Professional Documents
Culture Documents
JulySeptember 2010 volume 20, number 3 water conservation communication metering loss control revenue rates smart irrigation end use
FEATURES
DEPARTMENTS
Web Resources
17
Foundation Contacts
21
Case Studies and Value of Research:
Smart Irrigation Controller
Demonstration and Evaluation in
Orange County Utilities Florida
22
Advanced Metering at East Bay
Municipal Utility District
36
Denver Water Customers Know the
More They Use, the More They Pay
45
Water Loss Control: Philadelphia
Case Study
51
Leakage Reduction Through Flow
Modulated Pressure Control: the Halifax
Water Experience
52
American Water Case Study: Continuous
System Leak Monitoring
54
New Developments in Leakage
Detection
55
Webcast Announcement
56
VIEWPOINT
This issue focuses on all aspects of conservation and efficiency, with a particular focus on water
loss control, water efficiency programs, water conservation communications strategies, and new
technologies to control water use. It also contains guidance on how utilities can implement a balanced
approach to conservation.
This issue of Drinking Water Research exemplifies the Foundations commitment to funding practical
research that helps utilities solve day-to-day problems. Subscribers turn to us to help them implement
programs that help not only provide safe clean water, but support their financial sustainability.
Thank you, Roy, for leading this organization at such a critical time, and sincere thanks to our subscribers for their continuing
support of water research.
Sincerely,
Introduction
End Uses
End Uses
300,000
Seattle
Philadelphia
Cincinnati
Cleveland
250,000
New Haven
Phoenix
Louisville
Las Vegas
200,000
Calgary
Dallas
St Paul
150,000
100,000
50,000
1974
1978
1982
1986
1990
1994
1998
2002
2006
Year
Figure 1. Annual water usage per residential customer, in gallons, for eleven major U.S. cities
(Source: North America Residential Water Usage Trends Since 1992)
End Uses
End Uses
End Uses
Other resources
USGS National Water Use Assessment
(http://water.usgs.gov/watuse) Every five years since 1950, the USGS evaluates and reports the estimated water
withdrawals in the United States by state, source of water, and eight categories of use: public supply, domestic,
irrigation, livestock, aquaculture, industrial, mining, and thermoelectric-power generation. According to the latest report,
thermoelectric-power generation used the most water (49% of total water withdrawn), followed by irrigation (31%)
and public supply (11%). The remaining categories accounted for less than 10% of the total water withdrawn. The
2005 USGS report and the 11 earlier five-year reports generated since 1950 can be downloaded from the Website.
cOMMUNICATIONS
cOMMUNICATIONS
cOMMUNICATIONS
Research Findings
cOMMUNICATIONS
11
cOMMUNICATIONS
Table 1. Average annual water use and sample size six study sites
Total annual water use from billing records
Site Location
Median (kgal)
All Sites
5,223
135.5
99.0
149.3
Tempe
1082
190.8
155.2
231.2
Durham
952
53.2
47.9
29.5
Phoenix
966
159.5
125.7
139.7
JEA
969
148.8
114.4
122.0
Orange County
969
141.8
111.5
109.6
Seattle
282
52.9
43.4
39.2
*Samples drawn from the population of single-family accounts in each study. The sample size
presented is smaller than the original sample because of missing data.
**Based on most recent available complete year of historic billing data2006 for all sites
except Seattle (2008).
12
cOMMUNICATIONS
13
cOMMUNICATIONS
250
Average
Median
200
150
100
50
0
Tempe
Durham
Phoenix
JEA
Orange County
Seattle
All Sites
Figure 1 Annual residential water use (average and median) in six study sites
cOMMUNICATIONS
15
cOMMUNICATIONS
References
Hoffman, J.R. 2006. Do We Have A Water Problem?: The Use of Social Marketing as a Problem
Solver. Journal AWWA. August 2006 (3436).
Mckenzie-Mohr, D., and W. Smith. 1999. Fostering Sustainable Behavior: An Introduction to
Community-Based Social Marketing. Gabriola Island, BC, Canada: New Society Publishers.
Whitcomb, J. 2003. Freeriders in ULFT Programs. Sacramento, Calif.: California Urban Water
Conservation Council.
16
Web Resources
Web Resources for Water Use Efficiency Professionals
The following organizations and Websites provide excellent resources for water use efficiency professionals:
The Alliance for Water Efficiency is a stakeholder-based 501(c)(3) non-profit organization dedicated to the
efficient and sustainable use of water. Located in Chicago, the Alliance serves as a North American advocate for
water efficient products and programs, and provides information and assistance on water conservation efforts.
www.allianceforwaterefficiency.org
The American Water Works Associations WaterWiser is a comprehensive clearinghouse of resources on water
conservation, efficiency, and demand management for conservation professionals and the larger water supply
community. http://www.awwa.org/Resources/Waterwiser.cfm?navItemNumber=1561
The California Urban Water Conservation Council was created to increase efficient water use statewide through
partnerships among urban water agencies, public interest organizations, and private entities. The Councils goal is to
integrate urban water conservation Best Management Practices into the planning and management of Californias water
resources. www.cuwcc.org
Water Conserve provides capabilities to search the world of water conservation information on the Internet. It is part
of Ecological Internet Inc., which specializes in the use of the Internet to achieve ecological science-based environmental
conservation outcomes. Ecological Internets mission is to empower the global movement for environmental sustainability
by providing information retrieval tools, portal services, expert analysis, and action opportunities that aid in the protection
of climate, forest, ocean, and water ecosystems; and to commence the age of ecological sustainability and restoration.
Ecological Internets family of environmental portals are a special kind of Website that try to identify, filter, and network all
the best information found on a subject through one starting point. http://www.waterconserve.org/
The savewater! Alliance Inc. was incorporated in Victoria, Australia on June 9, 2004 as a not-for-profit association. Its
aim is to accelerate water conservation behavior change and water saving product purchasing in line with government
and water industry needs. savewater! also aims to support product and service suppliers by increasing community
awareness of their product solutions. www.savewater.com.au
WaterSense is an EPA-sponsored partnership program launched in 2006 that seeks to protect the future of the nations
water supply by promoting water efficiency and enhancing the market for water-efficient products, programs, and
practices. www.epa.gov/watersense
The Water Sustainability Project (WSP) began in 2003 at the University of Victorias POLIS Project on Ecological
Governance in British Columbia, Canada. The WSP seeks to establish a new water paradigm based on conservation,
stewardship, and sustainability. To address the challenge the project is divided into three core research themes crucial
to a sustainable water future: Water Conservation & The Soft Path, Water-Energy Nexus, and Water Law, Policy &
Governance. The Water Sustainability Project is part of the larger POLIS Project on Ecological Governance, which is
a centre for transdisciplinary research that investigates and promotes sustainability. POLIS was established in 2000
by the Eco-Research Chair of Environmental Law and Policy at the University of Victoria. http://poliswaterproject.org/
conservation
The WaterUse It Wisely campaign was launched in 1999 to promote an ongoing water conservation ethic among
Arizonas rapidly growing population. Following Arizonas lead, nearly 400 towns, cities, states, utilities, and private
and public organizations have adopted the Water - Use It Wisely conservation campaign, making it one of the largest
conservation educational outreach programs in the world. www.wateruseitwisely.com
Waterwise UK is an independent, non-profit organisation that receives funding from the UK water industry and from
sponsorship and consultancy work. In England, it participates on the Environment Ministers Water Saving Group alongside
the water industry and regulators. Waterwise set up the Saving Water in Scotland Network. www.waterwise.org.uk
17
sMART iRRIGATION
Introduction
18
sMART iRRIGATION
19
sMART iRRIGATION
References
Cardenas-Lailhacar, B., M.D. Dukes, and G.L. Miller. 2008. Sensor-based automation of irrigation on bermudagrass
during wet weather conditions. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 134(2):120-128. Available at http://abe.
ufl.edu/mdukes/pdf/publications/SMS/Cardenas-SMS-paper-JID.pdf.
Davis, S., M. D. Dukes, and G. L. Miller. 2009. Landscape irrigation by evapotranspiration-based irrigation controllers
under dry conditions in Southwest Florida. Agricultural Water Management 96(12):1828-1836. Available at http://abe.
ufl.edu/mdukes/Controllers/et-controller-pubs.shtml.
Dukes, M. D., and D. Z. Haman. 2002. Operation of residential irrigation controllers. CIR1421, Institute of Food and
Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. Available at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AE220.
Haley, M.B., M.D. Dukes, and G.L. Miller. 2007. Residential irrigation water use in Central Florida. Journal of Irrigation
and Drainage Engineering 133(5):427-434. Available at http://abe.ufl.edu/mdukes/pdf/irrigation-efficiency/Haley-FLresidential-irrig-JID.pdf.
McCready, M.S., M.D. Dukes, and G.L. Miller. 2009. Water conservation potential of smart irrigation controllers on St.
Augustinegrass. Agricultural Water Management 96(11):1623-1632. Available at http://abe.ufl.edu/mdukes/Controllers/
soil-moisture-sensor-pubs.shtml.
20
sMART iRRIGATION
Acknowledgments
Foundation Contacts
Customer Service
Phone: +1 888.844.5082 or +1 303.347.6121
Fax: +1 303.730.0851
E-mail: rfreports@WaterRF.org
Editorial Questions
Phone: +1 303.347.6111
E-mail: editor@WaterRF.org
Order Drinking Water Research
Phone: +1 303.347.6248
E-mail: tfreeman@WaterRF.org
Address/Phone Changes
Phone: +1 303.347.6243
E-mail: emahoney@WaterRF.org
21
22
(project #4227) is investigating the use of the Smart irrigation devices in Orange Countys two distinct soil types
sandy soils in the western portion of the county and very mucky, flatwoods soils in the east (with varying degrees of
both throughout the county). The varying soil types affect the moisture-holding capacity of the soil and consequently
the amount of irrigation water that may be required. The study also includes researching the usability of the smart
irrigation devices by non-expert users.
Monthly water billing records from January 2003 through December 2008 for Orange County Utilities residential
customers were reviewed and analyzed to identify customers who irrigate frequently and at high rates. This amounted
to nearly 7.5 million monthly records. The property analyses (which considered lot size, irrigable area, average per
capita indoor water usage, historical ET and rainfall data, and other factors) resulted in over 7,600 properties in over 80
subdivisions that showed potential for being included in the study. The identified pool of customers was then mailed
an invitation to complete an online questionnaire to be considered for the research. The selection process will consider
the proximity of properties to one another in order to form study groups, and the properties locations in relation to
soil types.
Site visits and irrigation system evaluations will be conducted to further narrow the pool of participants. Based on
previous research involving irrigation water use in Florida, 12 sites is the minimum number required to have statistical
power to detect significant differences between comparison groups. Orange County Utilities will target 16 sites for
each type of smart device, soil type, degree of monitoring, and for each control group. This will include a total of
160 separate sites. Commercial sites that have a potential for more efficient irrigation will be selected based on their
proximity to groups of residential properties.
The research project began in September 2009 and is expected to be published in 2013. Subscribers can read periodic
updates about this project at http://www.WaterRF.org/ProjectsReports.
23
24
25
26
Analytic Tools
Water Research Foundation subscribers can order the final report Water Efficiency Programs for Integrated
Water Management on the Foundation Website at www.WaterRF.org/ProjectsReports.
27
29
Metering
Metering
31
Metering
Metering
33
Metering
34
Metering
References
American Water Works Association. 2002.
AWWA Standard: Cold-Water MetersDisplacement Type, Bronze Main Case.
Denver, Colo.: AWWA
Hunaidi, Osama. 2000. Detecting Leaks
in Water-Distribution Pipes. Construction
Technology Update No. 40, NRC-CNRC,
Oct 2000.
35
36
each. These times are consistent with what EBMUD has been spending as part of its residential audit program.
Many customers were over-watering their landscapes without realizing it. In one case, the house had been sold with
the irrigation system left on; the AMI data helped resolve the dispute as who was responsible for the water. In another
case, a part-time resident could have prevented some property damage and a very high water bill from a leak had
the utility been able to tell them about the consumption. When fully informed about the consumption, invariably one
family member or another confessed to be the excess usage culprit.
As a measure of the effectiveness of this outreach program, EBMUD compared the consumption for customers in the
Round Hill and Holly pilots in a summer month to the consumption in the same month the previous year. The more
recent summer was hotter, and people EBMUD was not able to meet with ended up using 6% more water while the
people EBMUD met with used on average 14% less water afterwards. So, differences between informed customers
and those not contacted averaged 20% less water use.
As a result of the consumption reduction in Round Hill, EBMUD upgraded the pumping plant, but indefinitely
postponed the reservoir, resulting in millions of dollars in capital cost savings. Pipeline upgrades in Round Hill were also
avoided, based on a conservatively estimated reduction in demand (10% allowing for a safety factor).
Customers reactions to EBMUDs conservation outreach effort were solicited. Customers were not concerned about
invasion of privacy, but they were concerned that this service would add to their water bill. Some customers said,
Why didnt you tell us we had a water leak sooner? or Will you fix this problem for me? Almost all the customers
said they would have preferred to have this information available on a website and could see the value in having this
information to avoid future problems.
37
for extended periods of time and frequently exceeded the 20 gpm recommended capacity. Meters that are overtaxed
will fail to register all the consumption going through them, and break or wear out prematurely. EBMUD found
non-functioning meters as part of the AMI project. Broken meters equal lost revenue. EBMUD found a 40% average
increase in metered consumption after a stuck meter replacement program.
In another study, EBMUD staff checked 13,000 cases of failed meters to see the consumption pattern before the meter
died. A meter might register a significant year to year drop; however, only looking at a month to month decline might
not detect this. The meters apparently started losing significant accuracy 18 months before. This suggests that if the
meter read is registering significantly less consumption than the year before, and there are no obvious reasons (for
example, the property changed hands), it should be inspected or tested. Since this study, EBMUD adopted a trigger of
80% of prior years consumption.
EBMUD should be replacing or repairing the meters that are overused more frequently. The billing system or a
meter data management system could identify meters that are registering excessive usage and schedule them
for early replacement.
With abundant customer side leaks, there will be significant low flow rate use. With heavy irrigation usage, there
will be significant extremely high flow rate use. In such cases the AWWA standard test flow rates and weights
used to calculate accuracy may not be applicable. EBMUD may expand its focus from low flow rate consumption
to meters that have registered a disproportionate amount of consumption at high flow rates . This is best observed
with an AMI system.
Distribution System Management has traditionally taken a top-down, supply-side view of its distribution system,
watching how water moves from pressure district to pressure district without actually knowing exactly whats
pulling it. Understanding demand can tell the utility where it needs to move water. Using AMI, EMBUD could better
understand demand and the factors that affect it, such as media advertising, weather, and conservations efforts. This
represents a major shift in thinking. Demand information is very valuable in emergency situations because EBMUD
would know where water is moving, who is using it, and where potential leaks might be occurring.
Future of AMI
The future of AMI is very promising. Recent developments in AMI have allowed some meters to record consumption
usage down to 0.01 cubic feet or approximately 1 cup of water. Some meters can report backflow events and
potentially even excessive flow rates. The integration of pipeline leak detection equipment into AMI is happening
very rapidly and may be standard protocol. Other improvements have allowed meter data management systems to
aggregate hourly usage by zone or even customer type.
38
39
41
43
References
Beecher, J.A., Mann, P.C., Hegazy, Y., and J.D. Stanford. 1994. Revenue Effects of Water Conservation and
Conservation Pricing: Issues and Practices, NRRI 94-18. Columbus, Ohio: The National Regulatory Research Institute,
The Ohio State University. http://ipu.msu.edu/research/pdfs/NRRI%20Revenue%20Effects%20of%20Water%20
Conservation.pdf
Brandes, O.M., Renzetti, S. and K. Stinchcombe. 2010. Worth Every Penny: A Primer on Conservation-Oriented Water
Pricing, POLIS Project on Ecological Governance, University of Victoria, Victoria, Canada. http://poliswaterproject.org/
sites/default/files/Pricing%20Primer%20Final.pdf
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2005. Case Studies of Sustainable Water and Wastewater Pricing, Office of
Water, Ground Water Drinking Water report 816-R-05-007. http://www.epa.gov/safewater/smallsystems/pdfs/guide_
smallsystems_fullcost_pricing_case_studies.pdf
Wang, Y.D., Smith, W.J. Jr., and J. Byrne. 2005. Water Conservation-Oriented Rates: Strategies to Extend Supply,
Promote Equity, and Meet Minimum Flow Levels, Denver: American Water Works Association.
Foundation Reports
Amatetti, E. J., R. Albani, J. Beecher., P Mann,1996. Managing the Revenue and Cash Flow Effects of
Conservation, order#90686/project#840. Denver: Awwa Research Foundation.
Amatetti, E.J., Corssmit, C.W., Matthews, P., and J.D. Russell. 1997. Long-Term Effects of Conservation Rates,
order#90723/project#902. Denver: Awwa Research Foundation.
Beecher, J.A. (to be completed in 2011). Adapting the Traditional Utility Finance Model to Include WUE
Programs draft of chapter to be included in report for project#4175, A Balanced Approach to Water Conservation:
Removing Barriers and Maximizing Benefits (Principal Investigator: T.W. Chesnutt).
Beecher, J.A., Chesnutt, T.W., and D. W. Pekelney. 2001. Socioeconomic Impacts of Water Conservation,
order#90817/project#497. Denver: Awwa Research Foundation.
Bell, H., Brydon, B., Lowdon, A., Millan, A.M., Walton, B., Beecher, J.A., Bill, C., Foley, T.D., and M.K. Deif. 2005. Utility
Rate Structures: Investigating International Principles and Customer Views, order#91058F/project#2774.
Denver: Awwa Research Foundation.
Chesnutt, T.W., Fiske, G., Beecher, J.A., and D.M. Pekelney. 2007. Water Efficiency Programs for Integrated Water
Management, order#91149/project#2935. Denver: Awwa Research Foundation.
Chesnutt, T.S., Christianson, J., Bamezai, A., McSpadden, C.N., and W. M. Hanemann. 1995. Revenue Instability and
Conservation Rate Structures, order#90681/project#839. Denver: Awwa Research Foundation.
Cromwell, J.E. III, Colton, R.D., Rubin, S.E., Herrick, C.N., Mobley, J., Reinhardt, K. and R. Wilson. 2010. Best Practices
in Customer Payment Assistance Programs, project/order#4004. Denver: Water Research Foundation.
Mayer, P., DeOreo, W., Chesnutt, T., Pekelney, D., and S. Summers. 2008. Water Budgets and Rate Structures:
Innovative Management Tools, order#91205/project#3094. Denver: Awwa Research Foundation.
Michelsen, A.M., McGuckin, J.T., and D. M. Stumpf. 1998. Effectiveness of Residential Water Conservation Price
and Nonprice Programs, order#90747/project#737. Denver: Awwa Research Foundation.
Silva, T., Pape, D., R. Szoc, P. Mayer,. 2010. Water Conservation: Customer Behavior and Effective
Communication, project/order#4012. Denver: Water Research Foundation.
Thacher, J., Marsee, M., Pitts, H., Hansen, J., Chermak, J., Thomson, B. (to be completed in 2010). Assessing
Customer Preferences and Willingness to Pay: A Handbook for Water Utilities, project/order#4085. Denver:
Water Research Foundation.
44
45
46
47
48
DMA
49
References
Alliance for Water Efficiency. 2010. Water audit case studiesthe emerging use of water audits in the United States
Water Utility Sector. http://www.allianceforwaterefficiency.org/water_audit_case_studies.aspx. Accessed July 23, 2010.
American Water Works Association (AWWA) Water Loss Control Committee, 2003, Applying Worldwide BMPs in
Water Loss Control. Journal AWWA, volume 95, number 8.
American Water Works Association (AWWA). 2010. Water Wiser: AWWAs Free Water Audit Software, Version 4.2.
http://www.awwa.org/Resources/WaterLossControl.cfm?ItemNumber=48511&navItemNumber=48158. Accessed May
26, 2009.
Fanner, P. et. al., 2007, Leakage Management Technologies, order #91180/project #2928. Denver, CO: Awwa
Research Foundation.
Gaewski, P. and F. Blaha. 2007. Analysis of Total Cost of Large Diameter Pipe Failures. http://www.WaterRF.org/Research/
SpecialReports/Lists/PublicSpecialReports/Attachments/5/SupplementalReport.pdf. Accessed August 26, 2010.
Hughes, D. and O. Schneider. 2009. Water Research Foundation Webcast: Managing Distribution IntegrityOld
Problem, New Tools. http://www.WaterRF.org/Resources/Webcasts
Kunkel, G. by email on August 2, 2010.
Sturm, R. and J. Thornton. 2007. Water loss control in North America: more cost effective than customer side
conservationwhy wouldnt you do it? Presented at AWWA CA-NV Section Spring Conference, Las Vegas, Nevada,
April 2007. http://www.wso.us/uploads/P103.pdf. Accessed July 29, 2010.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 2009. Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey and Assessment,
Fourth Report to Congress. Report EPA816-R-09001. Washington, DC.: USEPA.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 2010. Water Loss Reduction Financing Mechanisms for
Drinking Water Distribution Systems. Washington, DC: USEPA. http://www.epa.gov/efinpage/publications/
WaterLossReductionFinancingMarch2010.pdf Accessed August 26, 2010.
U.S. Government Accounting Office (USGAO). 2002. Water Infrastructure, Information on Financing Capital Planning
and Privatization. Report GAO-02-764. Washington, DC: USGAO.
50
Finding Solutions
By participating in a number of water loss control studies and projects, Kunkel and his utility confirmed that water loss
control is one of the most cost-effective ways to sustain aging water distribution infrastructure and optimize revenue
capture.
One of the more innovative leakage management approaches employed by PWD was the creation of a District Metered
Area (DMA), a small area of the distribution system used to monitor supply flows for newly emerging leaks. In addition
to proactively monitoring for leaks, the DMA employs advanced pressure management to reduce subtle background
leakage and inhibit water main ruptures. PWD was guided by the research conducted in the report, Leakage
Management Technologies (order #91180/project #2928), to help design the DMA configuration, size flow metering
equipment, and pressure controls.
A DMA is created by closing valves in a connect-the-dots fashion to establish a small isolated area that is hydraulically
separated from the neighboring distribution grid. One or more water mains are left open to supply water to the area,
and this flow is continuously measured. By assessing the variations in flowparticularly during low use night hours
leakage rates in the zone can be inferred. A gradual increase in the minimum night rate serves as an early warning
of rising leakage.
By working in a smaller area, we can discern flow changes to indicate whether new leaks are emerging or if other
leaks are growing, Kunkel said. We can collect this data real time and monitor this zone dailyinstead of waiting
for leak crews to inspect the area every three years, as per our leak detection survey program schedule. If flows remain
low, we know were in good shape and our leak detection crews can deploy elsewhere. If not, we send in our crews to
pinpoint emerging leaks when they are small and before a significant loss occurs.
PWD installed one permanent DMA in an area that experienced both a high supply flow and high pressure. In the
preliminary work to establish the DMA, PWD found 7 defective valves and 12 valves in the wrong position. In the initial
leak and repair campaign, PWD found that 50% of the real losses were caused by 4 water mains ruptures, 1 water
main leak, and 8 leaking customer service connections, all running sight unseen from above ground.
In early 2010, the 3-year pilot phase of this project was completed and a final report was issued on the feasibility
of DMAs and advanced pressure management as an improved technology for PWDs service area. PWD controlled
continued on page 55
51
Background
As part of its holistic approach, pressure management through fixed outlet control has been actively pursued by
Halifax Water (HW) to ensure pressure within the distribution system is optimized for customer service and kept at
levels to minimize leakage. Building on the successful installation of district metered areas (DMA), flow modulated
pressure control was installed in a typical sector in Dartmouth to further control and manage leakage. The
Dartmouth Central DMA was selected to evaluate advanced pressure management as a leakage management tool
for Water Research Foundation report, Leakage Management Technologies (2007, order #91180/project #2928).
By reducing system pressures during periods of low demand, flow rates through background and active leaks were
expected to be reduced. It was anticipated that improved control of system pressures would also reduce or eliminate
pressure surges that can occur within the DMA and reduce main breaks. Dual supplies into the DMA offered the
challenge of modulating two control valves in geographically differing locations, to achieve the desired system
pressure in response to the changing demand. Flow modulating pressure reducing valve (PRV) controllers were
installed at the Leaman and Micmac supply chambers and programmed to regulate the pressure a modest 10 meters
head between minimum and maximum through the trial period.
Operational Issues
Over the 12 month trial period, repeated attempts to operate the Leaman and Micmac supply chambers
simultaneously in flow modulation mode were unsuccessful. Typically, in response to an increase in demand, one of
the supply chambers would respond by increasing the system pressure as the flow through that chamber increased.
This increase in system pressure is sensed at the second supply chamber where a corresponding reduction in flow
occurs, which is interpreted by the PRV controller as a reduction in demand. The second supply chamber responds to
this perceived reduction in demand by reducing the system pressure, thus creating a cycle that eventually results in
the complete closure of the second or lag supply chamber. Various control settings were tested, however, over time,
one supply chamber would eventually override the other. Programming the PRV controller at the Micmac supply
chamber to function in time-based modulation with Leaman in flow modulation was also tried with limited success.
Ultimately, to meet the intent of Foundation project #2928, the Micmac supply chamber was turned off leaving the
Leaman chamber supplying flow and modulating the pressure for the entire zone. Although this produced data that
satisfied the WaterRF project, it was clear Halifax
Water could not continue to operate the DMA
with a single supply.
52
a control algorithm that combined the real-time flow from each meter into a single total DMA flow. This total flow
value would then be input into the PRV controllers at each chamber in place of their respective flow meter values. In
this way, the controllers at each location would increase and decrease the pressures together in response to the total
DMA demand. Digital spread spectrum radios were installed at each site and a peer to peer connection established
to allow the required flow data transfer. The remote terminal unit (RTU) at each site will execute the algorithm and
output the total flow demand to the PRV controllers. The algorithm incorporates fail safes to accommodate possible
communication losses and other technical scenarios. Figure 1 shows the initial test set up with a programmable logic
controller (PLC) running the algorithm connected to the controller.
The completed system will take advantage of the processing capabilities of the PLC based RTU that is a standard
component of the Halifax Water supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system. Leveraging off the SCADA
system will minimize additional components required and simplify the installation.
Results
Initial results are very positive, communications are reliable, and the flow updates at the controllers occur in less than
4 seconds. To accommodate local hydraulic issues, the controllers can be configured with differing ramps. Figure 2
displays the total DMA flow with modulated pressures at each supply point.
m3/h
kPa
800
600
435.74
304.60
44.71
700
500
600
400
500
300
400
300
200
200
100
100
0
6/12/2010 7:00 PM
6/14/2010 3:20 AM
6/15/2010 7:00 PM
53
54
Reference
Simpson, A., G. Dandy, and L. Murphy. 1994. Genetic Algorithms Compared to Other Techniques for Pipe
Optimization. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management. Volume 120, Issue 4, pp. 423-443 (July/August
1994). Available at http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=JWRMD50001200000040004
23000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes&ref=no
55
Reference
Habiban, A. 1994. Effect of Temperature Changes on Water-Main Breaks, American Society of Civil Engineering
(ASCE) Journal of Transportation Engineering, 120:2:312-321.
Editors Note : This article is about Water Research Foundation ongoing project #3183. The final report is being prepared for publishing. However, the
draft executive summary and a Webcast can be viewed at the WaterRF Website at http://www.WaterRF.org.
Webcast Announcement
Reducing Leaks
57