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( 2:16)
The words above, whether written in different alphabets than ours or
spoken, are strange to us. They roll off our tongues only with difficul
ty, in word orders that seem most unhandy. Even when we learn the
words and understand the message we find the texts speaking about
things that are foreign. We are clearly in another cultural world, in
another time, and with a different people. This is the world of the NT.
It is not a world that we can readily or instinctively comprehend. It is a
world that, were we to be transported to it, would puzzle us and send
us into a profound culture shock.
I once took a course, years ago, with a title similar to this paper.
The professor began his lectures with a charateristically modest statement something like this: "This course is a luxury, not a necessity. If
you can take an exegesis course in its stead, then you should do it. This
course is only for those who have extra time on their hands." I almost
dropped the course at that point, but, mildly intrigued by the topic, I
decided to stick it out. Halfway through the course I was glad that I
had remained because I found the topic utterly fascinating and enjoyable. Years later I concluded that NT background studies were not the
icing on the cake of NT studies; it was the flour from which the cake is
made. This enterprise is not a hobby one pursues in addition to the
serious stuff of exegesis; it is the way the serious stuff is done. Several
reasons support this:
First, the NT was written in history. That means that people
spoke not only in their own languages but also in their own mythos or
worldview. Therefore, we must understand the human element in revelation. On the one hand, the biblical authors were extraordinary people
guided by the Holy Spirit conveying the timeless revelation of God; on
the other hand, they were all people of their time.
This conclusion means that our subject is both distant and different. We read of demons, visions, healings, and expectations of imminent end. These things to some moderns and postmoderns are immediately dismissed and all but passed over, much like a child who passes
over the genealogies in reading the OT. But as Martin Hengel has
pleaded, we must relinquish our post-Enlightenment feeling of superiority and seek to understand these matters in their own time and in
their o\yn language. 1 To look at them through the lens of our time
alone is to misrepresent and misunderstand them.
Second, I believe in the incarnation of Jesus. He was fully God;
he was also fully man. Thus, he acted and spoke as a man. As N.T.
2. N.T. Wright, Jesus and the Victory of God (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996) 9.
3. R. Horsley, Archaeology, History, and Society in Galilee: The Social Context of Jesus and the
Rabbis (Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press International, 1996) 1.
4. Wright, Jesus, 28-82.
5. Ibid., 83-124.
6. . Mack, A Myth of Innocence: Mark and Christian Origins (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988)
68.
7. B.H. Young, Jesus the Jewish Theologian (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1995).
8. See most recently H. Maccoby, The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity (New
York: Harper and Row, 1986) and idem., Paul and Hellenism (Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press
International, 1991).
9. M. Nanos, The Mystery of Romans. The Jewish Context ofPauVs Utter (Minneapolis: Fortress,
1996) 4.
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learn Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Aramaic, and Coptic. You need to buy yourself several airplane tickets to libraries such as the Vatican library and then begin to collate mss to form your own text.
Next master the ancient literature. Now you can begin, "Just to read the NT."
13. Many have observed the Semitic background to the NT. See M. Black, An Aramaic
Approach to the Gospels and Acts (Oxford: Clarendon, 1946); and D. Hill, Greek Words a
Hebrew Meanings (Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1967). A.J. Festugiere and P. Fabre, L
monde grco-romain au temps de Notre Seigneur (Paris: Bloud and Gray, 1935).
14. C. Evans, Noncanonical Writings and the New Testament (Peabody, MA: Hendrickso
1992) 1.
15. V. Knowles, "Is There a Pharisee in the House?" Christian Standard 119/4 (1984) 68-70.
Though well meaning (the author wants to root out "Pharisee" types from the church), the article evidences a lack of understanding both of the Pharisees in general and Jesus' interaction with
them in particular.
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this comes from not reading rabbinic literature. The people that wrote
these texts cannot be so easily characterized in these ways.
Second, study of cognate sources supplies the theological and
legal background of the NT. Much about ancient Judaism is not clear
without information in the rabbinic, pseudepigraphical, and Qumran
texts. For example, the controversy over works of the Law in the
Pauline letters can be illuminated when we compare them with the
Qumran document called 4QMMT. 16 When one contrasts this view of
the proper Jewish life with that of Paul's we see Paul's point.
Third, study of cognate sources sensitizes one to the OT text. It is
all too easy to read the OT only with a view toward understanding NT
theology. These studies press one to take the OT on its own terms.
Rabbinic literature in particular is extremely serious about understanding the minutiae of the OT. Things I pass over are debated at length.
Such study is similar to what rabbis were doing in the NT period.17
Fourth, these cognate sourses expose one to hermeneutics often
employed in the NT, especially in Paul's letters.18
Fifth, these cognate sources confront one with a mass of social and
cultural issues and customs that may illuminate the study of the NT. For
example, many scholars have speculated on the meaning of the name
Judas Iscariot. What does Iscariot mean? We know from the Mishnah
that to designate someone "Ish" (=man from) and then give the name
of his village was quite common.19 Thus, Iscariot does not mean zealot
or the like. It simply indicates his village of origin: man from Keryat.
Much of the value of reading the background literature is indirect
not direct. However, that does not make it any less important.
Evans's admonition to go beyond merely studying the languages
to the study of the literature is incomplete. He omits the need to study
pagan, classical literature.20
16. M. Abegg, "Paul, 'Works of the Law' and MMT" BAR 20/6 (1994) 52-55,82.
17. See especially the Hebrew midrashim, a careful reading of which opens new vistas in understanding of the OT.
18. F.F. Bruce, Biblical Exegesis in the Qumran Texts (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1959); D.
Patte, Early Jewish Hermeneutics in Palestine (Missoula: Scholars Press, 1975).
19. Aboth 1:3,4; 3:7,8. The Hebrew word TK ('ish) means "man."
20. H.D. Betz, "Antiquity and Christianity" JBL117 (1998) 3-22.
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who they really were. Americans value self-reliance and pursuing their
own goals, not group goals. In collectivistic societies, behavior is determined by group goals. The defining attributes in the ancient Mediterranean culture include: family integrity, solidarity, and keeping the primary in-group in good health.
Second, Malina maintains that ancient Mediterranean culture was
anti-introspective :
If persons felt badly or well, they should look outside themselves to persons around them rather than inside, into the psyche, the soul, the mind,
for the cause of their feeling. For it was outside that one could find an
answer to why one felt depressed or elated, anxious or at ease, worried or
excited, fearful or confident, and the like.24
AND N T
BACKGROUND
25. The Greek word means according to BAGD: "single, simple, sincere, clear, sound,
healthy, generous, or guileless." But in this context it contrasts with the evil eye and thus should
be rendered with the vague "good."
26. 0 . Bauernfeind, "" in G. Kittel, ed., Theological Dictionary of the New Testament,
trans. G.W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964) 1:386, says the word means either
healthy or pure. Thus the evil eye that contrasts with it is unhealthy or impure; C. Spicq,
Theological Lexicon of the New Testament, trans. J.D. Ernest (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994)
1:169-173, writes that if the word be understood in the physical sense, it means healthy or nor
mal and contrasts with the unhealthy eye; and if the word be understood in the ethical sense, it
means a pure heart and contrasts with a clouded eye of the depraved will. E. Schweizer, The
Good News According to Matthew, trans. D.E. Green (Atlanta: John Knox, 1975) 163, writes that
is the simple eye that admits God's light into the entire body and the evil eye causes ter
rible darkness of the heart (thus does not admit light). T.W. Manson, The Sayings of Jesus (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1957) 93, writes that the eye is clear, sound, or healthy and the
poneros or evil eye is diseased. I.H. Marshall, The Gospel of Luke (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978)
489, writes that means simple, single, sincere, or generous. He maintains that this con
trast is probably one between single and double vision. If a person is single-mindedly receptive
to the light of the gospel then his whole being will be filled with light. On the other hand the
(poneros, "evil") or evil eye is one in poor condition, that is, one who rejects the
gospel. Finally J. Fitzmyer, The Gospel According to Luke X-XXIV{Ntw York: Doubleday, 1985)
940, seems to understand the significance of the evil eye but argues that that meaning will not fit
the context here.
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Thus, as one can discern from these two texts from the Mishnah,
the evil eye is not simply an unhealthy eye but really is evil. This is
observed from the contexts in which it appears, first alongside the evil
inclination (inclination to sin) and hatred of mankind, and, next,
alongside an evil associate and an evil neighbor. The evil eye is that
which does evil as all of these other entities do evil.
This evil was so feared in antiquity that measures were often taken
to protect oneself from it. Here are two protectives mentioned in the
Talmud:
R. Yohanan used to sit at the gates of the ritual immersion place. He said,
"When the daughters of Israel come from the ritual immersion place they
look at me and have offspring as handsome as I." The rabbis said to him, "Is
not the master afraid of the evil eye?" He said to them, " I am from the off
spring of Joseph. The evil eye has no power over us as the scripture says
(Genesis 49:22), fruitful bough is Joseph, a fruitful bough over the eye.'" 27
If anyone is going up into a town and is afraid of the evil eye, let him take
the thumb of his right hand in his left hand and the thumb of his left hand
in his right hand, and say:_"I, so-and-so the son of so-and-so, am of the
offspring of Joseph and the evil eye has no power over us. . ." If he is
afraid of his own evil eye, he should look at the side of his left nostril.28
27. b. Ber. 20a. The text of Genesis actually reads,"A fruitful bough beside a fountain." The
Hebrew word ]\L) ((ayin) can mean either a fountain or an eye. Thus by a play on words (called
midrash) the interpreter can apply this text to the evil eye.
28. b. Ber. 55b, also in b. B.Mes. 84a. Translation of all Talmudic passages in this paper is the
author's and is based on the Hebrew and Aramaic texts of The Judaic Classics (Chicago: Davka,
1991-1995).
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29. Plutarch, Quaest. Conv. 5.7.680. Translation is the author's and is based on the text in P.A.
Clement and H.B. Hoffleit, Plutarch's Moralia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1969;
LCL) 8:420.
85
as a lover's gaze can excite the passions in the recipient of the gaze, so
can an evil look do harm in the recipient (5.7.681). Likewise, the
ancients believed that those with a jaundiced eye turned certain flowers
away from them when they looked at them (Moralia 5.7.681).
Plutarch and his friend note that some people who have the evil
eye use it unintentionally. Thus, in some extreme cases, mothers do not
allow the fathers of their children to look long at the children for fear
that the father will unintentionally harm them (Momita 5.7.682). Just
as the Talmud, Plutarch also mentions that it was believed possible for
a person to give himself the evil eye (Moralia 5.7.682).
Plutarch also refers to the protective amulets that many people,
especially children, wore around their necks in the hope of warding off
the baneful stare. These amulets, said Plutarch, were intended to divert
the eye of the evildoer and thereby protect the wearer. Plutarch says
the unusual or weird look of the amulet attracts the gaze of the potential evildoer and so lessens his or her powers (Moralia 5.7.681-682).
Archaeology also confirms that the evil eye was much feared in
antiquity. Certain objects from the ancient world make it clear, for
example, to what the amulets in Plutarch refer. The ancients commonly
wore good luck charms, especially male and female genitalia, to ward
off the effects of the evil eye. The phallic symbol, which children often
wore on a chain around their necks, was a popular good luck charm to
defend against the evil eye
A large number of these phallic symbols have been found in
Pompei and Herculaneum on frescoes, mosaics, furniture, statuary and
other objects. One of these in Pompei is a relief sculture of a phallus in
a bakery to ward off the evil eye.30 The customer (or potential evildoer)
upon entering the shop was supposed to have his attention diverted to
the sculpture and away from the shop owner.
This belief in the destructive power of the evil eye is found in
both the OT and NT. As Rohrbaugh points out, the Bible refers to the
30. See W.H. Stevens, The New Testament World in Pictures (Nashville: Broadman, 198
See also the amulets with phali worn especially by children for protection on p. 231, and the
drawings in J. Elliott, "The Fear of the Leer: The Evil Eye from the Bible to Li'l Abner" Forum
(1988)42-71.
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evil eye quite often31 (Prov 23:6; 28:22; Deut 15:7-9; 28:54-57; Matt
6 : 2 2 / / L u k e 11:33-36; Matt 20:1-15; Mark 7:22; Gal 3:1), as does
the Apocrypha (Sir 14:3-10; 18:18; 31:12-13; 37:7-12; Tob 4:15-17;
4 Maccabees 1:16; 2:15). Although these texts in the original language
refer literally to the "evil eye," they are usually rendered as "envy" or
something similar.
Also of great importance is the long history of people fearing the
evil eye, fear that certain persons can look at someone and put a spell or
curse on them. John Elliott32 shows that Mediterranean people have had
and still do have a genuine fear of this phenomenon. 33 The evil eye
grows out of the core Mediterranean values of honor and shame and
the limited good.34 Honor is the greatest value in this society, and the
worst horror is shame. Likewise, in a peasant culture there is a sense of
limited good. Food is limited, space is limited, and even honor is limited. Thus, if someone has too much wealth, too much food, or too
much honor, then he is taking from you. This causes envy, and envy
leads to the evil eye, the putting of a curse or spell on the one who has
too much or flaunts too much of what he or she has. Today, Mediterranean people do not, for example, like their children to be praised too
much in public as beautiful or intelligent because that might provoke
the evil eye from someone and cause a curse to be put on their children.35 Not everyone casts the evil eye on others. Only envious people
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