed into a flatsoled mule creating an
overshoe. Although unfortunately this new invention didnt do much to help the
wearerastheovershoeproveddifficulttowalkin,despitepreventingthewearerfrom
sinkinginthemud.Howeverthiswasquicklycorrectedbyplacingaflatsoleonthe
bottomoftheheelthuscreatinganewstylecalledtheslapshoe.Perhapssurprisingly
menwerethefirsttoadoptthisveryfemininestyleofshoe,butbythe1630sboth
menandwomenaredepictedwearingthemascanbeseeninfigure8.

18

Figure8.CollectionoftheBataShoeMuseum.P79.588.TheShoemaker,plate4fromTheTrades,
AbrahamBosse,163235.
Thisisa17th centuryetchingtitled TheShoemaker byAbrahamBosse.Theetchingdepictsa
shoemakerfittinghisclientwithapairofslapsoledshoes.Itmaynotbenoticeablebutyoucansee
apairofchopinesbeneathherskirt.Thisetchingprovidesataglance,ashiftinfashionfrom
chopinestohighheels.Figure8aisacloseupoftheslapsoledshoethatisbeingfittedonthe
client.

Figure8a

19
Sexualityinthesixteenthcentury

Thereisanabundanceofarticles,televisionprogramsandacademicpapersonthe
subject of sexuality and the high heel in the twenty first century. Many
anthropologistshavesuggestedthatwearinghighheelsisabehaviorconsistentwith
human concerns about attracting oppositesexed mating partners.24 A sentiment,
whichhasproved,correctandhasbeenexploredfurtheroninthisdissertationin
regardstoCatherinedeMedici.Thereishoweververylittlecomprehensiveresearch
into sixteenth century ideas of sexuality concerning the high heel. Therefore an
anthropologicalapproachhasalsobeentakeninordertobetterunderstandsexuality
inthesixteenthcenturyinregardstohighheels.Inadditionhistoricalimageswillbe
usedandexaminedtoseeifthereareanydifferencesinthewaymaleandfemalesare
situatedandplacedwhilstdisplayingfootwear.Thisshouldprovidesomeinsightinto
placingthehighheelintosexualcontextinthesixteenthcentury.

Therehavebeenfewwomenthroughouthistorywhohavemadesuchanimpactupon
societyandbreakawayfromthesocietalnormsandviewsconfinedtowomen,in
regardstofashion.CatherinedeMedicihoweverhasbeencreditedwithintroducing
theformalinventionofthehighheelintomainstreamfashion.CatherinedeMedici,
bornCaterinaMariaRomuladeMediciwasanItalian/Franconoblebornin1519.
TheMedicifamilywasamongoneofthemostpowerfulfamiliesintheworld.They
ruledoverFlorenceandlaterTuscany,producedthreepopesandheavilypatronized
thearts;furthermoretheyensuredthattheyhadlonglastinginfluencewithinEurope
24E.O.Smith,HighHeelsandEvolutionNaturalselection,Sexualselectionandhighheels,Atlanta:
EmoryUniversityPress,1999,p3.

20
bywayofmarriage.25
In1553CatherinedeMedicimarriedtheDukeofOrleans,secondsonofthekingof
FranceatthetenderageoffourteentoformapoliticalalliancebetweenFranceand
Italy.Facedwiththeprospectofnotonlymarryingamanwhotreatedhiswifewith
civility,hisindifferencetoherwasobviousforalltosee 26,butenteringFrenchcourt
whichwasarguablyoneofthefinestonearth,causedmuchinsecurityforthewould
beprincess.Armedwiththefearthatherplainlookscouldntpossiblybeamatchfor
thesplendidlyglamorousFrenchcourtandthosewhoresidedinit,Catherinesought
theaidofaningeniousFlorentineartisan.27Historiansandscholarshaveattemptedto
unearththeFlorentineartisanwithoutyieldinganyresults.Itcouldbearguedthat
CatherinedeMediciwasoneofthefirsttousethehighheelasasexualobject.

Tobringthediscussionbacktoananthropologicalperspective,thereareanumberof
theoretical theories to explain and interpret wearing heels, such as symbolic and
feministamongstothers.Howeverplacingthisintohistoricalcontextgoeswithout
sayingthatwearingheelsinthesixteenthcenturywasaculturaltraitfollowingno
particularunderlyingevolutionarypredisposition,butreflectingculturalascriptionof
genderandstatus.28Asalreadyaforementionedwhendiscussinggenderandstatusof
thehighheel,itwasmenwhofirstdebutedtheheelwithwomenshortlyfollowing
suit.Furthermoreinordertomaintainadistinctionbetweenthesexes,thefatand
skinnyheelwascreatedwiththeformerbeingwornbymen.Womenadoptedtheheel
25PaulAurandt,TransformationofCatherinedeMedici,LakelandLedger,April16th,1982,
accessedMarch17th,2013,news.google.com/newspapers.
26LeonieFrieda,CatherinedeMedici,London:Phoenix,2005,p51.
27PaulAurandt,TransformationofCatherinedeMedici,LakelandLedger,April16th,1982,
accessedMarch17th,2013,http://news.google.com/newspapers.
28E.O.Smith,HighHeelsandEvolutionNaturalselection,Sexualselectionandhighheels,Atlanta:
EmoryUniversityPress,1999,p6.

21
inthe1630sbecauseasSemmelhackpointedoutwomenwantedtomasculinize
theiroutfits.E.OSmithreinforcesthisideabysuggestingthatwearingheelscould
beatypeofculturallydefinedgendermarkingoftheinferiorstatusofwomenina
patriarchalsociety.29

Whentakingallofthisintoconsideration,onecouldgoasfartosuggestthatthe
chopinewasinventedaswayofkeepingwomensubordinatetomenandplacingthem
inasexualdocilepositionwithinsociety.Thatbeingsaiditishardtryandfindsome
sortofcomprehensiblesenseofsexualityandfemininity,oritsconstructionwhen
dealingwithsocialconstructssuchassexualityanditslinktotheelevatedshoe.This
ispartlyduetothefactthatearlymodernfashionanditsidentity,ishardtoconfine.It
isforthisveryreasonthatthechopinehasbeencriticizedasavanityofwomen. 30
Moreconfusinglyhowever,Semmelhacksexhibitiononthechopinerevealedthat
thechopinewas,categorizedasthefoundationgarmentofcourtesansandprostitutes,
butatthesametimeitwasstatussymbolforvirtuouswomenvirtuallyasignifierof
thepatricianbrideinVenice.31

The manifold meanings of the chopine have caused much confusion, more
specificallythefamousmisinterpretationofVittoreCarpaccioTwoVenetianLadies
ascanbeseeninfigure9below.
29E.O.Smith,HighHeelsandEvolutionNaturalselection,Sexualselectionandhighheels,Atlanta:
EmoryUniversityPress,1999,p12.
30Colin.A.Murray,OnaPedestal.FromRenaissanceChopinestoBaroqueHeels,Toronto:Bata
ShoeMuseum,2009,accessedMarch10th,2013,http://arthist.net/reviews/357/view=pdf.
31Colin.A.Murray,OnaPedestal.FromRenaissanceChopinestoBaroqueHeels,Toronto:Bata
ShoeMuseum,2009,accessedMarch10th,2013,http://arthist.net/reviews/357/view=pdf.

22

Figure 9. Two Venetian Ladies. 1510. Vittore Carpaccio. Available from

http://www.wga.hu/framese.html?/html/c/carpacci/5/01ladies.html, accessed April
16th,2013.
Thepaintingwasoriginallythoughttodepicttwocourtesans,whichinRenaissance
Europecametoreferastherulersmistress.Howeveruponfurtherinspectionmodern
arthistorianshavearguedthatitislikelythatthetwowomenaremembersofthe
patricianTorellafamily(motheranddaughter).Thisisduetotheirfineryandpearl
necklaces.Objectswithinthepaintingsuchasthewhitehandkerchief,pearls,andthe
doveareallsymbolsofchastity.Thechopines,whichareinthelefthandsideofthe
painting, have perhaps caused confusion resulting in several debates amongst the
academia,duetothedualmeaningsofthechopineinthesixteenthcentury.
Thepaintingisbelievedtobeaquarteroftheoriginalworkandconsistsofother

23
panels.Figure10belowispartoftheTheVenetianLadiesandisnamedHunting
onthelagoon.Thefurtherdiscoveryofthispanelhasagainreinforcedearlymodern
arthistoriansargumentsthatthepaintingdepictsmembersofthepatricianTorella
family.

Figure10.TheJ.PaulGettyMuseum.79.PB.72.VittoreCarpacciosHuntingonthe
Lagoon.
Thepaintingportraysseveralboatsinalagoonandwouldreinforceearlysuggestions
putforwardbyearlymodernarthistorians.

Conclusionofthesixteenthcentury

SixteenthcenturyEuropesawunprecedentedchangesinsocial,economic,religious
andpoliticalaspects.Thisinevitablyhadanimpactonthewaysocietychosetoadorn
themselves,andthemannerinwhichtheydidsowasareflectionofthis.

24
Reviewingallthehistoricalinformationonthehighheelitisclearthatnotonlywas
this accoutrement worn purely to signify ones social status when it first became
fashionableatFrenchcourt,butwasworntoexhibitasenseofmasculinity.Asearlier
discussed, women adopted the elevated shoe around the 1630s in an attempt to
masculinizetheiroutfits,perhapshopingtobeseenasmansequal.Howeverifthis
wasthedesireofthearistocraticwomen,ithadlittleaffectsincetwotypesofheel
wereinventedtomaintainthedistinctionbetweenmanandwomen.Thusarguingthat
theelevatedshoewasaculturaldefinerofgender,markingwomenasinferiorina
patriarchalsociety.Thelatterisarguablyupfordebate,howeveranexhibitiononthe
chopineputonbyElizabethSemmelhackoftheBataShoeMuseum,broughtupan
interestingalbeitconfusingissue,thedualityofthenatureofthechopine.Venetian
prostitutes and courtesans favored the chopine, which led to the censure of the
chopinein1430.Ontheotherhandthechopinewasasymbolforvirtuouswomen,
oftenwornbypatricianbrides.
Menusedtheelevatedshoetosolidifytheirmasculinityandexerttheirpowerover
societyandmoreimportantlyoverwomen.Thisismadeclearbythedistinctioninthe
typeofheelscreatedfortheoppositesexes.Whilstexaminingpaintingsdepicting
womenofdifferentsocialstandingswearingchopines,itcanbedeterminedthatthey
were used to limit activity of the wearer. Thus keeping women in a subordinate
positionwithinsociety.

25

Chaptertwo:SeventeenthcenturyEurope:settingthescene
Chapteronesawtheintroductionofhowtheheelbecamethehighheelandhowit
becameasymbolofstatus.Chaptertwoisacontinuationofthisandwillbeginto
lookatthehighheelinmoredepthbydelvingintogenderandsexuality,andits
associationinregardtothehighheel.Itmustbenotedhoweverthatgender,sexuality
and status are inextricably linked, sometimes making it hard to define their
boundaries.

Inordertounderstandthechangeinthehighheelandthewayitimpactedupon
gender,statusandsexuality,seventeenthcenturyEuropemustbeputintocontext.
SeventeenthcenturyEuropesawitselfgothroughgreatchangeandupheavalinevery
aspect.Itisatthispointthatanewsocialgroupemergedcalledmiddling;theirrank
puttheminbetweenthelandedgentryandtherestofsociety.SusanKingsleyKent
explains,

26
Inpolitics,manyofthesemiddlingpeople,andpuritansdrawnfromthe
gentry,resistedtheeffortsoftheStuartkingstoruleabsolutely,andfoughta
civilwarinordertoassertthesupremacyofparliament.Withinthefamily,
sonschallengedtheirfathersfortherighttoinheritproperty,wivesdemanded
morethanmerespiritualequalitywiththeirhusbands.32
Thisnewsocialordersawmainstreamfashionchangedramaticallyasitbeganto
reflectthestringentsocialdivideswithinthecommunity,suchasreligion,classand
nationality.InadditiontotherapidsocialandeconomicchangesinEngland,France
begantoemergeasoneofthegreatestpowersinEurope.Thiswaslargelydownto
three kings, Henry IV, Louis XIII and Louis XIV, weakening the power of the
magnates(nobility).Withtheirexpansionofroyalabsolutism,Francebecameamajor
powerwithinEurope.Asaresultfashionbegantoreflectthepoliticalandreligious
changes,asdidtheevergrowingdividebetweensocialdivisions.

ItwasinFrancethatfootwearbecameanessentialaccoutrementinthefirstpartof
the seventeenth century. It was one of the many domains that French craftsmen
excelledat,andalmostallstylesofshoesthathavebeenworneversincewerecreated
atthispoint.ForexampletheLouisortheLouisFrenchbecameasignaturestyle
ofheelwornandmadepopularbythesunkinghimself.TheLouisfeatureda
curvedheel,inwhichthesoleoftheshoerisesupandunderthearchandbackdown
againtowardsthefrontoftheheel.Figure11isanexampleofaLouis,datingback
to18901920,featuringwhiteleatherheelsandliningandcomprisingofgreenvelvet
upperswithgreenleatherweltembroidery.

32SusanKingsleyKent,GenderandPowerinBritain,16401990,London:Routledge,1999,P3.

27
Figure11.BrooklynMuseumCostumeCollectionatThe
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of the Brooklyn
Museum, 2009; Gift of Cooper Union Museum, 1951.
Accessionnumber:2009.300.4628a,b
ThismuleisofFrenchoriginanddatesbackto18901920.
Althoughnotfromtheseventeenthcentury,itistheclosest
reallifeexampletoaLouisheel.Themulewasstamped
with costa, as was de rigor in France during the
seventeenth century, Article 35 of the statutes, which
governedovertheguildofCordonniersorderedeveryshoe
producedbyaguildmembertobestamped.Thiswasso
thatitwaspossibletodeterminewheretheshoewasmade.

Statusandpoliticsintheseventeenthcentury

Unlikehispredecessor,CatherinedeMedici,LouisXIVistheonlypersoninhistory
thathasbeenmorecloselyidentifiedwithwearinghighheelsthenanyoneelseto
date. LouisXIVofFrancewasthesixteenthcenturyequivalenttotodaysImelda
Marcos,thelatterofwhichownedthreethousandpairsofshoes.LouisXIVstoodata
diminutive5ft4inchesandincreasedhisstaturewith4inchheels,decoratedwith
depictionsofbattlescenes.

28

Figure12.LouisXIV,KingofFrance,HyacintheRigaud,1701.MuseeduLouvre,Paris.Reunion
desMuseesNationaux/ArtResource,NY.
KingLouisXIVhasbeendisplayedasthedivinechosenmonarchofFrance.Hiswhiteshoes,with
theheelcoveredinredleatherwereafeaturereservedonlyfortheFrencharistocracy.

JoanDeJeanverifiesLouisXIVloveofoverthetopfootwearwhenshedescribes
howLouisXIVvisitedBordeauxbeforeembarkinguponhismarriagetotheinfanta
ofSpain. NicolasLestagewhowastheofficialbootmeistertothekingpresented
LouisXIVwithapairofshoes,
Heconfected(withoutevenhavingmeasuredtheroyalfoot)apairofmens
pumpsdescribedastrulybreathtaking:pumpsuponwhichlilieswereheaped
upon lilies, burnished by solid gold, made of honey colored Oriental
silk/Linedwithtaffetainthemonarchscolor.33
Inthe1670sLouisXIVissuedanedict,forbiddinganyoneotherthenthoseinhis
courttowearredheels.Thesoleandheelofashoewasdyedred,asitwasan
33JoanDeJean,TheEssenceofStyle,London:FreePress,2005,p87.

29
importantcolourforthemonarchyduetosumptuarylawsandthehighcostofdye,it
alsocarriedwithitmaritalovertones.EventhoughtheFrenchmonarchyhadbeen
wearingredheelssincetheearly1600s,theywereespeciallydeartoLouisXIV.
HistorianPhilipManselpointsoutthatthepaintedheelsshowedthatnoblesdidnot
dirtytheirshoes34hecontinuesthattheyalsodemonstratedthattheirwearers,were
alwaysreadytocrushtheenemiesofthestateattheirfeet.35
LouisXIVdeclaredthatonlythosearistocratsgrantedaccesstohiscourtbeallowed
towearshoeswithredheels36,intheprocessLouisXIVturnedthisfashiontrend
intoasignifierofpoliticalprivilege.37InFrancehowevertheredsoleandtheheel
hadanunequivocalmeaningofstatusandpower,andwasavisibleindicatorofsocial
status. OnthecontraryredsolesinEnglandhadanentirelydifferentmeaningand
wereseenasthemarkofadandy,aslavetoFrenchfashion.Towardsthesecondhalf
oftheseventeenthcenturyadditionaltoucheswereadded.Thisideaofshowcasing
privilegeandstatusthroughthemeansoffootwearbecameevidentintheseventeenth
century.

Likethesecondhalfofthesixteenthcentury,thetypeofheelwornbymenand
womenofthearistocracywereverydifferentinstyle.Asyoucanseeinfigure13,
mens heels featured a square toe cap and a thick squared block heel, whereas
womensheelsbecamehigherwiththetoecapdelicatelytaperingtoasoftpointas
showninfigure14.
34PhilipMansel,DressedtoRule:RoyalandCourtCostumefromLouisXIVtoElizabethII,USA:
YaleUniversityPress,2005.
35PhilipMansel,DressedtoRule:RoyalandCourtCostumefromLouisXIVtoElizabethII,USA:
YaleUniversityPress,2005.
36JoanDeJean,TheEssenceofStyle,London:FreePress,2005,p89.
37JoanDeJean,TheEssenceofStyle,London:FreePress,2005,p90.

30

Figure 13.Collection of the Bata Shoe

Museum.P93.62.
The distinction between men and womens
footwearisveryapparenthere.Thispairofmens
muleswasconsideredhighandfeaturesawide
and domineering heel compared to the heel in
figure14.

Figure14.CollectionoftheBataShoe
Museum.P90.186.Italian,c.1700.
This heel conveys all the hallmarks of
femininity and superiority. The heel is
coveredinoxbloodcoloredleather,with
an embroidered silk upper and a
diamantebuckle.

31
Thesquaretoedsolidheelforthemanrepresentedsocioeconomicauthority. 38For
women,Semmelhackexplainshighheelsexpressedstatusbutalsomadethefoot
appear dainty39, an example of this aristocratic ideal can be seen in Charles
PerraultsCinderella,publishedin1695.

Figure15isanotherexampleofgenderedfootwearandhowtheshapeoftheheel
suggestedfeminineidealsintheseventeenthcentury.Intheengraving,onlythepoint
oftheshoecanbeseenpokingoutbeneaththeladysdress.Theseventeenthcentury
sawtheheelforwomenbecomenarrowerastosuggestanarrowfoot.Thisshapealso
reflectedthecurrentsartorialtrends,whichbecamepopularinsecondhalfofthe
seventeenthcentury.

38 ElizabethSemmelhack,HeightsofFashionAHistoryoftheElevatedShoe, Toronto:Periscope,
2008,p21.
39 ElizabethSemmelhack,HeightsofFashionAHistoryoftheElevatedShoe,Toronto:Periscope,
2008,p21.

32

Figure 15. Bibliotheque des Arts Decoratifs,

Paris/ Archives Charmet/ The Bridgeman Art
LibraryInternational.
The Night, Lady Going to Bed, French, second
halfofthe17thcentury.

GenderandSexualexpressionintheseventeenthcentury

Sexual expression through the means of wearing high heels was not explicit in
seventeenthcenturyEurope.Howeveroneonlyhastoexaminethefootwearatthis
timetoseethatseventeenthcenturyfashiondecreedwomentohavesmallfeet.This
wasinpartduetoexternalsartorialinfluencesofChinesefashionandculture.

FootbindingwasapracticecarriedoutinChina,whichinvolvedbindingthefeetof
femalesfromasyoungasthreeyearsold.Theprocessinvolvedbindingthefeetwith
cottonbandagesbeforethearchofthefoothadachancetodevelopfully.Allofthe
toesexceptthebigtoewouldbecurvedunderinordertoachievewhatwasknownas
the lotus shape. Tim Edwards author of Fashion in Focus explains that the
Golden Lotus is an ancient symbol within Chinese culturethat celebrates the

33
smallness of the feet here to less than three inches and led to the notorious
traditionoffootbinding.40
Tohaveboundfeetwasseenasastatussymbol,aswastheredsoleoftheLouis
heelatthistime.Topossesssmallfeetwasconsideredbeautiful,feminineandwasa
prerequisiteformarriage.FurthermoreonlyahandfuloftheChinesepopulationcould
affordtoboundtheirdaughtersfeetasitimpliedtheywerewealthyenoughnottolift
afinger,henceboundfeetwereseenasanindicatorofonessocialstatus.Many
westernscholarshaveputforwardvaryingtheoriesasawaytointerpretthereasons
behindfootbinding,oneofthembeingofaneroticnature.Edwardsgoesontonote
thatwhatisofinteresthereispreciselyistheintertwiningofstatus,sexualityand
genderasthesmallfootwassymbolicofbotharistocraticstatusandintenseeroticism
forwomensfeetthatis.41

Footbindingwasatitsheightduringtheseventeenthcentury,andhadanimpacton
Europeanfashion.R.TurnerWilcoxdescribes theconsequencesofhowladiesin
Europewouldresorttoextremesinordertohavesmallfeet,onedayattheFrench
court,duringaceremony,severalofthequeensmaidsofhonorfaintedawayfrom
painoccasionedbytightlyboundfeet.42Itwasalsoatthistimethatthesedanchair
arrivedmakingitpossibleforwomenofthebeaumondetowalkaslittleaspossible.
In figures 16 and 17, an example of a lotus foot can be seen, along with the
influenceonseventeenthcenturyEuropeanfootwear.

40 TimEdwards,FashioninFocusConcepts,PracticesandPolitics,London:Routledge,2010,p80.
41TimEdwards,FashioninFocusConcepts,PracticesandPolitics,London:Routledge,2010,p80.
42R.TurnerWilcox,TheModeInFootwear,London:DoverPublications,2008,p109.

34
Figure16.MyfanawyEvans,ThepainfulTraditionof
Foot Binding in China, Pattaya Daily News,
September 16th, 2010, accessed April 16th, 2013,
http://www.pattayadailynews.com/en/2010/09/16/the
painfultraditionoffootbindinginchina/
Thisisaphotographicimageofafootthathasbeen
Figure17.BrooklynMuseumCostumeCollection
bound,apracticethatwaspopularsince700AD.The
atTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,Giftofthe
desiredmeasurementsoffeetwerearound3inches,
BrooklynMuseum,2009;GiftofMrs.Clarence
andwereknownastheGoldenLotus.
R.Hyde,1928.
This pair of seventeenth century heels closely
resembles the shape of the lotus foot in the
practice of foot binding in Chinese tradition.
Comprisingofsilk,metalandleather,thispairof
heelsisEnglishinoriginanddatesbackto1732
59.

35

Figure 18. Accession Number: 1982.338a.

Late 19th early 20th century.
These are a pair of Lotus shoes and were
wornbyChinesewomen,whohadendured
the foot binding process. These shoes
measureat5andathalfinches, which was
quite large since 3 inches, was the
desired measurement.

Towardstheendoftheseventeenthcenturyanothertypeofshoecameintothepublic
spectrum,themule.Onceoriginallyreservedfortheboudoir,themulebecameyet
anothersymbolofstatusandgrandeur,fashionplatesmakeitclearthatthemulewas
thefootwearofchoicetoaccompanythatrevolutionarynewwayofdressing. 43The
muleoftenconsistedofaveryhighheelandwerederigueurwiththedeshabille. 44
43 JoanDeJean,TheEssenceofStyle,London:FreePress,2005,p97.
44 JoanDeJean,TheEssenceofStyle,London:FreePress,2005,p97.

36
Thestylewasalsoconsideredtobeoneofthemostsexuallydesirablenewstylesof
footwear.

Itwasaristocraticwomenwhobegantodisplaythemuleinpublic,asdepictedin
fashionplates.OneengravingfeaturesComtessedOlonnedisplayingapairofred
highheeled mules in church, she was literally making a display of herself,
ostentatiouslyshowingoffinpublicfootwearmadeflagrantlysexybyitslinkstothe
intimacyoftheboudoir.45
Figure 19. Collection of Bibliotheque
nationaledeFrance. MadamelaComtesse
d'Olonneestantal'Eglise.

Ladiesatcourt,whowereconsidereddaringandmorallyloose,suchasComtesse
dOlonne,pavedthewayforthemuletobeseenasthestatusfootwearforballsand
glamsoirees.46
The mule was soon seen as a provocative accoutrement as it left the foot half
undressedandcouldbeeasilykickedoffidealfordanglingprovocativelyfromthe
toesseventeenthcenturyParisthemulequicklyleftbehinditspastasahumble
bedroomslipperandbecamethedeshabillenegligeoffootwear,thesexistshoein
45 JoanDeJean,TheEssenceofStyle,London:FreePress,2005,p97.
46 JoanDeJean,TheEssenceofStyle,London:FreePress,2005,p98.

37
town.47 InFragonardspainting(whichcanbeseeninfigure21)hintsthatitmay
well be the end of the golden age of the mule the century inaugurated by the
ComtessedOlonneskillerredmodelandbroughttoanabruptendbytheFrench
Revolution.48
Conclusionoftheseventeenthcentury

Distinctionsbetweenmaleandfemalefootwearwasamirroroftheculturalshiftsthat
tookplaceatthebeginningoftheseventeenthcenturyupuntil1790.Semmelhack
pointsoutthatformenparticipationinfashionwasbecomingproscribedastheseeds
werebeingsownfortheGreatMaleRenunciation. 49 Wereoncementookgreat
prideanddelightindisplayingtheirwealthandstatusthroughostentatiousdisplaysof
dress,theendoftheseventeenthcenturysawthehighheelasthefirstarticleof
fashiontobeabandonedinfavorofamorerefinedstyle(figure20).
Howeverwomenwerestilltreatedassubordinatetomenandthecleardistinctions
betweenmaleandfemalefootwearhighlightedthis.Itwouldtakeanothercentury
untilthehighheelwouldceasetobeahindrancetowomen.

47 JoanDeJean,TheEssenceofStyle,London:FreePress,2005,p98.
48 JoanDeJean,TheEssenceofStyle,London:FreePress,2005,p99.
49ElizabethSemmelhack,HeightsofFashionAHistoryoftheElevatedShoe,Toronto:Periscope,
2008,p25.

38

Figure 20. Charlottenburg Castle, Stiftung Preussische Schlosser & Garten Berlin
Brandenburg,Berlin.BildarchivPreussischerKulturbesitz/ArtResource,NY.
DeclarationofLove,JeanFrancoisdeTroy,1731.

Thispaintingillustratesthedifferenceinmaleandfemalefootwearintheeighteenth
century.Theladysituatedatthecenterofthepaintingiswearingdaintysilkcovered
highheeledmuleswhilsthersuitorsportsapairofplainblackleatherheels.Mules
madeofhighqualitymaterialsweretobewornininformalsettings.

Chapterthree:Theeighteenthcentury,acontinuationofstatus,genderandsexuality.

39
EighteenthcenturyEuropewentthroughaperiodofsocial,politicalandintellectual
adjustmentandwasknownastheperiodofEnlightenment.Ideasthathadbeen
articulatedahundredyearspreviouslywerenowbeingimplementedonabroader
scale. In academia new fields of calculus and mechanics were being explored,
influencingthewaypeopleviewedtheuniverse.JohnLockeandThomasHobbes
brought along new political ideas of democracy resulting of questioning and
challengingmonarchialpowerstructuresacrossEurope.TheEnlightenmenthowever,
resultedintheFrenchandAmericanrevolutions;theformerwouldseeahugeimpact
uponthehighheel.

ArgumentsformulatedasaresultoftheEnlightenment,endorsedtheideathatmen
fromallclasseswereuniquelyendowedwithrationalthought.50Aswasparforthe
course,womenwereepitomizedasinherentlydeficientinrationalfacultiesandunfit
for education, citizenship, and control of property. 51 Womens inborn proclivity
towardsfoolishadornment52,wasproofofthisnotionandwearinghighheelsonly
providedfurtherindicationofthisfailing.Mensrejectionoffrivolityintheformof
fashionandhighheelswasseenasthemconformingtotheirintrinsicallyvirtuous
sense.

50ElizabethSemmelhack,HeightsofFashionAHistoryoftheElevatedShoe,Toronto:Periscope,
2008,p25.
51ElizabethSemmelhack,HeightsofFashionAHistoryoftheElevatedShoe,Toronto:Periscope,
2008,p25.
52ElizabethSemmelhack,HeightsofFashionAHistoryoftheElevatedShoe,Toronto:Periscope,
2008,p25.

40

Genderandstatusintheeighteenthcentury

WhilstsixteenthandseventeenthcenturyFrancehadenjoyedgreatpoliticalpower
andinfluenceinareassuchasfashionoverEurope,Franceintheeighteenthcentury
watchedtheirmonarchycollapse.Accordingtothegeneralpopulace,thecollapseof
theancienregimewasaresultofwomenabusingpowerandusingmanipulationasa
tactictodissipatemenandtheirwealth.MarieAntoinettebecamesynonymouswith
her reckless extravagance53 and was pilloried even long after she had been
beheaded.

Inadditionthesecondhalfoftheeighteenthcenturysawasuddensurgeofinterestin
the position of women and their role within society. However the focus of such
53 ElizabethSemmelhack,HeightsofFashionAHistoryoftheElevatedShoe,Toronto:Periscope,
2008,p27.

41
debatewasmostlycenteredonwomenseducation,althoughavastproportionof
theseideascamefrommen.FrancoisFenelonaFrenchtheologianarguedwomen
wouldnotbedestinedforpublicofficeandthattheirinfluencewouldbethroughthe
homeandfamily.54Thelatterviewwascommonatthispointandwhilsttherewere
otherwriters,maleandfemalealikewhobegantoquestiontheroleandstatusof
women,themajoritystillfeltthatwomenwerebeneathmenandwereonlyofuseat
home.

Issuesrelatingtogenderanddresscontinuedwellintotheeighteenthcenturywiththe
subjectattractingmuchdiscoursetobecenteredonpossession,andtheexerciseof
reason.MaryWollstonecroft,aBritishwriter,philiopsherandastongadvocatefor
womensrightsreasonedthatwomendevelopskillsindressing,notbecauseofa
natural born love of fashion, but because it is the only instrument of power
availabletothem55(seefigure21).

54EvaJacobs,W.H.Barber,JeanH.Bloch,F.W.Leakey,EileenLeBreton,Womenandsocietyin
eighteenthcenturyFrance,London:AthlonePress,1979,p4.
55 ElizabethSemmelhack,HeightsofFashionAHistoryoftheElevatedShoe,Toronto:Periscope,
2008,p25.

42

At the same time Mary Wollstonecraft was

composingAVindicationoftheRightsofWoman,
France watched as its monarchy began to fall
apart.AsFrancewasgoingthrougharevolution,
high heels began to fall out of favor all across
Europe due to its associations with the

Figure21.CollectionoftheBataShoeMuseum.By
kind permission of the Trustees of The Wallace
Collection, London. The Swing, JeanHonore
Fragonard,c.1767.
A young woman who is dressed in the latest
fashions, perched on a swing. A clergyman is
pushingtheyounggirl,whilstabesottedBaronde
SaintJulien (a nobleman who commissioned the
painting)looksupheradoringly.Hisgazeisfixed
firmlyonherskirts,assheisthefocusofhisdesire
andherapparentpoweroverhim.
Thetinymules,whichshehasplayfullykickedoff,
suggestanairofintimacy.

aristocracy. Napoleon Bonaparte became the

Emperor of the French in 1804 and in 1791
implementedthe CodecivildesFranois, laying
outthelegalrightsofmenandwomen.Underthe
Napoleoniccodehighheelswerebannedandby
theendoftheeighteenthcenturytheheightofthe
heelhadbeenreducedsodramatically,thatitresemblancewasclosertoaflatshoeas
canbeseeinfigure22.

Figure 22.Collection of the Bata Shoe

Museum.P88.148.American,c.1790s.

Democratic and political ideas of the late eighteenth

centurysawtherapiddeclineofthehighheel,whilsta
renewedinterestinGreekandRomanantiquitiesmade
thehighheelevenmoreundersirable.Inadditionwestern
movement,Neoclassicism,hadanimpactondressandby
the nineteenth century most women who were fashion

AlthoughnotEuropeaninorigin,theseblack
leather shoes were a reflection of the new
restraints geared towards making footwear
more modest. The bright pink leather
embroiderystilldrawsattention.

43
consciousadoptedsimplewhitedressesandflatsandalsinanodtoancientdress
(figure22).

Figure23.CollectionoftheBataShoeMuseum.
P88.53.Italian,17951805.
Excavations that took place at Pompeii and
Herculaneumintheeighteenthcenturysparkedan
interestintheancientworld.Womenwhowere
daringenoughwoulddonneoclassicalfashion.

Sexualexpressionandfemalepoliticsintheeighteenthcentury

Liberalism in the Reform Act of 1832, denied women any kind of political
citizenship. The irony being the contradiction between, a set of philosophical
ideologiesthatbroughtdownthepowerandauthorityofthearistocracy,enablingthe

44
enfranchisementofmiddleclass,andlaterworkingclassmen. 56 Yetontheother
hand, women were denied full citizenship on the account of their biological and
characterologicaldifferences.
Theeighteenthcenturyalsosaw constructions offemininityevolve,consistingof
antitheticalqualities;feeling,submissive,dependent,selfsacrificingandpassive.
This collapsing of sex and gender of the physiological organism with the
normativesocialcreationmadeitpossibleforwomentobeconstructedasatonce
pureandpurelysexual.57 Althoughcontradictory,thisdefinitionoffemininitystill
sawwomensubordinatetomen. Inturnthismadefemalefashionverydifficult,
womenhadtobecarefulinhowtheypresentedthemselvestotheoutsideworlddue
to the new identity constructions of femininity. On the one hand indifference to
fashionwasseenasunnaturalandwasnotdesirableorfeminine;toomuchattention
todresswasseenasmorallycorruptandsuspect.Semmelhackarguesthatdresswas
constructedasapotentialtoolofwilyfemininedeceitthatcouldbeusedtoensnare
menbytargetingtheoneareawheretheyadmittedalackofreasonsexualdesire. 58
Britishwriter,MaryWollstonecraft,highlightedtheissuein AVindicationofthe
RightsofWomen whichwaspublishedin1792.Wollstonecrafttakesissuewitha
piece of work written by Dr. Gregory, a Fathers Legacy to his Daughters, she
asserts:
Headvisesthemtocultivateafondnessfordress,heasserts,isnaturalto
them.IamunabletocomprehendwhateitherheorRousseaumean,when
theyfrequentlyusethisindefiniteterm.Iftheytoldus,thatinapreexistent
statethesoulwasfondofdress,andbroughtthisinclinationwithitintoanew
body,Ishouldlistentothemwithahalfsmile,asIoftendowhenIheararant
aboutinnateelegance.Butifheonlymeanttosaythattheexerciseofthe
56SusanKingsleyKent,GenderandPowerInBritain,16401990,London:Routledge,p179.
57SusanKingsleyKent,GenderandPowerInBritain,16401990,London:Routledge,p179.
58ElizabethSemmelhack,HeightsofFashionAHistoryoftheElevatedShoe,Toronto:Periscope,
p25.

45
facultieswillproducethisfondness,Idenyit.Itisnotnatural;butarises,like
falseambitioninmen,fromaloveofpower.59
Wollstonecraftarguedthatwomendevelopedaloveofdressingbecauseitwasthe
onlywayinwhichwomencouldexertanykindofpower.

Thedeclineinthehighheelwasnotonlydowntopoliticalordemocraticideals,but
rather a rejection of ideals formulated that defined women. A new concept of
domesticityandmotherhoodbegantoemergeaspresentedbyJeanJacquesRousseau.
Theideologywasthatwomenhadtheresponsibilityofmaintainingmoralityand
purity.60 Inthelateeighteenthcenturyandearlynineteenthcentury,theperceived
perceptionofwomenbeingsexualwaschangedinthatmenwerenowmorelustful
andhadcarnaldesires.Anewrolewascreatedassentimentalitywashowwomen
were now defined with them being transformed into a glorification of female
emotionandmotherhood.61 Therewasnowanexpectationofwomennotonlyto
provideamoraleducationfortheirownchildren,butalsotomaintainmoralitywithin
thefamilydynamicwithouthavingtostepoutside.

Thisnewconceptofdomesticityiscapturedinfigure23,whichcapturesayoung
motherexemplifyingthistrait,whilstalsoshowcasingapairofheellessshoes.

59MaryWollstonecraft,Avindicationofwomensrights,London:DoverPublicationsIncorporated,
1996,p23.
60SusanKingsleyKent,GenderandPowerInBritain,16401990,London:Routledge,1999,p28.
61ElizabethSemmelhack,HeightsofFashionAHistoryoftheElevatedShoe,Toronto:Periscope,
2008,p27.

46
Figure24.Snark/ArtResource,NY. One
Year after Marriage, Achille Deveria, c.
18201840.

Althoughanewcultofdomesticityhad

ThisprinttitledOneYearafterMarriageis
anexampleofadomesticsetting,whichis
quiteintimate,withthemotherseemingly
partaking in a moment of melancholic
quietness.
NoticeBrooklynMuseumCostumeCollectionatThe
how her footwear is flat and
Figure25.
delicate,notsuitableforoutdooruse.This
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of the Brooklyn
type of shoe, which can also be seen in
Museum,2009;GiftofHermanDelman,1954.
figure22and23,wastheheightoffashion

towardstheendoftheeighteenthcentury.
Anexampleofthetransitionfromthehighheeledshoes
from the early eighteenth century, to the delicate flat
nineteenth century styles. The sharp pointed toe also
became very fashionable in the late eighteenth century.
Thesoftleatherandoverallfinishontheshoesuggestthat
theseweremeantforindoors.Theshoeitselfcouldbeof
Britishoriginanddatesfromaround17951810.

developed in the eighteenth century,

therewasstillalargemajorityofwomen
who did not wish to be confined nor
malignedastheheadandhearthofthefamily.Manywomenbegantousetheirnew
positionandrolewithinsocietytopartakeinlargerethicalissues.Womenofthe
upperandmiddleclasses,intheUnitedStatesandBritainbecameadvocatesofthe
abolitionofslaveryandforwomensrights.

Along with this new demand for social mobility, the high heel began to make a
comeback.Thiswasalsopartlyduetotheindustrializationofshoemakingwhichhad
infactbeguninthepreviouscentury,makingawiderrangeofshoesreadilyavailable
atdifferentpricepoints.

Whileonlycertainwomenwhoweredeemedtoberespectable,hadmorefreedom
of movement, their participation was still extremely limited to consumption and
leisure.Itwasconsideredinappropriatetoconcernthemselveswithanyotherfacets

47
ofsocietyotherthenwhatmendeemedacceptablecauses.Whetherexpressedasa
concernoverthesafetyoftheirvirtueorasfearoftheirmeddlingnature62therewas
stillanairofanxietyaboutthemodernwomenofthelateeighteenthcentury.
Conclusionoftheeighteenthcentury

Towardstheendoftheeighteenthcenturythehighheelasamarkerofstatus,power,
privilegeandaristocraticidealshadbeendemolished,alongwithfrivolousstylesof
fashion.Thereforminfashionandfootwearovertheeighteenthcenturywasadirect
reflectionofthechangeswithinsociety,political,religiousandsocietalalike.Despite
manyconcernssurroundingwomensissuesandthemanyreformsthathadtaken
placetoensurebetterequality,dressstillposedmanyproblems.

Many reformers urged women to stop being slaves to fashion and proposed
alternatives styles and forms of dress which was considered rational. However
attemptstodepartfromthemainstreamcausedabacklash.Thereasonforthisas
Semmelhackpointsout;theywereabandonedasdetrimentaltothefurtheringof
greaterissues.63Inspiteofthechallenges,socialandpoliticalactivismcontinuedto
have great effect on the way women dressed, including footwear worn in the
nineteenthcentury.

Chapterfour:Feminismandthesexualpoliticsofdress:anoverallconclusion
62 ElizabethSemmelhack,HeightsofFashionAHistoryoftheElevatedShoe,Toronto:Periscope,
2008,p30.
63 ElizabethSemmelhack,HeightsofFashionAHistoryoftheElevatedShoe,Toronto:Periscope,
2008,p30.

48

Duringtheperiodofthesixteenthandeighteenthcenturies,thehighheelwasusedas
a wayofkeepingwomen subordinateand awaytolimit their leisurely pursuits.
Andrea Vianello states In many ways, chopines were both an instrument of
oppressionandfemalefreedom;someconsideredthemaneffectivewaytolimita
womansmobility.64
Howeverattheturnofthenineteenthcenturywomenturnedtothehobblingheel,as
womens demands for greater social mobility increased. 65 From the nineteenth
centuryonwardswomenhaveusedshoes,specificallythehighheel,asawayof
conveyingorprojectingacertainimage.Inturnthishascausedmuchdebatefrom
feminists, some who feel women are disempowering themselves by allowing
themselvestobeobjectifiedbymen.Therearesomefeministshoweverthatfeelthe
highheelispositiveasitgiveswomenconfidenceandaddedpower,especiallyinthe
workplace.

Overthedecadesfeminismandfeministtheoryhaschangedsodrasticallytothepoint
that,somewouldargue,nooneincludingfeministsarereallysurewhatfeminismis
anymore.Thisconfusionisapparentwhenitcomestothediscussionofwomens
apparel. In Susan J. Douglass latest book, Enlightened Sexism: The Seductive
MessagesthatFeminismsWorkisDone, Douglasputsforwardtheargumentthat
womenfinditperfectlyacceptabletosexuallyobjectifythemselveswithouthavingto
suffer any repercussions, because they feel they are now mans equal. To put it
64GiorgioRiello,PeterMcNeil,Shoes:aHistoryofSandalstoSneakers,London:BergPublishers,
2008.
65 ElizabethSemmelhack,HeightsofFashionAHistoryoftheElevatedShoe,Toronto:Periscope,
2008,p30.

49
simplywomencannowwearprovocativeclotheswithoutperpetuatingpatriarchal
standardsthathavebeensetforwomen.

Herein lies the problem, the high heel. Over the decades there have been many
feminist debates on whether the high heel was a symbol of oppression or
empowerment.SarahSandsajournalistwhowritesfortheindependentstatedin2008
that, high heels are to us what corsets were to late Victorian women. They are
inhumanlyuncomfortableyetselfimposed.66Yetsandsgoesontoconfessthatshe
issavingupforsomeperilouslyhighpurplesuedeshoesbyChristianLouboutin 67.
Sandsisnotalonehoweverandquestionswhyfeministslikeherself,fallvictimto
high heels. It is interesting that high heels have survived feminism and the
tracksuitWomenburnedtheirbrasbutnowsubjecttheirfeettoterrifyingpiecesof
engineeringinordertolengthentheirlegsandreducetheirwaists.68
RegardlessofNapoleonBonaparteandaproportionoffeministstryingtodemolish
theheelasasignofpowerandstatus,thesignificanceandstatusofshoesisalmost
exclusivelyrelatedtotheirimpracticality.69

Notallfeministshavefallenvictimtotheheelthough.Thehighheelhasbecomea
centralsourceofsexualpoliticalargumentsincetheWomensLiberationmovement
emergedinthe1970s.Secondwavefeministsfeltthattheconstrictingstandardsof
female beauty constructed by men, left women in a subordinate position whilst
66SallyFeldman,HeightsofMadness,RationalistAssociation,May7th,2008,accessedApril16th,
2013,http://rationalist.org.uk/articles/1781/heightsofmadness.
67SallyFeldman,HeightsofMadness,RationalistAssociation,May7th,2008,accessedApril16th,
2013,http://rationalist.org.uk/articles/1781/heightsofmadness.
68SallyFeldman,HeightsofMadness,RationalistAssociation,May7th,2008,accessedApril16th,
2013,http://rationalist.org.uk/articles/1781/heightsofmadness.
69TimEdwards,FashioninFocus:Concepts,PracticesandPolitics,London:Routledge,2010,p79.

50
sexuallyobjectifyingthem,thustheyrejectedthesestandards.In1973Igaveup
beautypracticesaspartofthatmovement,supportedbythestrengthofthethousands
ofheterosexualandlesbianwomenaroundmewhowerealsorejectingthem70stated
radicalfeministSheilaJeffreysinherbookBeautyandMisogyny.Istoppeddying
myhairmidgoldensableandcutitshort.Istoppedwearingmakeup.Istopped
wearinghighheels,andeventuallygaveupshortskirts.71

Hereinliestheissuewithintheradicalfeministlexicon 72;towearhighheelshasto
stand outas thebiggest betrayalofall.Highheels moreoften than notdemean,
constrainandharm.Theyalsocauseanarrayofmedicalproblemssuchas,bunions,
disfiguredtoesandbackproblems.Despitethemanyproblemshighheelscancause,
theycanempowerwomen.AlexandraShulmaneditorofBritishVogueexplains,I
realizedthatheelsweretransformativetheynotonlygavemeextrainches,butthey
raisedthebarinsomanydifferentwaysformyattitude,posture,confidenceand
femininity.73SimilarlyRosieBoycottjournalistandfeministfeelsthatheelsprovide
asenseofempowermentandfemininity,heelsareundeniablyfemininetheextra
heightbringsacertainauthoritywithit.74

70SallyFeldman,HeightsofMadness,RationalistAssociation,May7th,2008,accessedApril16th,
2013,http://rationalist.org.uk/articles/1781/heightsofmadness.
71SallyFeldman,HeightsofMadness,RationalistAssociation,May7th,2008,accessedApril16th,
2013,http://rationalist.org.uk/articles/1781/heightsofmadness.
72SallyFeldman,HeightsofMadness,RationalistAssociation,May7th,2008,accessedApril16th,
2013,http://rationalist.org.uk/articles/1781/heightsofmadness.
73Anonymous,Theheightoffeminism?Ordohighheelsdemeanwomenassexobjects?,TheDaily
Mail,January1st,2009,accessedApril16th,2013,http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article
1103749/TheheightfeminismOrhighheelsdemeanwomensexobjects.html
74Anonymous,Theheightoffeminism?Ordohighheelsdemeanwomenassexobjects?,TheDaily
Mail,January1st,2009,accessedApril16th,2013,http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article
1103749/TheheightfeminismOrhighheelsdemeanwomensexobjects.html

51
Thehighheelhascomealongwaysincetheelevatedversionsdatingbacktofourth
centuryB.C.E.Despitetheassociatedmeaningwiththeheelformenandwomen,the
heelwillforeverbesynonymouswithsex,statusandgender.

Figure26.LadyPeepSpikesPatent.ChristianLouboutin.
http://eu.christianlouboutin.com/uk_en/,accessedApril16th,2013.
These are a pair of skyhigh heels designed by Alist French designer Christian
Louboutin.Theheelsmeasure150mm,whichisequatesto6inchesandretailat
825.00.Overthepastfiveyearsthisstyleofheelhasbecomeincreasinglypopular,
with versions being replicated on the high street. All the soles of Christian
Louboutinsshoesaretrademarkedwithaspecificcolourofred.Ahabitpracticedby
KingLouisXIV.
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