CHAPTER 2

HEAT EXCHANGERS AND ITS TYPES

2.1 HEAT EXCHANGERS
A heat exchanger is a device that is used to transfer thermal energy (enthalpy) between two or more fluids,
between a solid surface and a fluid, or between solid particulates and a fluid, at different temperatures and
in thermal contact.
In heat exchangers, there are usually no external heat and work interactions. Typical applications involve
heating or cooling of a fluid stream of concern and evaporation or condensation of single- or
multicomponent fluid streams. In other applications, the objective may be to recover or reject heat, or
sterilize, pasteurize, fractionate, distill, concentrate, crystallize, or control a process fluid. In a few heat
exchangers, the fluids exchanging heat are in direct contact.
In most heat exchangers, heat transfer between fluids takes place through a separating wall or into and out
of a wall in a transient manner. In many heat exchangers, the fluids are separated by a heat transfer surface,
and ideally they do not mix or leak. Such exchangers are referred to as direct transfer type, or simply
recuperates. In contrast, exchangers in which there is intermittent heat exchange between the hot and cold
fluidsvia thermal energy storage and release through the exchanger surface or matrix are referred to
as indirect transfer type, or simply regenerators. Such exchangers usually have fluid leakage from one
fluid stream to the other, due to pressure differences and matrix rotation/valve switching. Common
examples of heat exchangers are shell-and tube exchangers, automobile radiators, condensers,
evaporators, air preheaters, and cooling towers. If no phase change occurs in any of the fluids in the
exchanger, it is sometimes referred to as a sensible heat exchanger. There could be internal thermal energy
sources in the exchangers, such as in electric heaters and nuclear fuel elements. Combustion and chemical
reaction may take place within the exchanger, such as in boilers, fired heaters, and fluidized-bed
exchangers. Mechanical devices may be used in some exchangers such as in scraped surface exchangers,
agitated vessels, and stirred tank reactors.
A heat exchanger consists of heat transfer elements such as a core or matrix containing the heat transfer
surface, and fluid distribution elements such as headers, manifolds, tanks, inlet and outlet nozzles or pipes,
or seals. Usually, there are no moving parts in a heat exchanger; however, there are exceptions, such as a
rotary regenerative exchanger (in which the matrix is mechanically driven to rotate at some design speed)
or a scraped surface heat exchanger. The heat transfer surface is a surface of the exchanger core that is in
direct contact with fluids and through which heat is transferred by conduction.
That portion of the surface that is in direct contact with both the hot and cold fluids and transfers heat
between them is referred to as the primary or direct surface. To increase the heat transfer area, appendages
may be intimately connected to the primary surface to provide an extended, secondary, or indirect surface.
These extended surface elements are referred to as fins. Thus, heat is conducted through the fin and
convected (and/or radiated) from the fin (through the surface area) to the surrounding fluid, or vice versa,
depending on whether the fin is being cooled or heated. As a result, the addition of fins to the primary
surface reduces the thermal resistance on that side and thereby increases the total heat transfer from the
surface for the same temperature difference. Fins may form flow passages for the individual fluids but do
not separate the two (or more) fluids of the exchanger. These secondary surfaces or fins may also be
2

introduced primarily for structural strength purposes or to provide thorough mixing of a highly viscous
liquid.

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

Due to the large number of heat exchanger configurations, a classification system was devised based
upon the basic operation, construction, heat transfer, and flow arrangements. The following
classification are:
Transfer processes: direct contact or indirect contact
Geometry of construction: tubes, plates, and extended surfaces
Heat transfer mechanisms: single phase or two phase flow
Flow Arrangement: parallel flow, counter flow, or cross flow
2.2.1 BASED ON TRANSFER PROCESS
INDIRECT CONTACT TYPE HEAT EXCHANGER
In an indirect-contact heat exchanger, the fluid streams remain separate and the heat transfers
continuously through an impervious dividing wall or into and out of a wall in a transient manner.
Thus, ideally, there is no direct contact between thermally interacting fluids. This type of heat
exchanger, also referred to as a surface heat exchanger.

Fig 2.2.1(a) indirect contact type heat exchanger

DIRECT CONTACT TYPE HEAT EXCHANGER

In a direct-contact exchanger, two fluid streams come into direct contact, exchange heat, and are
then separated. Common applications of a direct-contact exchanger involve mass transfer in
addition to heat transfer, such as in evaporative cooling and rectification; applications involving
only sensible heat transfer are rare. The enthalpy of phase change in such an exchanger generally
represents a significant portion of the total energy transfer. The phase change generally enhances
3

the heat transfer rate. Compared to indirect contact recuperates and regenerators, in direct-contact
heat exchangers, (1) very high heat transfer rates are achievable, (2) the exchanger construction is
relatively inexpensive, and (3) the fouling problem is generally nonexistent, due to the absence of
a heat transfer surface (wall) between the two fluids. However, the applications are limited to those
cases where a direct contact of two fluid streams is permissible.

Fig 2.2.1(b) direct contact type heat exchanger

2.2.2 BASED ON GEOMETRY OF CONSTRUCTION
TUBE TYPE HEAT EXCHANGERS
These exchangers are generally built of circular tubes, although elliptical, rectangular, or round/flat
twisted tubes have also been used in some applications. There is considerable flexibility in the
design because the core geometry can be varied easily by changing the tube diameter, length, and
arrangement. Tubular exchangers can be designed for high pressures relative to the environment
and high-pressure differences between the fluids. Tubular exchangers are used primarily for liquidto-liquid and liquid-to-phase change (condensing or evaporating) heat transfer applications. They
are used for gas-to-liquid and gas-to-gas heat transfer applications primarily when the operating
temperature and/ or pressure is very high or fouling is a severe problem on at least one fluid side
and no other types of exchangers would work. These exchangers may be classified as shell-and
tube, double-pipe, and spiral tube exchangers. They are all prime surface exchangers except for
exchangers having fins outside/inside tubes.

Fig 2.2.2(a) tube type heat exchanger

PLATE TYPE HEAT EXCHANGE
Plate-type heat exchangers are usually built of thin plates (all prime surface). The plates are either
smooth or have some form of corrugation, and they are either flat or wound in an exchanger.
Generally, these exchangers cannot accommodate very high pressures, temperatures, or pressure
and temperature differences. Plate heat exchangers (PHEs) can be classified as gasket, welded (one
or both fluid passages), or brazed, depending on the leak tightness required. Other plate-type
exchangers are spiral plate, lamella, and plate coil exchangers. These are described next.

Fig 2.2.2(b) plate type heat exchanger

EXTENDED SURFACES HEAT EXCHANGERS
The tubular and plate-type exchangers described previously are all prime surface heat exchangers,
except for a shell-and-tube exchanger with low finned tubing. Their heat exchanger effectiveness
(see Section 3.3.1 for the definition) is usually 60% or below, and the heat transfer surface area
density is usually less than 700m2/m3 (213ft2/ft3). In some applications, much higher (up to about
98%) exchanger effectiveness is essential, and the box volume and mass are limited so that a much
more compact surface is mandated. Also, in a heat exchanger with gases or some liquids, the heat
transfer coefficient is quite low on one or both fluid sides. This results in a large heat transfer
surface area requirement. One of the most common methods to increase the surface area and
exchanger compactness is to add the extended surface (fins) and use fins with the fin density (fin
frequency, fins/m or fins/in.) as high as possible on one or both fluid sides, depending on the design
5

requirement. Addition of fins can increase the surface area by 5 to 12 times the primary surface
area in general, depending on the design. The resulting exchanger is referred to as an extended
surface exchanger. Flow area is increased by the use of thin gauge material and sizing the core
properly. The heat transfer coefficient on extended surfaces may be higher or lower than that on
unfinned surfaces. For example, interrupted (strip, louver, etc.) fins provide both an increased area
and increased heat transfer coefficient, while internal fins in a tube increase the tube-side surface
area but may result in a slight reduction in the heat transfer coefficient, depending on the fin
spacing. Generally, increasing the fin density reduces the heat transfer coefficient associated with
fins. Flow interruptions (as in offset strip fins, louvered fins, etc.) may increase the heat transfer
coefficient two to four times that for the corresponding plain (uncut) fin surface. Plate-fin and tubefin geometries are the two most common types of extended surface heat exchangers.

Fig 2.2.2(c) extended surface heat exchanger

2.2.3 BASED ON HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISM
SINGLE PHASE OR TWO PHASE FLOW HEAT EXCHANGERS
The basic heat transfer mechanisms employed for transfer of thermal energy from the fluid on one
side of the exchanger to the wall (separating the fluid on the other side) are single-phase convection
(forced or free), two-phase convection (condensation or evaporation, by forced or free convection),
and combined convection and radiation heat transfer. Any of these mechanisms individually or in
combination could be active on each fluid side of the exchanger.
Some examples of each classification type are as follows. Single-phase convection occurs on both
sides of the following two-fluid exchangers: automotive radiators and passenger space heaters,
regenerators, intercoolers, economizers, and so on. Single-phase convection on one side and twophase convection on the other side (with or without DE superheating or superheating, and sub
cooling, and with or without noncondensables) occur in the following two-fluid exchangers: steam
power plant condensers, automotive and process/power plant air-cooled condensers, gas or liquid
heated evaporators, steam generators, humidifiers, dehumidifiers, and so on. Two-phase
convection could occur on each side of a two-fluid heat exchanger, such as condensation on one
side and evaporation on the other side, as in an air-conditioning evaporator. Multicomponent twophase convection occurs in condensation of mixed vapors in distillation of hydrocarbons. Radiant
6

heat transfer combined with convective heat transfer plays a role in liquid metal heat exchangers
and high-temperature waste heat recovery exchangers. Radiation heat transfer is a primary mode
in fossil-fuel power plant boilers, steam generators, coal gasification plant exchangers,
incinerators, and other fired heat exchangers.

2.2.4 BASED ON FLOW ARRANGEMENT

PARALLEL FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER
In a parallel flow (also referred to as concurrent or concurrent parallel stream) exchanger, the fluid
streams enter together at one end, flow parallel to each other in the same direction, and leave
together at the other end. Figure 1.49a with the dashed arrows reversed would then depict parallel
flow. Fluid temperature variations, idealized as one-dimensional.
This arrangement has the lowest exchanger effectiveness among single-pass exchangers for given
overall thermal conductance (UA) and fluid flow rates (actually, fluid heat capacity rates) and fluid
inlet temperatures; however, some multipass exchangers may have an even lower effectiveness, as
discussed later. However, for low-effectiveness exchangers, the difference in parallel flow and
counter flow exchanger effectiveness is small. In a parallel flow exchanger, a large temperature
difference between inlet temperatures of hot and cold fluids exists at the inlet side, which may induce
high thermal stresses in the exchanger wall at the inlet.

Fig 2.2.4(a) parallel flow heat exchanger

COUNTER FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER
In this type of exchanger, the two fluids flow in directions normal to each other.
Thermodynamically, the effectiveness for the cross flow exchanger falls in between that for the
counter flow and parallel flow arrangements. The largest structural temperature difference exists
at the corner of the entering hot and cold fluids, such as point. This is one of the most common
flow arrangements used for extended surface heat exchangers, because it greatly simplifies the
header design at the entrance and exit of each fluid. If the desired heat exchanger effectiveness is
high (such as greater than 80%), the size penalty for the cross flow exchanger may become
excessive.
7

Fig 2.2.4(b) contour flow heat exchanger

CROSS FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER
In a cross flow arrangement, mixing of either fluid stream may or may not occur, depending on
the design. A fluid stream is considered unmixed when it passes through individual flow channels
or tubes with no fluid mixing between adjacent flow channels. In this case within the exchanger,
temperature gradients in the fluid exist in at least one direction (in the transverse plane) normal to
the main fluid flow direction. A fluid stream is considered completely mixed when no temperature
gradient exists in the transverse plane, either within one tube or within the transverse tube row
within the exchanger. Ideally, the fluid thermal conductivity transverse to the flow is treated as
zero for the unmixed-fluid case and infinity for the mixed-fluid case. Fluids 1 and 2 are unmixed.
Fluid 1 is unmixed, while fluid 2 is considered mixed because there is only one flow channel. The
temperature of an unmixed fluid, such as fluid 1, is a function of two coordinates z and y within
the exchanger, and it cannot be treated as constant across a cross section (in the y direction)
perpendicular to the main flow direction x. The outlet temperature from the exchanger on the
unmixed side is defined as a mixed mean temperature that would be obtained after complete
mixing of the fluid stream at the exit.
In a multiple-tube-row tubular cross flow exchanger, the tube fluid in any one tube is considered
mixed at any cross section. However, when split and distributed in different tube rows, the
incoming tube fluid is considered unmixed between the tube rows. Theoretically, it would require
an infinite number of tube rows to have a truly unmixed fluid on the tube side. In reality, if the
number of tube rows is greater than about four, it will practically be an unmixed side. For an
exchanger with fewer than about four or five tube rows, the tube side is considered partially
unmixed or partially mixed. Note that when the number of tube rows is reduced to one, the tube
fluid is considered mixed.

Fig 2.2.4 (c) cross flow heat exchanger

CHAPTER 3
HEAT PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER
3.1 HEAT PIPE
A heat pipe is a heat-transfer device that combines the principles of both thermal conductivity and phase
transition to efficiently manage the transfer of heat between two solid interfaces.
At the hot interface of a heat pipe a liquid in contact with a thermally conductive solid surface turns into
a vapor by absorbing heat from that surface. The vapor then travels along the heat pipe to the cold interface
and condenses back into a liquid releasing the latent. The liquid then returns to the hot interface through
either capillary action, centrifugal force, or gravity, and the cycle repeats. Due to the very high heat
transfer coefficients for boiling and condensation, heat pipes are highly effective thermal conductors. The
effective thermal conductivity varies with heat pipe length, and can approach 100 kW/ (mK) for long heat
pipes, in comparison with approximately 0.4 kW/ (mK) for copper
3.1.1 STRUCTURE, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
A typical heat pipe consists of a sealed pipe or tube made of a material that is compatible with the working
fluid such as copper for water heat pipes, or aluminum for ammonia heat pipes. Typically, a vacuum
pump is used to remove the air from the empty heat pipe. The heat pipe is partially filled with a working
fluid and then sealed. The working fluid mass is chosen so that the heat pipe contains both vapor and
liquid over the operating temperature range.
Below the operating temperature, the liquid is too cold and cannot vaporize into a gas. Above the operating
temperature, all the liquid has turned to gas, and the environmental temperature is too high for any of the
gas to condense. Whether too high or too low, thermal conduction is still possible through the walls of the
heat pipe, but at a greatly reduced rate of thermal transfer.
Working fluids are chosen according to the temperatures at which the heat pipe must operate, with
examples ranging from liquid helium for extremely low temperature applications (24 K)
to mercury (523923 K), sodium (8731473 K) and even indium (20003000 K) for extremely high
temperatures. The vast majority of heat pipes for room temperature applications use ammonia (213
373 K), alcohol (methanol (283403 K) or ethanol (273403 K)) or water (298573 K) as the working
fluid. Copper/water heat pipes have a copper envelope, use water as the working fluid and typically operate
in the temperature range of 20 to 150 C. Water heat pipes are sometimes filled by partially filling with
water, heating until the water boils and displaces the air, and then sealed while hot.
For the heat pipe to transfer heat, it must contain saturated liquid and its vapor (gas phase). The saturated
liquid vaporizes and travels to the condenser, where it is cooled and turned back to a saturated liquid. In a
standard heat pipe, the condensed liquid is returned to the evaporator using a wick structure exerting
a capillary action on the liquid phase of the working fluid. Wick structures used in heat pipes
include sintered metal powder, screen, and grooved wicks, which have a series of grooves parallel to the
pipe axis. When the condenser is located above the evaporator in a gravitational field, gravity can return
9

the liquid. In this case, the heat pipe is a thermo syphon. Finally, rotating heat pipes use centrifugal forces
to return liquid from the condenser to the evaporator.
Heat pipes contain no mechanical moving parts and typically require no maintenance, though noncondensable gases that diffuse through the pipe's walls, resulting from breakdown of the working fluid or
as impurities extant in the material, may eventually reduce the pipe's effectiveness at transferring heat.
The advantage of heat pipes over many other heat-dissipation mechanisms is their great efficiency in
transferring heat. A pipe one inch in diameter and two feet long can transfer 12,500 BTU (3.7 kWh) per
hour at 1,800 F (980 C) with only 18 F (10 C) drop from end to end Some heat pipes have demonstrated
a heat flux of more than 23 kW/cm, about four times the heat flux through the surface of the sun.
3.1.2 Heat pipe materials and working fluid
Heat pipes have an envelope, a wick, and a working fluid. Heat pipes are designed for very long term
operation with no maintenance, so the heat pipe wall and wick must be compatible with the working fluid.
Some material/working fluids pairs that appear to be compatible are not. For example, water in an
aluminum envelope will develop large amounts of non-condensable gas over a few hours or days,
preventing normal operation of the heat pipe.
Since heat pipes were rediscovered by George Grover in 1963, extensive life tests have been conducted
to determine compatible envelope/pairs, some going on for decades. In a heat pipe life test, heat pipes are
operated for long periods of time, and monitored for problems such as non-condensable gas generation,
material transport, and corrosion.
The most commonly used envelope (and wick)/fluid pairs include:

Copper envelope/Water working fluid for electronics cooling. This is by far the most common type of
heat pipe.
Copper or Steel envelope/Refrigerant R134a working fluid for energy recovery in HVAC systems
Aluminum envelope/Ammonia working fluid for Spacecraft Thermal Control
Super alloy envelope/Alkali Metal (Cesium, Potassium, Sodium) working fluid for high temperature
heat pipes, most commonly used for calibrating primary temperature measurement devices

Other pairs include stainless steel envelopes with nitrogen, oxygen, neon, hydrogen, or helium working
fluids at temperatures below 100 K, copper/methanol heat pipes for electronics cooling when the heat pipe
must operate below the water range, aluminum/ethane heat pipes for spacecraft thermal control in
environments when ammonia can freeze, and refractory metal envelope/lithium working fluid for high
temperature (above 1050 C) applications.
3.1.3 Different types of heat pipes
In addition to standard, Constant Conductance Heat Pipes (CCHPs), there are a number of other types of
heat pipes including:

Vapor Chambers (flat heat pipes), which are used for heat flux transformation, and isothermalization
of surfaces
Variable Conductance Heat Pipes (VCHPs), which use a Non-Condensable Gas (NCG) to change the
heat pipe effective thermal conductivity as power or the heat sink conditions change
10

Pressure Controlled Heat Pipes (PCHPs), which are a VCHP where the volume of the reservoir, or the
NCG mass can be changed, to give more precise temperature control
Diode Heat Pipes, which have a high thermal conductivity in the forward direction, and a low thermal
conductivity in the reverse direction
Thermosyphons, which are heat pipes where the liquid is returned to the evaporator by
gravitational/acceleration forces,
Rotating heat pipes, where the liquid is returned to the evaporator by centrifugal forces.

3.2 HEAT PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER

Heat Pipe Heat Exchangers. This type of exchanger is similar to a tube-fin exchanger with individually
finned tubes or flat (continuous) fins and tubes. However, the tube is heat pipe, and hot and cold gases
flow continuously in separate parts of the exchanger, as shown in Fig. 1.36. Heat is transferred from the
hot gas to the evaporation section of the heat pipe by convection; the thermal energy is then carried away
by the vapor to the condensation section of the heat pipe, where it transfers heat to the cold gas by
convection.

Fig 3.2(a) heat pipe heat exchanger

Heat pipe heat exchanger
heat pipe, and hot and cold gases flow continuously in separate parts of the exchanger, Heat is transferred
from the hot gas to the evaporation section of the heat pipe by convection; the thermal energy is then
carried away by the vapor to the condensation section of the heat pipe, where it transfers heat to the cold
gas by convection.
A heat pipe is a closed tube or vessel that has been evacuated, partially filled with a heat transfer fluid (a
working fluid sufficient to wet the entire wick

11

Fig 3.2(b) internal view of heat pipe heat exchanger

And sealed permanently at both ends. The inner surfaces of a heat pipe are usually lined with a capillary
wick (a porous lining, screen, or internally grooved wall). The wick is what makes the heat pipe unique;
it forces condensate to return to the evaporator by the action of capillary force. In a properly designed heat
pipe, the wick is saturated with the liquid phase of the working fluid, while the remainder of the tube
contains the vapor phase. When heat is applied at the evaporator by an external source, the working fluid
in the wick in that section vaporizes, the pressure increases, and vapor flows to the condenser section
through the central portion of the tube. The vapor condenses in the condenser section of the pipe, releasing
the energy of phase change to a heat sink. The heat applied at the evaporator section tries to dry the wick
surface through evaporation, but as the fluid evaporates, the liquidvapor interface recedes into the wick
surface, causing a capillary pressure to be developed. This pressure is responsible for transporting the
condensed liquid back to the evaporator section, thereby completing a cycle. Thus, a properly designed
heat pipe can transport the energy of phase change continuously from the evaporator to the condenser
without drying out the wick. The condensed liquid may also be pumped back to the evaporator section by
the capillary force or by the force of gravity if the heat pipe is inclined and the condensation section is
above the evaporator section. If the gravity force is sufficient, no wick may be necessary. As long as there
is a temperature difference between the hot and cold gases in a heat pipe heat exchanger, the closed-loop
evaporationcondensation cycle will be continuous, and the heat pipe will continue functioning.
Generally, there is a small temperature difference between the evaporator and condenser section [about
58C (98F) or so], and hence the overall thermal resistance of a heat pipe in a heat pipe exchanger is small.
Although water is a common heat pipe fluid, other fluids are also used, depending on the operating
temperature range.
A heat pipe heat exchanger (HPHE), for a gas-to-gas application, consists of a number of finned heat pipes
(similar to an air-cooled condenser coil) mounted in a frame and used in a duct assembly. Fins on the heat
pipe increase the surface area to compensate for low heat transfer coefficients with gas flows. The fins can
be spirally wrapped around each pipe, or a number of pipes can be expanded into flat plain or augmented
fins. The fin density can be varied from side to side, or the pipe may contain no fins at all (liquid
applications). The tube bundle may be horizontal or vertical with the evaporator sections below the
condenser sections. The tube rows are normally staggered with the number of tube rows typically between
4 and 10. In a gas-to-gas HPHE, the evaporator section of the heat pipe spans the duct carrying the hot
exhaust gas, and the condenser section is located in the duct through which the air to be preheated flows.
The HPHE has a splitter plate that is used primarily to prevent mixing between the two gas streams,
effectively sealing them from one another. Since the splitter plate is thin, a heat pipe in a HPHE does not
have the usual adiabatic section that most heat pipes have.
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Unit size varies with airflow. Small units have a face size of 0.6m (length) by 0.3 m (height), and the
largest units may have a face size up to 5m 3 m. In the case of gas-to liquid heat exchangers, the gas
section remains the same, but because of the higher external heat transfer coefficient on the liquid side, it
need not be finned externally or can even be shorter in length.
The heat pipe performance is influenced by the angle of orientation, since gravity plays an important role
in aiding or resisting the capillary flow of the condensate. Because of this sensitivity, tilting the exchanger
may control the pumping power and ultimately the heat transfer. This feature can be used to regulate the
performance of a heat pipe heat exchanger.
Heat pipe heat exchangers are generally used in gas-to-gas heat transfer applications. They are used
primarily in many industrial and consumer productoriented waste heat recovery applications.

3.3 BAFFLES
Baffles are flow-directing or obstructing vanes or panels used in some industrial process vessels (tanks),
such as shell and tube heat exchangers, chemical reactors, and static mixers. Baffles are an integral part
of the shell and tube heat exchanger design. A baffle is designed to support tube bundles and direct the
flow of fluids for maximum efficiency.
Baffles may be classified as transverse and longitudinal types. The purpose of longitudinal baffles is to
control the overall flow direction of the shell fluid such that a desired overall flow arrangement of the two
fluid streams is achieved .Transverse baffles may be classified as plate baffles and grid (rod, strip, and
other axial-flow) baffles. Plate baffles are used to support the tubes during assembly and operation and to
direct the fluid in the tube bundle approximately at right angles to the tubes to achieve higher heat transfer
coefficients.
Plate baffles increase the turbulence of the shell fluid and minimize tube-to-tube temperature differences
and thermal stresses due to the cross flow. Single- and double-segmental baffles are used most frequently
due to their ability to assist maximum heat transfer (due to a high-shell-side heat transfer coefficient) for
a given pressure drop in a minimum amount of space. Triple and no-tubes-in-window segmental baffles
are used for low-pressure-drop applications. The choice of baffle type, spacing, and cut is determined
largely by flow rate, desired heat transfer rate, allowable pressure drop, tube support, and flow-induced
vibrations. Disk and doughnut baffles/ support plates are used primarily in nuclear heat exchangers. These
baffles for nuclear exchangers have small perforations between tube holes to allow a combination of cross
flow and longitudinal flow for lower shell-side pressure drop. The combined flow results in a slightly
higher heat transfer coefficient than that for pure longitudinal flow and minimizes tube-to-tube
temperature differences.
Rod (or bar) baffles, the most common type of grid baffle, used to support the tubes and increase the
turbulence of the shell fluid .The flow in a rod baffle heat exchanger is parallel to the tubes, and flowinduced vibrations are virtually eliminated by the baffle support of the tubes. One alternative to a rod
baffle heat exchanger is the use of twisted tubes (after flattening the circular tubes, they are twisted).
Twisted tubes provide rigidity and eliminate flow-induced tube vibrations, can be cleaned easily on the
shell side with hydro jets, and can be cleaned easily inside the tubes, but cannot be re tubed. Low-finned
tubes are also available in a twisted-tube configuration. A helical baffle shell-and-tube exchanger with
baffles also has the following advantages: a lower shell-side pressure drop while maintaining the high heat
13

transfer coefficient of a segmental exchanger, reduced leakage streams and elimination of dead spots and
recirculation zones (thus reducing fouling). Every shell-and-tube exchanger has transverse baffles except
for X and K shells, which have support plates because the sole purpose of these transverse baffles is to
support the tubes.

14

CHAPTER 4
SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR HEAT EXCHANGERS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Heat exchangers form a vital part of many processes via. Chemical, fertilizer, petrochemical, fossil and
nuclear power generation, refrigeration, desalination, and so on. They have always been of great industrial
importance, but in recent years, their significance has increased because of ever growing energy needs. It
is imperative to make the best possible use of energy resources and the utilization of efficient and
economical heat exchangers are crucial in this endeavor. Requirements for heat exchangers such as
improved efficiency, stringent environmental needs, and cost effectiveness demand reliable materials
especially for the heat exchanger tubing and consequently there has been continuous search for improved
materials. A new thrust has been given to this search by the concept of Ultra Supercritical Advanced
Power Plants in which, improvements in power plant efficiency by increasing operating temperature and
steam pressure and in flexibility of operation allowing frequent start-ups and shut-downs (for example
single or two shift operations) are aimed at.
Heat exchangers are major source of problem in many applications resulting in poor plant availability and
efficiency. The reliability of heat exchangers is an area which deserves close attention. As an example,
the steam generators of nuclear power stations are discussed here. The magnitude of problems in steam
generators have been highlighted by a report that in the USA alone steam generators accounted for 3.2%
of the lost capacity factor in 1988. This represents a considerable economic loss to the utilities. It has
necessitated repair at high cost and in some cases has forced the premature replacement of the steam
generators themselves.
Although tube plugging is the most commonly used indicator of tube failure/ degradation, it does not tell
the whole story since many tubes have been plugged as precautionary measure and also tube sleeving has
been adopted in some cases. Tube sleeving differs from the plugging in the sense that the tube is retained
in service and the steam generator capacity is not impaired. Nevertheless, a sleeved tube should also be
considered as a failed/degraded tube. For the steam generators of nuclear power stations (thermal reactors),
the average tube failure is 0.24% per year based plugging rate alone and 0.4-0.5 % per year based on
plugging and sleeving. Although 0.24 % year may not appear significant over 30-40 year period which is
the life of a steam generator this amounts to plugging 7.2-9.6 % of the tubes. Utilities that have replaced
steam generators were generally plugging tubes at a rate significantly greater than the average rate.
Constant review of operating record of steam generators worldwide has identified a number of possible
mechanisms for unsatisfactory steam generator performance. Through intensive, and continuing research
and development, design of steam generators evolved which achieve an optimum approach to address all
the issues. Good tube material selection with appropriate heat treatment has been identified as one of the
important design objectives. This paper discusses, in general, the approach to selection of materials for
heat exchangers and in particular heat exchanger tubing material for the power sector, both nuclear and
fossil fired.

4.2 GENERAL CRITERIA FOR MATERIAL SELECTION

The engineer making the materials selection must know all the aspects evolved in the construction,
operation and maintenance of the heat exchanger. The importance of this is illustrated with the following
examples: an operator may isolate a heat exchanger with a raw water for sufficient time to initiate a pitting
15

corrosion, partial blockage of tubes, specially of small diameter, would result in stagnant conditions that
may cause pitting in alloys that are so prone; fouling may result in operating the heat exchangers in
throttled/part load condition.
A general procedure that could be used for identifying the most appropriate material for a specific heat
exchanger application would consist of the following steps.
Define the heat exchanger requirements.
Establish a strategy for evaluating candidate materials.
Identify candidate materials.
Evaluate materials in depth.
Select the optimum material.
For the first step, the engineer must consider the normal operating parameters(e.g.: nature of the fluid on
both the tube and shell side, flow rate, temperature and pressure), start up and shutdown conditions, upset
conditions, special conditions like product purity requirements, hazardous effects of intermixing of shell
and tube side fluids, radioactivity and associated maintenance , etc. The applicable codes and safety
regulations must also be considered. The heat exchanger designer would also identify the tube attachment
method as this also effects the material selection. If the material selection is being done by someone other
than heat exchanger designer, there must be close consultation between these individuals.
While establishing the strategy for evaluating candidate materials, the factors are to be considered as cost
and reliability. The minimum cost strategy would mean use of less expensive materials and rectifying the
problems as they show up. Maximum reliability strategy would mean going for the most reliable material
regardless of its cost. Both strategies have to weigh against initial cost, loss due to possible shutdowns,
repair costs, indirect loss to the industries etc.
In identifying the candidate materials, it is desirable to narrow the field to a comparatively to a small
number of materials for extensive evaluation. There is no hard and fast rule as to how many candidate
materials should be selected for detailed study. The initial identification and selection procedure, if done
properly, will eliminate those materials which are unsuitable and those which are excessively expensive.
This calls for the use of operating experience, use of handbook data and literature on advanced materials
under development, and judgment. Special consideration which affect material selection include:
Physical Properties
High heat transfer coefficient (requiring high thermal conductivity for tube material)
Thermal expansion coefficient to be low and as compatible as possible with those of materials used for
tube sheet, tube support and shell to provide resistance to thermal cycling.
Mechanical properties
Good tensile and creep properties.
Good fatigue, corrosion fatigue and creep-fatigue behavior.
High fracture toughness and impact strength to avoid fast fracture.
Corrosion Resistance
Low corrosion rate to minimize the corrosion allowance (and also radioactive control in heat exchanger
in nuclear industry)
Resistance to corrosion from off normal chemistry resulting from leak in upstream heat exchanger or
failure in the chemistry control.
Tolerance to chemistry resulting from mix up of shell and tube fluids.
Manufacture
Ease of fabrication is an important aspect for selection of materials. The usual manufacturing steps
involved for heat exchangers are bending of tubes, joining of tube to tube sheet by rolling, welding or
16

rolling and welding, forming of shell geometry and welding of shell plates and shell to nozzle and the heat
treatments associated with the welding steps.
Operating Experience
A great deal of knowledge is gained by the operating experience of similar units. Lessons learnt from the
failures of others is an important consideration in material selection.
2.4 After narrowing down the list of candidate materials (for tube, tube sheet, shell) the next step is to
perform the design of heat exchanger with candidate materials so as to establish the initial cost. Also the
failure probability with each design is needs to be established so as to establish the outage cost.
2.5 Criteria for making the final selection will include an assessment of each of the following:
Initial cost
Maintenance cost, including consideration of how frequently the equipment will need to be inspected for
corrosion.
Cost of loss in production
Consequences of failure. Is failure is likely to create unsafe condition or cause discharge of an undesirable
chemical into the environment or serious effect to the emerging technology.
Generally material selection is based on qualitative comparisons of the candidate materials. However, it
is worthwhile to make the assessment based on financial parameters.

4.3 COPPER IN HEAT EXCHANGER

Heat exchangers are devices that transfer heat in order to achieve desired heating or cooling. An important
design aspect of heat exchanger technology is the selection of appropriate materials to conduct and transfer
heat fast and efficiently.
Copper has many desirable properties for thermally efficient and durable heat exchangers. First and
foremost, copper is an excellent conductor of heat. This means that copper's high thermal
conductivity allows heat to pass through it quickly. Other desirable properties of copper in heat
exchangers include its corrosion resistance, befouling resistance, maximum allowable stress and internal
pressure, creep rupture strength, fatigue strength, hardness, thermal expansion, specific
heat, antimicrobial properties, strength, yield, high melting point, alloy ability, ease of fabrication, and
ease of joining.
The combination of these properties enable copper to be specified for heat exchangers in industrial
facilities, HVAC systems, vehicular coolers and radiators, and as heat sinks to cool computers, disk
drives, televisions, computer monitors, and other electronic equipment. Copper is also incorporated into
the bottoms of high-quality cookware because the metal conducts heat quickly and distributes it evenly.
Non-copper based heat exchangers are also available. Some alternative materials
include aluminum, carbon steel, stainless steel, nickel alloys, and titanium.
This article focuses on beneficial properties and common applications of copper in heat exchangers. New
copper heat exchanger technologies for specific applications are also introduced.
Heat exchangers using copper and its alloys have evolved along with heat transfer technologies over the
past several hundred years. Copper condenser tubes were first used in 1769 for steam engines. Initially,
the tubes were made of unalloyed copper. By 1870, Muntz metal, a 60% Cu-40% Zn brass alloy, was used
for condensers in seawater cooling. Admiralty metal, a 70% Cu-30% Zn yellow brass alloy with
1% tin added to improve corrosion resistance, was introduced in 1890 for seawater service. By the 1920s,
a 70% Cu-30% Ni alloy was developed for naval condensers. Soon afterwards, a 2% manganese and
2% iron copper alloy was introduced for better erosion resistance. A 90% Cu-10% Ni alloy first became
17

available in the 1950s, initially for seawater piping. This alloy is now the most widely used copper-nickel
alloy in marine heat exchangers.
Today, steam, evaporator, and condenser coils are made from copper and copper alloys. These heat
exchangers are used in air conditioning and refrigeration systems, industrial and central heating and
cooling systems, radiators, hot water tanks, and under-floor heating systems.
Copper-based heat exchangers can be manufactured with copper tube/aluminum fin, cupro-nickel, or allcopper constructions. Various coatings can be applied to enhance corrosion resistance of the tubes and
fins.

18

CHAPTER 5
APPLICATIONS OF HPHE

Industrial facilities and power plants

Copper alloys are extensively used as heat exchanger tubing in fossil and nuclear steam generating electric
power plants, chemical and petrochemical plants, marine services, and desalination plants.
The largest use of copper alloy heat exchanger tubing on a per unit basis is in utility power plants. These
plants contain surface condensers, heaters, and coolers, all of which contain copper tubing. The main
surface condenser that accepts turbine-steam discharges uses the most amount of copper.
Copper nickel is the group of alloys that are commonly specified in heat exchanger or condenser tubes in
evaporators of desalination plants, process industry plants, and air cooling zones of thermal power plants,
high-pressure feed water heaters, and sea water piping in ships. The composition of the alloys can vary
from 90% Cu10% Ni to 70% Cu30% Ni.
Condenser and heat exchanger tubing of arsenical admiralty brass (Cu-Zn-Sn-As) once dominated the
industrial facility market. Aluminum brass later rose in popularity because of its enhanced corrosion
resistance. Today, aluminum-brass, 90%Cu-10%Ni, and other copper alloys are widely used in tubular
heat exchangers and piping systems in seawater, brackish water and fresh water. Aluminum-brass, 90%
Cu-10% Ni and 70% Cu-30% Ni alloys show good corrosion resistance in hot de-aerated seawater and
in brines in multi-stage flash desalination plants.
Fixed tube liquid-cooled heat exchangers especially suitable for marine and harsh applications can be
assembled with brass shells, copper tubes, brass baffles, and forged brass integral end hubs.
Copper alloy tubes can be supplied either with a bright metallic surface (CuNiO) or with a thin, firmly
attached oxide layer (aluminum brass). These finish types allow for the formation of a protective layer. The
protective oxide surface is best achieved when the system is operated for several weeks with clean, oxygen
containing cooling water. While the protective layer forms, supportive measures can be carried out to
enhance the process, such as the addition of iron sulfate or intermittent tube cleaning. The protective film
that forms on Cu-Ni alloys in aerated seawater becomes mature in about three months at 60 F and
becomes increasingly protective with time. The film is resistant to polluted waters, irregular velocities,
and other harsh conditions. Further details are available.
The bio fouling resistance of Cu-Ni alloys enables heat exchange units to operate for several months
between mechanical cleanings. Cleanings are nevertheless needed to restore original heat transfer
capabilities. Chlorine injection can extend the mechanical cleaning intervals to a year or more without
detrimental effects on the Cu-Ni alloys.
Further information about copper alloy heat exchangers for industrial facilities is available.

Solar thermal water systems

Solar water heaters can be a cost-effective way to generate hot water for homes in many regions of the
world. Copper heat exchangers are important in solar thermal heating and cooling systems because of
coppers high thermal conductivity, resistance to atmospheric and water corrosion, sealing and joining by
soldering, and mechanical strength. Copper is used both in receivers and in primary circuits (pipes and
heat exchangers for water tanks) of solar thermal water systems.
19

Various types of solar collectors for residential applications are available with either direct circulation
(i.e., heats water and brings it directly to the home for use) or indirect circulation (i.e., pumps a heat
transfer fluid through a heat exchanger, which then heats water that flows into the home) systems. In an
evacuated tube solar hot water heater with an indirect circulation system, the evacuated tubes contain a
glass outer tube and metal absorber tube attached to a fin. Solar thermal energy is absorbed within the
evacuated tubes and is converted into usable concentrated heat. Evacuated glass tubes have a double layer.
Inside the glass tube is the copper heat pipe. It is a sealed hollow copper tube that contains a small amount
of thermal transfer fluid (water or glycol mixture) which under low pressure boils at a very low
temperature. The copper heat pipe transfers thermal energy from within the solar tube into a copper header.
As the solution circulates through the copper header, the temperature rises.
Other components in solar thermal water systems that contain copper include solar heat exchanger tanks
and solar pumping stations, along with pumps and controllers.

HVAC systems

Air conditioning and heating in buildings and motor vehicles are two of the largest applications for heat
exchangers. While copper tube is used in most air conditioning and refrigeration systems, typical air
conditioning units currently use aluminum fins. These systems can harbor bacteria and mold and develop
odors and fouling that can make them function poorly. Stringent new requirements including demands for
increased operating efficiencies and the reduction or elimination of harmful emissions are enhancing
copper's role in modern HVAC systems.
Coppers antimicrobial properties can enhance the performance of HVAC systems and associated indoor
air quality. After extensive testing, copper became a registered material in the U.S. for protecting heating
and air conditioning equipment surfaces against bacteria, mold, and mildew. Furthermore, testing funded
by the U.S. Department of Defense is demonstrating that all-copper air conditioners suppress the growth
of bacteria, mold and mildew that cause odors and reduce system energy efficiency. Units made with
aluminum have not been demonstrating this benefit.

Gas water heaters

Water heating is the second largest energy use in the home. Gas-water heat exchangers that transfer heat
from gaseous fuels to water between 3 to 300 kilowatts thermal (kW) have widespread residential and
commercial use in water heating and heating boiler appliance applications.
Demand is increasing for energy-efficient compact water heating systems. Tank less gas water heaters
produce hot water when needed. Copper heat exchangers are the preferred material in these units because
of their high thermal conductivity and ease of fabrication. To protect these units in acidic environments,
durable coatings or other surface treatments are available. Acid-resistant coatings are capable of
withstanding temperatures of 1000 C.

Forced air heating and cooling

Air-source heat pumps have been used for residential and commercial heating and cooling for many years.
These units rely on air-to-air heat exchange through evaporator units similar to those used for air
conditioners. Finned water to air heat exchangers are most commonly used for forced air heating and
cooling systems, such as with indoor and outdoor wood furnaces, boilers, and stoves. They can also be
suitable for liquid cooling applications. Copper is specified in supply and return manifolds and in tube
coils.[8]
20

Direct Exchange (DX) Geothermal Heating/Cooling

Geothermal heat pump technology, variously known as "ground source," "earth-coupled," or "direct
exchange," relies on circulating a refrigerant through buried copper tubing for heat exchange. These units,
which are considerably more efficient than their air-source counterparts, rely on the constancy of ground
temperatures below the frost zone for heat transfer. The most efficient ground source heat pumps use
ACR, Type L or special-size copper tubing buried into the ground to transfer heat to or from the
conditioned space. Flexible copper tube (typically 1/4-inch to 5/8-inch) can be buried in deep vertical
holes, horizontally in a relatively shallow grid pattern, in a vertical fence-like arrangement in mediumdepth trenches, or as custom configurations. Further information is available.

Electronic systems

Copper and aluminum are used as heat sinks and heat pipes in electronic cooling applications. A heat
sink is a passive component that cools semiconductor and optoelectronic devices by dissipating heat into
the surrounding air. Heat sinks have temperatures higher than their surrounding environments so that heat
can be transferred into the air by convection, radiation, and conduction.
Aluminum is the most prominently used heat sink material because of its lower cost. Copper heat sinks
are a necessity when higher levels of thermal conductivity are needed. An alternative to all-copper or allaluminum heat sinks is the joining of aluminum fins to a copper base.
Copper heat sinks are die-cast and bound together in plates. They spread heat quickly from the heat source
to copper or aluminum fins and into the surrounding air.
Heat pipes are used to move heat away from central processing units (CPUs) and graphics processing
units (GPUs) and towards heat sinks, where thermal energy is dissipated into the environment. Copper
and aluminum heat pipes are used extensively in modern computer systems where increased power
requirements and associated heat emissions result in greater demands on cooling systems.
A heat pipe typically consists of a sealed pipe or tube at both the hot and cold ends. Heat pipes
utilize evaporative cooling to transfer thermal energy from one point to another by the evaporation and
condensation of a working fluid or coolant. They are fundamentally better at heat conduction over larger
distances than heat sinks because their effective thermal conductivity is several orders of magnitude
greater than that of the equivalent solid conductor.
When it is desirable to maintain junction temperatures below 125-150 C, copper/water heat pipes are
typically used. Copper/methanol heat pipes are used if the application requires heat pipe operations below
0 C.

21

CHAPTER 6
FINITE ELEMENT METHODS
6.1 Introduction
The basic idea in the Finite Element Method is to find the solution of complicated problem with relatively
easy way. The Finite Element Method has been a powerful tool for the numerical solution of a wide range
of engineering problems. Applications range from deformation and stress analysis of automotive, aircraft,
building, defense, and missile and bridge structures to the field analysis of dynamics, stability, fracture
mechanics, heat flux, fluid flow, magnetic flux, seepage and other flow problems. With the advances in
computer technology and CAD systems, complex problems can be modeled with relative ease. Several
alternate configurations can be tried out on a computer before the first prototype is built. The basics in
engineering field are must to idealize the given structure for the required behavior. The proven knowledge
in the computational aspects of the Finite Element Method is essential. In the Finite Element Method, the
solution region is connected as built up of many small, interconnected sub regions called finite elements.

6.2 Historical Background

Although the name finite element method was given recently, the concept has been used several centuries
back. For example, ancient mathematicians found the circumference of the circle by approximating
polygon inscribed or circumscribed and can obtain a lower bound or an upper bound for the true
circumference. Further, as the number of sides of the polygon is increased, the approximate values convert
to the true value. These characteristics will hold true in finite element application. In recent times an
approach similar to the finite element method involving the use of piece wise continuous functions defined
over triangular regions, was first suggested by R. Courant in 1943 in the literature of applied mathematics.
The finite element method, known today has been presented in 1956 by M. J. Turner, R. W. Clough, H.
G. Martin, and L. J. Toop. This paper presents the application of simple finite elements for the analysis of
aircraft structure and is considered as one of the key contributions in the development of the finite element
method. The digital computers provide a rapid means of performing many calculations involved in the
finite element analysis and made the method practically viable. Along with the development of high speed
digital computers, the application of the finite element method progressed at a very impressive rate.

6.3 Need of Finite Element Method

To predict the behavior of the structure the designer adopts three tools such as analytical, experimental
and numerical methods. The analytical method is used for the regular sections of known geometric entities
where the component geometry is expressed mathematically. The solution obtained through analytical
method is exact and takes less time. This method cannot be used for the irregular sections and the shapes
which require very complex mathematical equations.
On the other hand the experimental method is used for finding the unknown parameters of interest. But
the experimentation requires testing equipment and a specimen for each behavior of requirement. This in
turn requires a high initial investment to procure the equipment and to prepare the specimens. The solution
obtained is exact and it consumes a lot of time to find the results and also for the preparation of specimen.
There are also many numerical methods such as Finite difference method, Finite element method,
Boundary element and volume method, Finite strip and volume method, Boundary integral methods etc.,
22

are used to estimate the approximate solutions of acceptable tolerance. The Finite element method is so
popular because of its adaptability towards use of digital computers. The Finite element method predicts
the component behavior at desired accuracy of any complex and irregular geometry at least price.

6.4 General Description of Finite Element Method

In the Finite element method, the actual continuum or body of matter like, solid, liquid or gas is
represented as an assemblage of subdivisions called finite elements. These elements are considered to be
interconnected at specific joints, which are called nodes or nodal points. The nodes usually lie on the
element boundaries where adjacent elements are considered to be connected. Since the actual variation of
the field variable (like displacement, temperature, pressure and velocity) inside the continuum is not
known. We assume that the variation of the field variable inside a finite element can be approximated by
a simple function. These approximating functions (also called as interpolation models) are defined in terms
of the values at the nodes. When field equations (like equilibrium equations) for the whole continuum are
written, the new unknown will be the nodal values of the field variable. By solving the field equations,
are generally in the form of matrix equations, the approximating function defines the field variable
throughout the assemblage of elements. The solution of a general continuum by the finite element method
always fallows an orderly step by step process. The step by step procedure for static structural problem
can be stated as fallows
STEP 1: Discretization of structure (domain)
The first step in the finite element method is to divide the structure or solution region into sub-divisions
or elements.
STEP 2: Selection of a proper interpolation model.
Since the displacement (field variable) solution of a complex structure under any specified load conditions
cant be predicted exactly. We assume some suitable solution within an element to approximate the
unknown solution. The assumed solution must be simple from computational point of view, and it should
satisfy certain convergence requirements.
STEP 3: Element stiffness matrices (characteristic matrices) and load vectors.
From the assumed displacement model the stiffness matrix [K (e)] and the load vector F (e) of element e
are to be derived by using either equilibrium conditions or a suitable variation principle.
STEP 4: Assemblage of element equations to obtain the overall equilibrium equations. Since the structure
is composed of several finite elements, the individual element stiffness matrices and load vectors are to
assembled in a suitable manner and the overall equilibrium equations have to be formulated as
[K] q = F
[K] is called assembled stiffness matrix, q is called the vector of nodal displacement and F is the vector
of nodal forces of the complete structure.

STEP 5: Solution of system equations have to be modified to account for the boundary conditions of the
problem. After incorporation of the boundary conditions, the equilibrium can be expressed as
23

[K] q = F
For linear problems, the vector q can be solved very easily, But for non-linear analysis problems, the
solution has to be obtained in a sequence of steps, each step involving the modification of the stiffness
matrix [k] and /or the load vector F.
STEP 6: Computation of Element Stresses and Strains.
From the known nodal displacements, if required, the element stresses and strains can be computed by
using the necessary equations of solid or structural mechanics.

6.5 Explanation of FEM by Step by Step Procedure

The Steps involved in the finite element analysis are stated in this section.
Discretization of the domain
The discretization of the domain or solution region in the sub-region (finite elements) is the first step in
the finite element method. This is equivalent to replacing the domain having and infinite number of
degrees of freedom by system having finite number of degree of freedom. The shapes, size, number and
configuration of the elements have to be chosen carefully such that the original body is simulated as
closely as possible without increasing the computational effort for the solution.
Basic Element Shapes
For any given physical body we have to use engineering judgment in selection of appropriate elements for
discretization. The type of element is indicated by the geometry of the body and the number of independent
spatial co-ordinates necessary to describe the system.
The geometry, material, properties and other parameters like stress, displacement, pressure and
temperature can be described in terms of one spatial co-ordinate we can use one-dimensional element.
When the configuration and the details of the problem can be described in terms of two independent spatial
co-ordinates, we can use the two-dimensional element. The basic element useful for the two-dimensional
analysis is the triangular element. If the geometry, material properties and other parameter of the body
can be described by three spatial co-ordinates, we can idealize the body by using the three dimensional
elements. The basic three-dimensional elements analogous to triangular elements are the tetrahedral
elements.

Size of Elements
The size of elements influences the convergence of these solutions directly and hence it has to be chosen
with care. If the size of the element is small, the final solution is expected to be more accurate. The size
of the elements has to be very small near the region where stress concentration is expected compared to
faraway places. Another characteristic related to the size of elements, which affects the finite element
solution is the aspect ratio of the elements. For two-dimension of the element to the smallest dimension.
Elements with an aspect ratio of nearly unity generally yield best results.
Location of Nodes
If the body has no abrupt changes in geometry, material properties and external conditions (like load,
temperature etc.) the body can be divided into equal sub-divisions and hence the spacing of the nodes can
24

be uniform. On the other hand, if there are any discontinuities in the problem, nodes have to be introduced
obviously, at these discontinuities.

Number of Elements
The number of elements to be chosen for idealization is related to the accuracy desired, size of elements
and the number of degrees of freedom involved. Although and increase in number of elements generally
means more accurate results, for any given problem they will be certain number of elements which means
more accurate results, and there can even be number of elements beyond which the accuracy cannot be
improved by any significant amount. Moreover, since the use of large number of elements involves large
number of degrees of freedom, we may not be able to store the resulting matrices in the available computer
memory.

6.6 Advantages of Finite Element Method

In contrast to other variations and residual approaches the finite element method does not require trail
solutions, which apply to the entire multi-dimensional continuum.
The use of separate sub regions or finite elements for the trail solutions permits a greater flexibility in
considering continuation of complex shape.
Rather than requiring every trial solution to satisfy the boundary conditions, one prescribes the
conditions after obtaining the algebraic equations for the assemblage.
As the boundary conditions do not enter into equations for the individual finite elements, one can use
the same field variable for both internal and boundary elements.
The field variable models need not be changed when the boundary conditions change.
The introduction of boundary conditions in to assembled equations is a relatively easy process. No
special techniques or artificial devices are necessary.
The finite element method not only accommodates complex geometry and boundary conditions, but
also proven successful in representing various types of complicated material properties that are
difficult to incorporate in other numerical methods.
The finite element method readily accounts for non-homogeneity by the simple tactic of assigning
different properties to different elements.
The simple generality of the finite element procedure makes it a powerful and versatile tool for finite
element method a wide range of problems.

6.7 Limitations of Finite Element Method

The finite element method does not accommodate few complex phenomena such as
Cracking and Fracture behavior.
Contact problems.
Bond failures of composite materials.
Non-Linear material behavior with work softening.
It does not account for transient, unconfined seepage problems.
The Finite Element analysis has reached a high level of development as a solution technique. However,
the method yields realistic results only of the coefficients or materials parameters which describe the basic
phenomena are available. The most tedious aspect of the use of the finite element method is the
25

Basic processes of sub dividing the continuum and of generating error free input data for the computer.
Errors in the input data may go undetected and erroneous results obtained may appear acceptable.
A large volume of solution information is generated by a finite element routine, but this data is worth only
while when its generation and interpretation are tempered by proper engineering judgment.

6.8 Applications of FEM

Finite element method comes under the category of discretization methods. R.W.clough appears to be the
first to use this term of finite element, since early 1960s there has been much progress in this method.
This method requires a large number of computations requiring a computer. In fact digital computer
advances have been responsible for the expanding usage of the Finite element method. The FEM was
initially developed to solve structural problems. Its use of late, has been rapidly extended to various fields.
The diversity of applications of the method is explained in the following
Mechanical Design
Stress concentration problems, stress analysis of pressure vessels, distance, composite materials, linkages
and gears. Natural frequencies and stability of linkages, gears and machine tools. Crack and fracture
problems under dynamic loads.
Civil Engineering Structures
Static analysis of trusses, frames, roofs, bridges and pre-stressed concrete structures. Natural frequencies,
modes and stability of structures. Propagation of stress waves and response of structures to periodic loads.
Air Craft structures
Static analysis of aircraft wings, fins, rockets, spacecraft and missile structures. Natural frequencies, flutter
and stability of aircraft and missile structures. Response of air craft structures to random loads, dynamic
response of air craft and space craft to periodic loads.

Heat conduction
Steady state temperature distribution in solids and fluids. Transient heat flow in rocket nozzles .internal
combustion engines, turbine blades, fins and building structures.

Nuclear Engineering
Analysis nuclear pressure vessels steady and unsteady state temperature distribution in reactor
components. Natural frequencies and stabilities of containment structures. Response of reactor
containment structures to dynamic loads. Thermal and viscos elastic analysis of reactor structures.

26

CHAPTER 7
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS
7.1 ABOUT CFD
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is a computer-based tool for simulating the behavior of systems
involving fluid flow, heat transfer, and other related physical processes. It works by solving the equations
of fluid flow (in a special form) over a region of interest, with specified (known) conditions on the
boundary of that region.
7.1.1 The History of CFD
Computers have been used to solve fluid flow problems for many years. Numerous programs have been
written to solve either specific problems, or specific classes of problems. From the mid-1970s, the
complex mathematics required to generalize the algorithms began to be understood, and general purpose
CFD solvers were developed. These began to appear in the early 1980s and required what were then very
powerful computers, as well as an in-depth knowledge of fluid dynamics, and large amounts of time to
set up simulations. Consequently, CFD was a tool used almost exclusively in research.
Recent advances in computing power, together with powerful graphics and interactive 3D manipulation
of models, have made the process of creating a CFD model and analyzing results much less labor intensive,
reducing time and, hence, cost. Advanced solvers contain algorithms that enable robust solutions of the
flow field in a reasonable time.
As a result of these factors, Computational Fluid Dynamics is now an established industrial design tool,
helping to reduce design time scales and improve processes throughout the engineering world. CFD
provides a cost-effective and accurate alternative to scale model testing, with variations on the simulation
being performed quickly, offering obvious advantages.
7.1.2 The Mathematics of CFD
The set of equations that describe the processes of momentum, heat and mass transfer are known as the
Navier-Stokes equations. These partial differential equations were derived in the early nineteenth century
and have no known general analytical solution but can be discretized and solved numerically.
Equations describing other processes, such as combustion, can also be solved in conjunction with the
Navier-Stokes equations. Often, an approximating model is used to derive these additional equations,
turbulence models being a particularly important example.
There are a number of different solution methods that are used in CFD codes. The most common, and the
one on which CFX is based, is known as the finite volume technique.
In this technique, the region of interest is divided into small sub-regions, called control volumes. The
equations are discretized and solved iteratively for each control volume. As a result, an approximation of
the value of each variable at specific points throughout the domain can be obtained. In this way, one
derives a full picture of the behavior of the flow.

27

7.1.3 Uses of CFD

CFD is used by engineers and scientists in a wide range of fields. Typical applications include:
Process industry: Mixing vessels, chemical reactors
Building services: Ventilation of buildings, such as atriums
Health and safety: Investigating the effects of fire and smoke
Motor industry: Combustion modeling, car aerodynamics
Electronics: Heat transfer within and around circuit boards
Environmental: Dispersion of pollutants in air or water
Power and energy: Optimization of combustion processes
Medical: Blood flow through grafted blood vessels

7.1.4 CFD Methodology

CFD can be used to determine the performance of a component at the design stage, or it can be used to
analyze difficulties with an existing component and lead to its improved design.
For example, the pressure drop through a component may be considered excessive:
The first step is to identify the region of interest
The geometry of the region of interest is then defined. If the geometry already exists in CAD, it can be
imported directly. The mesh is then created. After importing the mesh into the pre-processor, other
elements of the simulation including the boundary conditions (inlets, outlets, and so on) and fluid
properties are defined.
The flow solver is run to produce a file of results that contains the variation of velocity, pressure and
any other variables throughout the region of interest.
The results can be visualized and can provide the engineer an understanding of the behavior of the fluid
throughout the region of interest.
This can lead to design modifications that can be tested by changing the geometry of the CFD model and
seeing the effect.
The process of performing a single CFD simulation is split into four components
1.

Creating the Geometry/Mesh.

2.

Defining the Physics of the Model.

3.

Solving the CFD Problem.

28

4.

Visualizing the Results in the Post-processor.

7.1.4.1 Creating the Geometry/Mesh

This interactive process is the first pre-processing stage. The objective is to produce a mesh for input to
the physics pre-processor. Before a mesh can be produced, a closed geometric solid is required. The
geometry and mesh can be created in the Meshing application or any of the other geometry/mesh creation
tools. The basic steps involve:
1.

Defining the geometry of the region of interest.

2.

Creating regions of fluid flow, solid regions and surface boundary names.

3.

Setting properties for the mesh.

This pre-processing stage is now highly automated. In CFX, geometry can be imported from most major
CAD packages using native format, and the mesh of control volumes is generated automatically.
7.1.4.2 Defining the Physics of the Model
This interactive process is the second pre-processing stage and is used to create input required by the
Solver. The mesh files are loaded into the physics pre-processor, CFX-Pre.
The physical models that are to be included in the simulation are selected. Fluid properties and boundary
conditions are specified.
7.1.4.3 Solving the CFD Problem
The component that solves the CFD problem is called the Solver. It produces the required results in a noninteractive/batch process. A CFD problem is solved as follows:

The partial differential equations are integrated over all the control volumes in the region of interest.
This is equivalent to applying a basic conservation law (for example, for mass or momentum) to each
control volume.

These integral equations are converted to a system of algebraic equations by generating a set of
approximations for the terms in the integral equations.

The algebraic equations are solved iteratively.

An iterative approach is required because of the nonlinear nature of the equations, and as the solution
approaches the exact solution, it is said to converge. For each iteration, an error, or residual, is reported
as a measure of the overall conservation of the flow properties.
How close the final solution is to the exact solution depends on a number of factors, including the size
and shape of the control volumes and the size of the final residuals. Complex physical processes, such
as combustion and turbulence, are often modeled using empirical relationships. The approximations
inherent in these models also contribute to differences between the CFD solution and the real flow.
The solution process requires no user interaction and is, therefore, usually carried out as a batch process.
29

The solver produces a results file that is then passed to the post-processor.
7.1.4.4 Visualizing the Results in the Post-processor
The post-processor is the component used to analyze, visualize and present the results interactively. Postprocessing includes anything from obtaining point values to complex animated sequences.
Examples of some important features of post-processors are
Visualization of the geometry and control volumes.
Vector plots showing the direction and magnitude of the flow.
Visualization of the variation of scalar variables (variables that have only magnitude, not direction, such

as temperature, pressure and speed) through the domain.

Quantitative numerical calculations.
Animation.
Charts showing graphical plots of variables.
Hardcopy and online output

7.2 SOLVERS OF CFD

7.2.1 ANSYS CFX
ANSYS CFX is a general purpose Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) software suite that combines an
advanced solver with powerful pre- and post-processing capabilities. It includes the following feature.
An advanced coupled solver that is both reliable and robust.
Full integration of problem definition, analysis, and results presentation.
An intuitive and interactive setup process, using menus and advanced graphics.

ANSYS CFX is capable of modeling:

Steady-state and transient flows
Laminar and turbulent flows
Subsonic, transonic and supersonic flows
Heat transfer and thermal radiation
Buoyancy
Non-Newtonian flows
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 Transport of non-reacting scalar components

7.2.2 The Structure of ANSYS CFX

ANSYS CFX consists of four software modules that take a geometry and mesh and pass the information
required to perform a CFD analysis

Fig 7.2.2(a) ANSYS CFX File Types show the file types involved in this data flow

7.2.3 CFX-Pre
The next-generation physics pre-processor, CFX-Pre, is used to define simulations.
Multiple meshes may be imported, allowing each section of complex geometries to use the most
appropriate mesh.
Analyses, which consist of flow physics, boundary conditions, initial values, and solver parameters, are
also specified. A full range of boundary conditions, including inlets, outlets and openings, together with
boundary conditions for heat transfer models and periodicity, are all available in ANSYS CFX through
CFX-Pre.
Complex simulations are assembled from one or more configurations, each of which combines an analysis
definition with other related tasks such as remeshing. Control over the configuration execution order and
inter-configuration solution dependencies then facilitates the setup of relatively common simulations, such
as those involving the initialization of a transient analysis using results from a steady state analysis. Use
of multiple configurations and control also facilitates the setup of increasingly complex simulations of,
for example, performance curves for turbo-machines or internal combustion engines with evolving
geometry and physics.

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7.2.4 CFX-Solver
CFX-Solver solves all the solution variables for the simulation for the problem specification generated in
CFX-Pre.
Running ANSYS CFX
One of the most important features of ANSYS CFX is its use of a coupled solver, in which all the
hydrodynamic equations are solved as a single system. The coupled solver is faster than the traditional
segregated solver and fewer iterations are required to obtain a converged flow solution.
7.2.5 CFX-Solver Manager
The CFX-Solver Manager module provides greater control to the management of the CFD task. Its major
functions are:
Specify the input files to the CFX-Solver.
Start/stop the CFX-Solver.
Monitor the progress of the solution.
Set up the CFX-Solver for a parallel calculation.

7.2.6 CFD-Post
CFD-Post provides state-of-the-art interactive post-processing graphics tools to analyze and present the
ANSYS CFX simulation results.
Important features include
Quantitative post-processing.
Report generation.
Command line, session file, or state file input.
User-defined variables.
Generation of a variety of graphical objects where visibility, transparency, color, and line/face

rendering can be controlled.

Power Syntax to allow fully programmable session Additional information on CFD-Post is

available.

7.3 CFD ANSYS FLUENT

Fluent is a powerful and flexible general-purpose computational fluid dynamics software package used to
model flow, turbulence, heat transfer, and reactions for industrial applications. The physical models allow
accurate CFD analysis for a wide range of fluid problems from airflow over an aircraft wing to combustion
in a furnace.
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7.3.1 ANSYS FLUENT INTRODUCTION

FLUENT is a state-of-the-art computer program for modeling fluid flow and heat transfer in complex
geometries. FLUENT provides complete mesh flexibility, solving your flow problems with unstructured
meshes that can be generated about complex geometries with relative ease. Supported mesh types include
2D triangular/quadrilateral, 3D tetrahedral/hexahedral/pyramid/wedge, and mixed (hybrid) meshes.
FLUENT also allows you to refine or coarsen your grid based on the flow solution.
This solution-adaptive grid capability is particularly useful for accurately predicting flow fields in regions
with large gradients, such as free shear layers and boundary layers. In comparison to solutions on
structured or block structured grids, this feature significantly reduces the time required to generate a
``good'' grid. Solution-adaptive refinement makes it easier to perform grid refinement studies and reduces
the computational effort required to achieve a desired level of accuracy, since mesh refinement is limited
to those regions where greater mesh resolution is needed.
There are huge numbers of engineering applications that can benefit from computational fluid dynamics
simulation. Whether you analyze commonplace fluid flow and heat transfer or work with complex
transient reacting flows, ANSYS Fluent software should be an integral part of your product design and
optimization process.
A fully featured fluid dynamics solution for modeling flow and other related physical phenomena, Fluent
offers unparalleled analysis capabilities. It provides all the tools needed to design and optimize new
equipment and to troubleshoot existing installations. The versatile technology offers insight into how a
product design will behave in the real world, all before a single prototype is built. Fluents capabilities are
developed by world-renowned experts and supported by extremely experienced engineers so you can
have confidence in the solution as you develop higher quality products faster, decrease time to market,
reduce risk and increase innovation.
Fast, Accurate Solutions Glean Product Behavior Insight
Even amid global competitive pressures and complex requirements, you cannot afford to sacrifice
accuracy. We understand this tenet, delivering software that provides accurate insight into your products
behavior quickly and efficiently.
To provide high productivity, the ANSYS Workbench platform directly couples with your CAD software
and automatically extracts and meshes fluid volumes. You control this easy-to- perform operation via a
small set of parameters; the yield is the high-quality meshes critical for both accurate and fast CFD
simulation. In developing a revolutionary fan concept, the Dyson team investigated 200 different design
iterations using simulation, which was 10 times the number that would have been possible had physical
prototyping been the primary design tool. Richard Mason Research,
Design and Development Manager Dyson
ANSYS simulation software is incredibly reliable and accurate. Simulation enables us to drastically
reduce lead times and get solutions to the circuit much, much quicker so that we are more competitive
race-to-race. Steve Nevey Business Development Manager Red Bull Technology
33

Our CFD package includes solvers that accurately simulate behavior of the broad range of flows that
engineers encounter daily from Newtonian to non-Newtonian, from single-phase to multi-phase, and
from subsonic to hypersonic. Each solver is highly robust, well tested, validated and optimized for fast
simulation time. Time tested and part of a single environment, the highly efficient solvers deliver both
accuracy and speed.
For deeper insight such as making informed decisions about small adjustments that yield large
performance improvements you can increase the granularity of the analysis. Such improved resolution
requires more computational resources and parallel computing. Fluent has a record of outstanding parallel
scalability, ranging from two processors to thousands, giving you high-fidelity results in the shortest
possible time.
Optimizing your product requires evaluating a large number of designs. Your toolkit should include
capabilities for design exploration and optimization studies in a fast, easy-to-use and robust manner
which provides better insight into product performance. Capabilities within ANSYS Workbench enable
efficient, fully automated optimization (or design of experiments) for tens or hundreds of design points;
the technology can evaluate many design points concurrently. Workbench makes the process easy by
controlling the execution, results data and file management for each set of design points.
ANSYS Fluent is both customizable and fully integrated within ANSYS Workbench, allowing you to
adapt capabilities to quickly solve specific challenges with great ease.
Parametric simulation helps to evaluate fluid dynamics performance of a large number of designs, such as
this selective catalytic reduction mixer.
Independent validation attests to Fluents accuracy. This dam break simulation compares experiment
(grey) and multiphase simulation (color) at different times. White regions correspond to breaking waves
in the experiment.
Basic Program Structure

Fig 7.3.1(a) basic program structure

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Once a grid has been read into FLUENT, all remaining operations are performed within the solver.
These include setting boundary conditions, defining fluid properties, executing the solution, refining
the grid, and viewing and post processing the results
Program Capabilities
The FLUENT solver has the following modeling capabilities:

Flows in 2D or 3D geometries using unstructured solution-adaptive triangular/tetrahedral,

quadrilateral/hexahedral, or mixed (hybrid) grids that include prisms (wedges) or pyramids. (Both
conformal and hanging-node meshes are acceptable.)
incompressible or compressible flows
steady-state or transient analysis
inviscid, laminar, and turbulent flows
Newtonian or non-Newtonian flow
convective heat transfer, including natural or forced convection
coupled conduction/convective heat transfer
radiation heat transfer
inertial (stationary) or non-inertial (rotating) reference frame models
multiple moving reference frames, including sliding mesh interfaces and mixing planes for
rotor/stator interaction modeling
chemical species mixing and reaction, including combustion sub models and surface deposition
reaction models
arbitrary volumetric sources of heat, mass, momentum, turbulence, and chemical species
Lagrangian trajectory calculations for a dispersed phase of particles/droplets/bubbles, including
coupling with the continuous phase
phase-change models
flow through porous media
lumped-parameter models for fans, pumps, radiators, and heat exchangers
multiphase flows, including cavitation
free-surface flows with complex surface shapes

These capabilities allow FLUENT to be used for a wide variety of applications, including the following:

Process and process equipment applications

Power generation and oil/gas and environmental applications
Aerospace and turbo machinery applications
Automobile applications
Heat exchanger applications
Electronics/HVAC/appliances
Materials processing applications
Architectural design and fire research

In summary, FLUENT is ideally suited for incompressible and compressible fluid flow simulations in
complex geometries.
35

Problem Solving Steps

Once you have determined the important features of the problem you want to solve, you will follow the
basic procedural steps shown below.
1. Create the model geometry and grid.
2. Start the appropriate solver for 2D or 3D modeling.
3. Import the grid.
4. Check the grid.
5. Select the solver formulation.
6. Choose the basic equations to be solved: laminar or turbulent (or inviscid), chemical species or
reaction, heat transfer models, etc. Identify additional models needed: fans, heat exchangers, porous
media, etc.
7. Specify material properties.
8. Specify the boundary conditions.
9. Adjust the solution control parameters.
10 Initialize the flow field.
11 Calculate a solution.
12 Examine the results.
13 Save the results.
14 If necessary, refine the grid or consider revisions to the numerical or physical model.
Step 1 of the solution process requires a geometry modeler and grid generator. You can use GAMBIT or
a separate CAD system for geometry modeling and grid generation. You can also use TGrid to generate
volume grids from surface grids imported from GAMBIT or a CAD package. Alternatively, you can use
supported CAD packages to generate volume grids for import into TGrid or into FLUENT.
In Step 2, you will start the 2D or 3D solver.
The details of steps 3-14 are shown below.
Table 7.3.1: Overview of the FLUENT Menus
Solution Step

Menu

3. Import the grid.

File menu

4. Check the grid.

Grid menu

5. Select the solver formulation. Define menu

36

6. Choose basic equations.

Define menu

7. Material properties.

Define menu

8. Boundary conditions.

Define menu

9. Adjust solution controls.

Solve menu

10. Initialize the flow field.

Solve menu

11. Calculate a solution.

Solve menu

12. Examine the results.

Display menu
Plot menu
Report menu

13. Save the results.

File menu

14. Adapt the grid.

Adapt menu

FLUENT provides three different solver formulations:

segregated
coupled implicit
coupled explicit

The segregated solver traditionally has been used for incompressible and mildly compressible flows.
The segregated solver provides several physical models that are not available with the coupled solvers:

Volume-of-fluid (VOF) model

Multiphase mixture model
Eulerian multiphase model
Non-premixed combustion model
Premixed combustion model
Partially premixed combustion model
Soot and NOx models
Rosseland radiation model
Melting/solidification model
Specified mass flow rate for stream wise periodic flow
Shell conduction model
37

Floating operating pressure

The following features are available with the coupled solvers, but not with the segregated solver:

Real gas model

Non-reflecting boundary conditions (available only for the coupled explicit solver)
Stiff chemistry solver option for laminar flames.

Other menu commands will be dealt in the class. The following session is a practice session which deals
with a cavity which is in the shape of a rhombus. Some of the boundary conditions are employed on the
surface and the solving part is done with the help of fluent 2d. The 3d section problems will be covered in
the coming classes.

7.4 Finite volume method

The finite volume method (FVM) is an increasingly popular numerical method for the approximate
solution of partial differential equations (PDEs). Most of the author's research work has been based on the
FVM
Compared to the classical finite difference method (FDM) the FVM has the following advantages.
1. Spatial discretization is totally flexible: the mesh can accommodate to irregularly shaped
boundaries to reduce geometric errors and the mesh can refined locally to give more resolution in regions
of particular interest.
2. Equations are presented in integral form which is often how they are derived from the underlying
physical laws.
3. Because of (2) there is no need for dependent variables to be differentiable everywhere which means
that a larger problems can be solved.
4. The FVM naturally conserves conserved variables when applied to PDEs expressing conservation
laws since, as two neighboring cells share a common interface , the total flow of a conserved quantity out
of one cell will be the same as that entering the other cell
One disadvantage of the FVM over the FDM is that there is no easily accessible underlying theory (e.g.:
for formal accuracy). However a FVM on a uniform Cartesian mesh can be regarded as a FDM which
then permits analysis based on Taylor series.

38

CHAPTER 8
ANALYSIS OF HEAT PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER
8.1 PROCEDURE
The HPHE shown in Figure is a simple 3D problem in which the flow is laminar, there is no heat transfer,
and there are no special physical models to consider. In addition, the overall problem geometry, grid, and
boundary locations and types have already been defined in the grid generator. You can simply read the
grid file, with all this information, into FLUENT.
The modeling steps you will follow in this sample FLUENT session are reduced to the following:

Read the grid file and check it.

Select the default segregated solver.
Define the physical models.
Specify the fluid properties.
Specify the boundary conditions.
Save the problem setup.
Initialize the solution.
Calculate the solution.
Examine the results.

STEP 1: Start the fluent solver

In this step select 3D and click on ok, this will make to launch fluent screen
STEP 2: Reading, checking and displaying the grid.
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 To read the file, select the file option, then select import, select file format which is CGNS
and then select mesh option.
fileimportCGNSMESH

After reading the CGNS file we should scale and check its validity by selecting scale and check
menu item.
We will see the domain extents , volume statistics and connectivity information in the console
window as shown below:
Grid check
Domain Extents:
X-coordinate: min (m) = 0.000000e+00, max (m) = 2.800000e+00
Y-coordinate: min (m) = 0.000000e+00, max (m) = 1.800000e+00
Z-coordinate: min (m) = 0.000000e+00, max (m) = 5.000000e-02
Volume statistics:
Minimum volume (m3): 3.499981e-06
Maximum volume (m3): 3.000015e-05
Total volume (m3): 1.707000e-01
Face area statistics:
Minimum face area (m2): 9.999990e-05
Maximum face area (m2): 3.000014e-03
Checking mesh..........................
Done.
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 Displaying the Grid

To display the grid select the display option

In the resulting mesh display panel click on the parts which we need to display and then click on the
display push button, once display push button is activated, we can see meshed model of HPHE which is
shown in below figure, then after close the mesh display panel by clicking on the close push button.

41

STEP 3: DEFINING THE PYSICAL MODELS

In this part we need to select the appropriate equations which need to be enabled to analyze the model.
For defining appropriate equations go for model option which is in the solution setup menu.
Now once model option is selected following panel will be displayed.
Enable all the energy equations by clicking on energy option, now the next thing we need to do is defining
the type of flow and enabling their corresponding equations. Here define the type of flow by clicking on
viscous laminar option because we have assumed flow is viscous and laminar and once we have selected
viscous laminar option viscous laminar model panel will be displayed, where different model equations
will be displayed. Select k-epsilon 2 equation standard model as the corresponding flow equation.

Modelsenergy-onokclose

42

Modelsviscous-laminark-epsilon (2eqn) okclose

STEP 4: Specifying Fluid Properties
To set the fluid properties for a given problem select the Define/Materials menu item. This will open the
materials panel.

Materialsfluidcreate/edit change/create close.

43

If we are using a material other than air we should select it from the material data base or we should create
our own material. For this problem instead of modifying the fluid properties of air we are going to select
all default property values. Click on change/create to save the new value and then close the panel.
Step 5: Specifying the Boundary Conditions
Here we can set values for boundary conditions and change boundary types using the boundary conditions
panel shown in figure below. To open this panel, select the Define/Boundary Conditions menu item.
To set boundary conditions of a particular zone, select the desired boundary in the zone list. We can change
the boundary type by selecting from the type list .After you select the correct zone type, you can set the
actual boundary condition values by clicking on the Set button. (If you prefer, you can double-click on
the boundary zone name in the Zone list instead of clicking on the Set button.)
The following are the boundary conditions which we are going to define are

Inlet.
Outlet.
Symmetry1.
Symmetry2.
Wall up.
Wall down.

Defining Inlet Conditions

44

Here value of inlet velocity is 45m/s and inlet hot fluid temperature is 793k.

Defining Wall Conditions

To set the wall temperature we need to open wall control panel by clicking on wall up or wall
down option. Here wall under consideration is a stationary wall.
Here wall temperature is 293k for both wall up and wall down conditions. After entering the value
of temperature click on OK to save our setting and close the panel.

STEP 6: Solving the Problem

At the initial part of solving the problem we will be considering the default solution methods and solution
controls.
Before iterating, you must initialize the flow field to provide a starting point for the solution. You have a
choice of computing the initial solution from the settings of one (or all) of the boundary conditions or
entering flow-field values individually. Select the Solve/Initialize/Initialize... menu item to open the
Solution Initialization panel shown in Figure.

45

STEP 7: Calculate the Solution

Now you are ready to begin iterating. Select the Solve/Iterate... menu item. This will open the Iterate
panel.

46

Enter 1000 for the Number of Iterations and click on the Iterate button to perform the 1000 iterations.
When the iterations start, you should see the residual plot in the graphics window. After the 1000 iterations
are complete, your graphics window should look something like Figure below.
STEP 8: Examining the Results
Now select the contour menu item in the display menu. This will open the contour panel as shown in
figure below.

47

CHAPTER 9
RESULTS
After analyzing the HPHE with baffle and without baffle, we are going to display our results in the form
of contour plots of various parameters of fluid flow like temperature, velocity and pressure.

9.1 Contour Plots of HPHE without Baffle

9.1.1 Contour Plot of Velocity

48

9.1.2 Contour Plot of Pressure

49

9.1.3 Contour Plot of Temperature

50

9.2 Contour Plots of HPHE with baffle

9.2.1 Contour plots of velocity

51

9.2.2 Contour plots of pressure

52

9.2.3 Contour Plot of Temperature

53

CHAPTER 10
CONCLUSION
During this project we have acquired knowledge over Ansys CFD and its respective solvers, by
utilizing our knowledge over Ansys CFD and Fluent solver which is a kind of CFD solver which
is used for numerical calculations, We have analyzed Heat Pipe Heat Exchanger with baffle and
without baffle and we have represented results in the form of contour plots.

54

REFERENCES
The sites which were used while doing this project
1.
2.
3.
4.

Ansys and fluent study guides.

www.wikipedia.com
www.scribd.com
www.slideshare.com

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