American black bear

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

American black bear
Temporal range: 2.60 Ma
Pre

O
S
D
C
P
T
J
K
Pg
N

Late PlioceneHolocene

Found near Riding Mountain National

Park, Manitoba, Canada

Conservation status

Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]

Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Mammalia
Order:
Carnivora
Family:
Ursidae
Genus:
Ursus
Species:
U. americanus

Binomial name
Ursus americanus
(Pallas, 1780)

Subspecies[2]
16, see text

Synonyms
Euarctos americanus
The American black bear (Ursus
Ursus americanus)
americanus is a medium-sized bear native to North
America.. It is the continent's smallest and most widely distributed bear species. Black bears
are omnivores with their diets varying greatly depending on season and location. They
typically live in largely forested areas, but do leave forests in search of food. Sometimes they
become
ome attracted to human communities because of the immediate availability of food. The
American black bear is the world's most common bear species.
It is listed by the IUCN as a "least
least concern"
concern" species, due to its widespread distribution and a
large global population estimated to be twice that of all other bear species combined. Along
with the brown bear,, it is one of only two of the eight modern bear species not considered
globally threatened with extinction by the IUCN. American black bears often mark trees using
their teeth and claws as a form of communication with other bears, a behavior common to
many species of bears.[1]

Contents

1 Taxonomy and evolution

o 1.1 Hybrids
o 1.2 Subspecies
2 Native names
3 Distribution and population
4 Habitat
5 Description
o 5.1 Build
o 5.2 Size
o 5.3 Pelage

6 Behavior
o 6.1 Reproduction and development
o 6.2 Longevity and mortality
o 6.3 Hibernation
o 6.4 Dietary habits
o 6.5 Interspecific predatory relationships
7 Relationships with humans
o 7.1 In folklore, mythology and culture
o 7.2 Attacks on humans
o 7.3 Livestock and crop predation
o 7.4 Bear awareness in towns
o 7.5 Hunting and exploitation

7.5.1 Hunting

7.5.2 Meat
8 See also
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 Further reading
12 External links

Taxonomy and evolution

Detail of head taken at the Cincinnati Zoo.

Cinnamon-colored black bear eating dandelions in Waterton Lakes National Park.

Despite living in North America, American black bears are not closely related to brown bears
and polar bears; genetic studies reveal that they split from a common ancestor 5.05 million
years ago (mya).[3] Both American and Asian black bears are considered sister taxa, and are
more closely related to each other than to other species of bear.[3][4] Reportedly, the sun bear is
also a relatively recent split from this lineage.[5]

A small primitive bear called Ursus abstrusus is the oldest known North American fossil
member of the genus Ursus, dated to 4.95 mya.[6] This suggests that U. abstrusus may be the
direct ancestor of the American black bear, which evolved in North America.[3][7] Although
Wolverton and Lyman still consider U. vitabilis an "apparent precursor to modern black
bears",[8] it has also been placed within U. americanus.[7]
The ancestors of American black bears and Asiatic black bears diverged from sun bears 4.58
mya. The American black bear then split from the Asian black bear 4.08 mya.[3][9] The earliest
American black bear fossils, which were located in Port Kennedy, Pennsylvania, greatly
resemble the Asiatic species,[10] though later specimens grew to sizes comparable to
grizzlies.[11] From the Holocene to present, American black bears seem to have shrunk in
size,[3] but this has been disputed because of problems with dating these fossil specimens.[8]
The American black bear lived during the same period as short-faced bears (Arctodus simus
and A. pristinus) and the Florida spectacled bear (Tremarctos floridanus). These Tremarctine
bears evolved from bears that had emigrated from Asia to North America 78 ma.[12] The
short-faced bears are thought to have been heavily carnivorous and the Florida spectacled bear
more herbivorous,[13] while the American black bears remained arboreal omnivores, like their
Asian ancestors. The black bear's generalist behavior allowed it to exploit a wider variety of
foods and has been given as a reason why, of these three genera, it alone survived climate and
vegetative changes through the last ice age while the other more specialized North American
predators became extinct. However, both Arctodus and Tremarctos had survived several other
ice ages. After these prehistoric ursids became extinct during the last glacial period
10,000 years ago, black bears were probably the only bear present in much of North America
until the migration of brown bears to the rest of the continent.[11]

Hybrids
American black bears are reproductively compatible with several other bear species, and have
occasionally produced hybrid offspring. According to Jack Hanna's Monkeys on the
Interstate, a bear captured in Sanford, Florida, was thought to have been the offspring of an
escaped female Asian black bear and a male American black bear.[14] In 1859, a black bear
and a Eurasian brown bear were bred together in the London Zoological Gardens, but the
three cubs died before they reached maturity. In The Variation of Animals and Plants under
Domestication Charles Darwin noted:
In the nine-year Report it is stated that the bears had been seen in the zoological gardens to
couple freely, but previously to 1848 most had rarely conceived. In the reports published
since this date three species have produced young (hybrids in one case), ...[15]
A black bear shot in autumn 1986 in Michigan was thought by some to be a black bear/grizzly
bear hybrid, due to its unusually large size and its proportionately larger braincase and skull.
DNA testing was unable to determine whether it was a large black bear or grizzly.[16]

Subspecies
Listed alphabetically.[17]
American black bear sub-species

Sub-species
Common name
Distribution
name
Ursus
Olympic black Pacific Northwest coast
from central British
americanus
bear
altifrontalis
Columbia through
northern California and
inland to the tip of
northern Idaho and
British Columbia
Ursus
New Mexico
Native to Colorado, New
americanus
black bear
Mexico, west Texas, the
amblyceps
eastern half of Arizona
into northern Mexico,
and southeastern Utah
Ursus
Eastern black
Eastern Montana to the
Atlantic coast, from
americanus
bear
americanus
Alaska south and east
through Canada to the
Atlantic and south to
Texas. Thought to be
increasing in some
regions.
Ursus
California black Mountain ranges of
americanus
bear
southern California,
californiensis
north through the Central
Valley to southern
Oregon
Ursus
Haida Gwaii
americanus
black bear,
Haida Gwaii/Queen
carlottae
Queen Charlotte Charlotte Islands and
black bear
Alaska
Ursus
Cinnamon bear
americanus
cinnamomum

Ursus
americanus
emmonsii
Ursus
americanus
eremicus

Glacier bear

Ursus
americanus
floridanus

Florida black
bear

Mexican black
bear

Description

Common to Eastern Canada and

U.S. wherever suitable habitat is
found. A large-bodied
subspecies, almost all specimens
have black fur. May very rarely
sport a white blaze on chest.

Able to live in varied climates:

found in temperate rainforest in
the north and chaparral shrubland
in the south. Small numbers may
feature a cinnamon brown fur.
Generally larger than its
mainland counterparts with a
huge skull and molars, and is
found only as a black color
phase[18]
Colorado, Idaho, western Has brown or red-brown fur,
Montana, and Wyoming, reminiscent of cinnamon
eastern Washington and
Oregon, northeastern
Utah
Southeast Alaska. Stable. Distinguished by the fur of its
flanks being silvery gray with a
blue luster[19]
Northeastern Mexico and Most often found in Big Bend
US borderlands with
National Park and the desert
Texas. Very endangered. border with Mexico. Numbers
unknown in Mexico, but
presumed very low.
Florida, southern
Has a light brown nose and shiny
Georgia, and Alabama
black fur. A white chest patch is
also common. An average male

Ursus
americanus
hamiltoni

Ursus
americanus
kermodei

Ursus
americanus
luteolus

Ursus
americanus
machetes
Ursus
americanus
perniger
Ursus
americanus
pugnax
Ursus
americanus
vancouveri

weighs 136 kg (300 lb).

Newfoundland Newfoundland
Generally bigger than its
black bear
mainland relatives, ranging in
size from 90 to 270 kg (200 to
600 lb) and averaging 135 kg
(298 lb). It has one of the longest
hibernation periods of any bear in
North America.[20] Known to
favor foraging in fields of
Vaccinium species.
Kermode bear, Central coast of British Approximately 10% of the
spirit bear
Columbia
population of this subspecies
have white or cream-colored
coats due to a recessive gene and
are called "kermodes" or "spirit
bears". The other 90% appear as
normal-colored black bears.[21]
Louisiana black Eastern Texas, Louisiana, Has relatively long, narrow, and
bear
southern Mississippi.
flat skull, and proportionately
Threatened (federal list). large molars[22] Prefers hardwood
bottom forests and bayous as
habitat
West Mexico
North-central Mexico
black bear
Kenai black bear Kenai Peninsula, Alaska

Dall black bear

Vancouver Island Vancouver Island, British Found in the northern section of

black bear
Columbia
the island, but occasionally will
appear in the suburbs of Victoria
metropolitan area

Native names

Alexander Archipelago,
Alaska

Abenaki: awasos[23]
Algonquin: makwa[24]
Blackfoot: kiyo
Carrier: ss
Cree: maskwa
Creek: nokose[25]
Dene: tsah
Ojibwe: makwaa
Crow: daxpitche
Gwich'in: shooh-zhraii[26]

Hopi: hoonaw
Lakota (Sioux): mat
Navajo: shash (izhing)
Nez Perce: yaka
Sahaptin: yka
Shoshone: weda
Tlingit: see[27]
Tsalagi: gv-ni-ge-yo-na[28]
Nahuatl: tecuantl
Tarahumara: oju
Guarijio: oho
Kiliwa: kmkan
Kickapoo: mahkwa
Yoreme: jona
O'odham: judumi
Mohawk: ohkwri

The word baribal is used as a name for the black bear in French, Italian, German, Russian,
Czech and Polish. Although the root word is popularly written as being from an unspecified
Native American language, there is no evidence for this.[29]

Distribution and population

Black bear at Grand Teton National Park

Historically, black bears occupied the majority of North America's forested regions. Today,
they are primarily limited to sparsely settled, forested areas.[30] Black bears currently inhabit
much of their original Canadian range, though they seldom occur in the southern farmlands of
Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba; they have been extinct in Prince Edward Island since
1937.[31] The total Canadian black bear population is between 396,000 and 476,000,[32] based
on surveys taken in the mid-1990s in seven Canadian provinces, though this estimate excludes
black bear populations in New Brunswick, Northwest Territories, Nova Scotia, and
Saskatchewan. All provinces indicated stable populations of black bears over the last
decade.[30]
The current range of black bears in the United States is constant throughout most of the
northeast, and down in the Appalachian Mountains almost continuously from Maine to north
Georgia, the northern midwest, the Rocky Mountain region, the west coast and Alaska.[31]
However it becomes increasingly fragmented or absent in other regions. Despite this, black
bears in those areas seems to have expanded their range during the last decade, such as with
recent sightings in Ohio, though these probably do not represent stable breeding populations
yet.[31] Surveys taken from 35 states in the early 1990s indicate that black bears are either

stable or increasing, except in Idaho and New Mexico. The overall population of black bears
in the United States has been estimated to range between 339,000 and 465,000,[33] though this
excludes populations from Alaska, Idaho, South Dakota, Texas, and Wyoming, whose
population sizes are unknown.[30] In the state of California, there are an estimated 30,000
black bears, making it the largest black bear population in the Contiguous United States.[34]
As of 1993, known Mexican black bear populations existed in four areas, though knowledge
on the distributions of populations outside those areas have not been updated since 1959.
Mexico is the only country where the black bear is classified as "endangered".[30]
There have been several sightings quite far away from where the black bear is normally
found, such as Union County, North Carolina[35][36] and western Nebraska.[37]

Habitat
Throughout their range, habitats preferred by American black bears have a few shared
characteristics. They are often found in areas with relatively inaccessible terrain, thick
understory vegetation and large quantities of edible material (especially masts). The
adaptation to woodlands and thick vegetation in this species may have originally been due to
the black bear having evolved alongside larger, more aggressive bear species, such as the
extinct short-faced bear and the still living grizzly bear, that monopolized more open habitats
[38]
and the historic presence of larger predators such as smilodon and the American lion that
could have preyed on black bears. Although found in the largest numbers in wild, undisturbed
areas and rural regions, black bears can adapt to surviving in some numbers in peri-urban
regions as long as they contain easily accessible foods and some vegetative coverage.[5] In
most of the contiguous United States, black bears today are usually found in heavily vegetated
mountainous areas, from 400 to 3,000 m (1,300 to 9,800 ft). For bears living in the American
Southwest and Mexico, habitat usually consists of stands of chaparral and pinyon juniper
woods. In this region, bears occasionally move to more open areas to feed on prickly pear
cactus. At least two distinct, prime habitat types are inhabited in the Southeast United States.
Black bears in the southern Appalachian Mountains survive in predominantly oak-hickory and
mixed mesophytic forests. In the coastal areas of the southeast (such as Florida, The
Carolinas, and Louisiana), bears inhabit a mixture of flatwoods, bays, and swampy hardwood
sites. In the northeast part of the range (United States and Canada), prime habitat consists of a
forest canopy of hardwoods such as beech, maple, and birch, and coniferous species. Corn
crops and oak-hickory mast are also common sources of food in some sections of the
northeast; small, thick swampy areas provide excellent refuge cover largely in stands of white
cedar. Along the Pacific coast, redwood, Sitka spruce, and hemlocks predominate as overstory
cover. Within these northern forest types are early successional areas important for black
bears, such as fields of brush, wet and dry meadows, high tidelands, riparian areas and a
variety of mast-producing hardwood species. The spruce-fir forest dominates much of the
range of the black bear in the Rockies. Important nonforested areas here are wet meadows,
riparian areas, avalanche chutes, roadsides, burns, sidehill parks, and subalpine ridgetops. In
areas where human development is relatively low, such as stretches of Canada and Alaska,
American black bears tend to be found more regularly in lowland regions.[38] In parts of
northeastern Canada, especially Labrador, black bears have adapted exclusively to semi-open
areas that are more typical habitat in North America for brown bears (likely due to the
absence here of brown and polar bears as well as other large carnivore species).[5]

Description

American black bears can be distinguished from brown bears by their smaller size, their less
concave profiles, their shorter claws and the lack of a shoulder hump

Build

Some specimens may develop a white crescent moon mark on the chest. This white mark,
which is constant in Asian black bears, occurs in only 25% of American black bears[39]
Skull.
The skulls of American black bears are broad, with narrow muzzles and large jaw hinges. In
Virginia, the total length of adult bear skulls was found to average 262 to 317 mm (10.3 to
12.5 in).[38] Across its range, greatest skull length for the species has been reportedly
measured from 23.5 to 35 cm (9.3 to 13.8 in).[5] Females tend to have more slender and
pointed faces than males. Their claws are typically black or grayish brown. The claws are
short and rounded, being thick at the base and tapering to a point. Claws from both hind and
front legs are almost identical in length, though the foreclaws tend to be more sharply curved.
The paws of the species are relatively sizeable, with a rear foot length of 13.7 to 22.5 cm (5.4
to 8.9 in), being proportionly larger than other medium-sized bear species but much smaller
than the paws of large adult brown and especially polar bears.[5] The soles of the feet are black
or brownish, and are naked, leathery and deeply wrinkled. The hind legs are relatively longer
than those of Asiatic black bears. The vestigal tail is usually 4.8 inches (12 cm) long. The ears
are small and rounded, and are set well back on the head.
Black bears are highly dexterous, being capable of opening screw-top jars and manipulating
door latches. They also have great physical strength. They have been known to turn over flatshaped rocks weighing 310 to 325 pounds (141 to 147 kg) by flipping them over with a single
foreleg.[40] They move in a rhythmic, sure-footed way and can run at speeds of 2530 mph
(4050 km/h).[41] Black bears have good eyesight, and have been proven experimentally to be
able to learn visual discrimination tasks based on color faster than chimpanzees and as fast as

dogs. They are also capable of rapidly learning to distinguish different shapes, such as small
triangles, circles and squares.[42]

Size

Cinnamon-colored black bear in Yellowstone National Park

Black bear weight tends to vary according to age, sex, health, and season. Seasonal variation
in weight is very pronounced: in autumn, their pre-den weight tends to be 30% higher than in
spring, when black bears emerge from their dens. Black bears on the East Coast tend to be
heavier on average than those on the West Coast, although black bears follow Bergmann's
rule and bears from the northwest are often slightly heavier than the bears from the southeast.
Adult males typically weigh between 57250 kg (126551 lb), while females weigh 33% less
at 41170 kg (90375 lb).[5][43] In the state of California, studies have indicated that the
average mass is 86 kg (190 lb) in adult males and 58 kg (128 lb) in adult females.[38] Adult
black bears in Yukon Flats National Wildlife Refuge in east-central Alaska were found to
average 87.3 kg (192 lb) in males and 63.4 kg (140 lb) in females, whereas on Kuiu Island in
southeast Alaska (where nutritious salmon are readily available) adult bears averaged an
estimated 115 kg (254 lb).[44][45] In Great Smoky Mountains National Park, adult males
averaged 112 kg (247 lb) and adult females averaged 47 kg (104 lb) per one study.[46] In
Yellowstone National Park, a population study found that adult males averaged 119 kg
(262 lb) and adult females averaged 67 kg (148 lb).[47] In New York state, the two sexes
reportedly average 135 kg (298 lb) and 74 kg (163 lb), respectively.[48] Adults typically range
from 120 to 200 cm (47 to 79 in) in head-and-body length, and 70 to 105 cm (28 to 41 in) in
shoulder height. The typically small tail is 7.717.7 cm (3.07.0 in) long.[40][49][50][51] Although
they are the smallest species in North America, large males exceed the size of other bear
species except the brown bear and polar bears.[40] The biggest wild American black bear ever
recorded was a male from New Brunswick, shot in November 1972, that weighed 409 kg
(902 lb) after it had been dressed, meaning it weighed an estimated 500 kg (1,100 lb) in life,
and measured 2.41 m (7.9 ft) long.[52] Another notably outsized wild black bear, weighing in
at 408 kg (899 lb) in total, was the cattle-killer shot in December 1921 on the Moqui
Reservation in Arizona.[52] The record-sized bear from New Jersey was shot in Morris County
December 2011 and scaled 376.5 kg (830 lb).[53] Even larger, the most massive black bear
recorded in Pennsylvania (one of six weighing over 363 kg (800 lb) shot in the last 15 years in
the state) weighed in at 399 kg (880 lb) and was shot in November 2010 in Pike County.[54]
The North American Bear Center, located in Ely, Minnesota, is home to the world's largest
captive male and female black bears. Ted, the male, weighed 431453.5 kg (9501,000 lb) in
the fall of 2006.[55] Honey, the female, weighed 219.6 kg (484 lb) in the fall of 2007.[56]

Pelage

White-furred Kermode black bear

The fur is soft, with dense underfur and long, coarse, thick guard hairs.[40] The fur is not as
shaggy or coarse as that of brown bears.[57] American black bear skins can be distinguished
from those of Asiatic black bears by the lack of a white mark on the chin and hairier
footpads.[58] Despite their name, black bears show a great deal of color variation. Individual
coat colors can range from white, blond, cinnamon, or light brown to dark chocolate brown or
to jet black, with many intermediate variations existing. Bluish tinged black bears occur along
a portion of coastal Alaska and British Columbia. White to cream colored black bears occur in
coastal islands and the adjacent mainland of south-western British Columbia. Albino
specimens have also been recorded.[59] Black coats tend to predominate in moist areas such as
New England, New York, Tennessee, Michigan and western Washington. Approximately
70% of all black bears are black, though only 50% of black bears in the Rocky Mountains are
black.[40] Many black bears in Northwestern North America are cinnamon, blond or light
brown in color, and thus may sometimes be mistaken for grizzly bears. Grizzly (and other
types of brown) bears can be distinguished by their shoulder hump, larger size and broader,
more concave skull.[60]
In his book The Great Bear Almanac, Gary Brown summarized the predominance of black or
brown/blond specimens by location:[40]
Color variations of black bears by location
Location
Color breakdown
Michigan
100% black
Minnesota
94% black, 6% brown
New England
100% black
New York
100% black
Tennessee
100% black
Washington (coastal) 99% black, 1% brown or blonde
Washington (inland)
21% black, 79% brown or blonde
Yosemite National Park 9% black, 91% brown or blonde

Behavior

In his Great Bear Almanac, Gary Brown lists 20 different sounds in eight different contexts.
Sounds expressing aggression include growls, woofs, snorts, bellows and roars. Sounds
expressing contentment include mumbles, squeaks and pants.[41] A black bear has better
eyesight and a better sense of hearing compared to humans. Their keenest sense is the sense of
smell, which is about seven times greater than a dog's.[61] American black bears tend to be
territorial and non-gregarious in nature. However, at abundant food sources (i.e. spawning
salmon or garbage dumps) black bears may congregate and dominance hierarchies form, with
the largest, most powerful males dominating the most fruitful feeding spots.[62] They mark
their territories by rubbing their bodies against trees and clawing at the bark. Annual ranges
held by mature male black bears tend to be very large but there is some variation. On Long
Island off the coast of Washington, ranges average 5 sq mi (13 km2), whereas on the Ungava
Peninsula in Canada ranges can average up to 1,000 sq mi (2,600 km2), with some males
bears travelling as far as 4,349 sq mi (11,260 km2) in times of food shortages.[5][62] Black
bears are excellent and strong swimmers, doing so for pleasure and to feed (largely on fish).
Black bears climb trees regularly to feed, escape enemies and to hibernate. Half of bear
species are habitually arboreal (the most arboreal species, the American and Asian black bears
and the sun bear, being fairly closely related).[5] Their arboreal abilities tend to decline with
age.[41] Black bears may be active at any time of the day or night, although mainly forage by
night. Bears living near human habitations tend to be more extensively nocturnal and bears
living near brown bears tend to be more extensively diurnal.[5][38]

Newborn black bear cubs

Reproduction and development

Sows usually produce their first litter at the age of 35 years.[41] Sows living in more
developed areas tend to get pregnant at younger ages.[63] The breeding period usually occurs
in the JuneJuly period, though it can extend to August in the species' northern range. The
breeding period lasts for 23 months. Both sexes are promiscuous. Males try to mate with
several females but large, dominant ones may violently claim a female if another mature male
comes near.[38] Sows tend to be short tempered with their mates after copulating. The
fertilized eggs undergo delayed development and do not implant in the females womb until
November. The gestation period lasts 235 days, and litters are usually born in late January to
early February. Litter size is between one and six cubs; typically two or three.[64] At birth,
cubs weigh 280450 g (0.620.99 lb), and measure 20.5 cm (8.1 in) in length. They are born
with fine, gray, downlike hair, and their hind quarters are underdeveloped. They typically
open their eyes after 2840 days, and begin walking after 5 weeks. Cubs are dependent on
their mother's milk for 30 weeks, and will reach independence at 1618 months. At the age of
six weeks, they attain 900 g (2.0 lb), by 8 weeks they reach 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) and by the age of
6 months they weigh 18 to 27 kg (40 to 60 lb). They reach sexual maturity at the age of three
years, and attain their full growth at 5 years.[41]

Play media
Female with cubs in Parc Omega, Quebec

Longevity and mortality

The average lifespan in the wild is 18 years, though it is quite possible for wild specimens to
survive for more than 23 years.[60] The record age of a wild specimen was 39 years,[65] while
that in captivity was 44 years.[40] Average annual survival rates for adult bears is variable,
ranging from 86% in Florida to 73% in Virginia and North Carolina.[38] In Minnesota, 99% of
wintering adult bears were able to survive the hibernation cycle in one study.[38] Remarkably,
a study of black bears in Nevada found that the amount of annual mortality of a population of
bears in wilderness areas was 0%, whereas in developed areas in the state this figure rose to
83%.[5] Survival in subadults is generally less assured. In Alaska, only 1417% of subadult
males and 3048% of subadult females were found in a study to survive to adulthood.[38]
Across the range, the estimated amount of cubs who survive past their first year is 60%.[5]
With the exception of the rare confrontation with an adult brown bear or gray wolf pack, adult
black bears are not usually subject to natural predation.[38] Black bear cubs tend to be more
vulnerable to predation than adults. Known predators of bear cubs have included bobcats,
coyotes, cougars, wolves, brown bears and other bears of their own species.[5][38] Many of
these will stealthily snatch small cubs right from under the sleeping mother. There is a single
record of a golden eagle snatching a yearling cub.[5] Once out of hibernation, mother bears
may be able to fight off most potential predators.[38] Even cougars will be displaced by an
angry mother bear if they are discovered stalking the cubs.[66] Flooding of dens after birth may
also occasionally kill newborn cubs. However, in current times, American black bears
fatalities are overwhelmingly attributable to human activities. Seasonally, tens of thousands of
black bears are hunted legally across North America, with many more being illegally poached
or trapped. Auto-collisions also may claim many black bear lives annually.[5][38]

Hibernation

Mother black bear and cubs, hibernating

Black bears were once not considered true or "deep" hibernators, but because of discoveries
about the metabolic changes that allow black bears to remain dormant for months without
eating, drinking, urinating, or defecating, most biologists have redefined mammalian
hibernation as "specialized, seasonal reduction in metabolism concurrent with scarce food and
cold weather". Black bears are now considered highly efficient hibernators.[67][68]
Black bears enter their dens in October and November. Prior to that time, they can put on up
to 14 kg (30 lb) of body fat to get them through the seven months during which they fast.
Hibernation in black bears typically lasts 38 months, depending on regional climate.[18][69]
During this time, their heart rate drops from 4050 beats per minute to 8 beats per minute and
metabolic rate can drop to a quarter of a bears (nonhibernating) basal metabolic rate (BMR).
Many of the physiological changes a bear exhibits during hibernation are retained slightly
post-hibernation. Upon exiting hibernation, bears retain a reduced heart rate and basal
metabolic rate. The metabolic rate of a hibernating bear will remain at a reduced level for up
to 21 days after hibernation.[70] Reductions in metabolic rate and heart rate do not appear to
decrease the bear's ability to heal injuries during hibernation.[71] They spend their time in
hollowed-out dens in tree cavities, under logs or rocks, in banks, caves, or culverts, and in
shallow depressions. Females, however, have been shown to be pickier in their choice of
dens, in comparison to males.[72] Although naturally-made dens are occasionally used, most
dens are dug out by the bear itself.[60] The hibernating American black bear does not display
the same rate of muscle and bone atrophy relative to other nonhibernatory animals that are
subject to long periods of inactivity, due to ailment or old age.[73][74] A hibernating black bear
loses approximately half the muscular strength to that of a well-nourished, inactive human.
The bears bone mass does not change in geometry or mineral composition during
hibernation, this implies that the bears conservation of bone mass during hibernation is due to
a biological mechanism.[75] During hibernation bears retain all excretory waste,and a special
hormone, leptin is released into the black bear's systems, to suppress appetite.The retention of
waste during hibernation (specifically in minerals such as calcium) may play a role in the
bears resistance to atrophy.[73] The body temperature of the American black bear does not
drop significantly, like other mammalian hibernators (staying around 35 degrees Celsius) and
they remain somewhat alert and active. If the winter is mild enough, they may wake up and
forage for food. Females also give birth in February and nurture their cubs until the snow
melts.[76] During winter, black bears consume 2540% of their body weight.[77] The footpads
peel off while they sleep, making room for new tissue. In the most southernly areas (i.e.
Florida, Mexico, the Southeastern United States) of the black bear's distribution only pregnant
females and mothers with yearling cubs will enter hibernation.[5] The physiology of American
black bears in the wild is closely related to that of bears in captivity. Understanding the
physiology of bears in the wild is vital to the bear's success in captivity.[78] After emerging
from their winter dens in spring, they wander their home ranges for two weeks so that their
metabolism accustoms itself to the activity. In mountainous areas, they seek southerly slopes
at lower elevations for forage and move to northerly and easterly slopes at higher elevations
as summer progresses. Black bears use dense cover for hiding and thermal protection, as well
as for bedding.

Dietary habits

Black bear feeding on a bush

Black bear taking a dead chum salmon near Hyder, Alaska

Generally, American black bears are largely crepuscular in foraging active, though may
actively feed at any time.[62] Up to 85% of the black bear's diet consists of vegetation,[41]
though they tend to dig less than brown bears, eating far fewer roots, bulbs, corms and tubers
than the latter species.[59] When initially emerging from hibernation, they will seek to feed on
carrion from winter-killed animals and newborn ungulates. As the spring temperature warms,
black bears seek new shoots of many plant species, especially new grasses, wetland plants and
forbs.[77] Young shoots and buds from trees and shrubs during the spring period are also
especially important to black bears emerging from hibernation, as they assist in rebuilding
muscle and strengthening the skeleton and are often the only digestible foods available at that
time.[79] During summer, the diet is comprised largely by fruits, especially berries and soft
masts such as buds and drupes. During the autumn hyperphagia, feeding becomes pretty much
the full-time task of black bears. Hard masts become the most important part of the black
bear's diet in autumn and may even partially dictate the species distribution. Favored masts
such as hazelnuts, oak acorns and whitebark pine nuts may be consumed by the hundreds each
day by a single black bear during fall.[5][38] During the fall period, American black bears may
also habitually raid the nut caches of tree squirrels.[77] Also extremely important in fall are
berries such as huckleberries and buffalo berries.[5] Black bears living in areas near human
settlements or around a considerable influx of recreational human activity often come to rely
on foods inadvertently provided by humans, especially during summertime. These include
refuse, birdseed, agricultural products and honey from apiaries.[60]
The majority of the black bear's animal diet consists of insects such as bees, yellow jackets,
ants and their larvae.[77] Black bears are also fond of honey, and will gnaw through trees if
hives are too deeply set into the trunks for them to reach them with their paws. Once the hive

is breached, black bears will scrape the honeycombs together with their paws and eat them,
regardless of stings from the bees.[52] Black bears that live in northern coastal regions
(especially the Pacific coast) will fish for salmon during the night, as their black fur is easily
spotted by salmon in the daytime. However, the white furred black bears of the islands of
western Canada have a 30% greater success rate in catching salmon than their black furred
counterparts.[80] Other fish including suckers, trout and catfish are readily caught when
possible.[81] Although black bears do not often engage in active predation of other large
animals for much of the year, the species will also regularly prey on mule and white-tailed
deer fawns in spring given the opportunity.[82][83][84] In addition they have been recorded
similarly preying on elk calves in Idaho[85] and moose calves in Alaska.[86]

Black bear with pink salmon.

Black bear predation on adult deer is rare but has been recorded.[87][88][89] They may even hunt
prey up to the size of adult female moose, which are considerably larger than themselves, by
ambushing them.[90] There is at least one record of a male black bear killing two bull elk over
the course of six days by chasing them into deep snow banks where their movement is
impeded. In Labrador, black bears are exceptionally carnivorous, living largely off of caribou,
usually sickly, young or dead specimens, and rodents such as voles. This is believed to be due
to a paucity of edible plant life in this sub-Arctic region and a local lack of competing large
carnivores (including other bear species).[60] Like brown bears, black bears try to use surprise
to ambush their prey and target the sickly animals in herds. Once a deer fawn is captured, it is
frequently torn apart alive while feeding.[83] If able to capture a mother deer in spring, the bear
frequently begins feeding on the udder of lactating females, but generally prefer meat from
the viscera. Black bears often drag their prey to cover, preferring to feed in seclusion. The
skin of large prey is stripped back and turned inside out with the skeleton usually left largely
intact. Unlike wolves and coyotes, black bears rarely scatter the remains of their kills.
Vegetation around the carcass is usually matted down by black bears and their droppings are
frequently found nearby. Black bears may attempt to cover remains of larger carcasses,
though they do not do so with the same frequency as cougars and grizzly bears.[91] They will
readily consume eggs and nestlings of various birds and can easily access many tree nests,
even the huge nest of the bald eagle.[41] Black bears have been reported stealing deer and other
animals from human hunters.

Interspecific predatory relationships

Over much of their range, black bears are assured scavengers that can intimidate, using their
large size and considerable strength, and if necessary dominate other predators in
confrontations over carcasses. However, in occasions where they encounter the Kodiak or the
grizzly bears, the larger two brown sub-species dominate them. Black bears tend to escape
competition from brown bears by being more active in the daytime, and living in more

densely forested areas. Violent interactions resulting in the deaths of black bears have been
recorded in Yellowstone National Park.[92][93]
Black bears do compete with cougars over carcasses. Like brown bears, they will sometimes
steal kills from cougars. One study found that both bear species visited 24% of cougar kills in
Yellowstone and Glacier National Parks, usurping 10% of carcasses.[94][95] Fights between the
two species are rare, though they can be violent. Cougars occasionally kill adult bears, a
behavior reportedly witnessed in the 19th century.[96] There are also 19th and early 20th
century records of bears killing cougar, either in defense or in territorial disputes, and
occasional fights, which ended in both combatants fatally wounded.[97]
Black bear interactions with wolves are much rarer than with brown bears, due to differences
in habitat preferences. The majority of black bear encounters with wolves occur in the species
northern range, with no interactions being recorded in Mexico. Despite the black bear being
more powerful on a one to one basis, packs of wolves have been recorded to kill black bears
on numerous occasions without eating them. Unlike brown bears, black bears frequently lose
against wolves in disputes over kills.[98] Wolf packs typically kill black bears when the large
animals are in their hibernation cycle.[43]
There is at least one record of a black bear killing a wolverine in a dispute over food in
Yellowstone National Park.[99] Anecdotal cases of alligator predation on bears have been
reported, though such cases may involve assaults on cubs.[100]

Relationships with humans

In folklore, mythology and culture

Harry Colebourn and Winnie, the bear from which Winnie the Pooh derives his name
Black bears feature prominently in the stories of some of America's indigenous peoples. One
tale tells of how the black bear was a creation of the Great Spirit, while the grizzly was
created by the Evil Spirit.[101] In the mythology of the Haida, Tlingit, Tsimshian people of the
Northwest Coast, mankind first learned to respect bears when a girl married the son of black
bear Chieftain.[102] In Kwakiutl mythology, black and brown bears became enemies when
Grizzly Bear Woman killed Black Bear Woman for being lazy. Black Bear Woman's children,

in turn, killed Grizzly Bear Woman's own cubs.[103] The Navajo believed that the Big Black
Bear was chief among the bears of the four directions surrounding Sun's house, and would
pray to it in order to be granted its protection during raids.[104]
Morris Michtom, the creator of the teddy bear, was inspired to make the toy when he came
across a cartoon of Theodore Roosevelt refusing to shoot a black bear cub tied to a tree.[105]
Winnie the Pooh was named after Winnipeg, a female black bear cub that lived at London
Zoo from 1915 until her death in 1934.[106] A black bear cub who in the spring of 1950 was
caught in the Capitan Gap fire was made into the living representative of Smokey Bear, the
mascot of the United States Forest Service.[107]
The American black bear is the mascot of The University of Maine and Baylor University,
where the university houses two live black bears on campus.
Sleeping Bear Dunes is named after a Native American legend, where a female bear and her
cub swam across Lake Michigan. Exhausted from their journey, the bears rested on the
shoreline and fell sound asleep. Over the years, the sand covered them up, creating a huge
sand dune.

Attacks on humans
See also: Bear attack and Bear danger
Although an adult bear is quite capable of killing a human, American black bears typically
avoid confronting humans when possible. Unlike grizzly bears, which became a subject of
fearsome legend among the European settlers of North America, black bears were rarely
considered overly dangerous, even though they lived in areas where the pioneers had settled.
Black bears rarely attack when confronted by humans, and usually limit themselves to making
mock charges, emitting blowing noises and swatting the ground with their forepaws. The
number of black bear attacks on humans is higher than those of the brown bear in North
America, though this is largely because the black species considerably outnumbers the brown
rather than greater aggressiveness.

The incidence of bear attacks in parks and campgrounds declined after the introduction of
bear-resistant garbage cans and other reforms
Compared to brown bear attacks, aggressive encounters with black bears rarely lead to serious
injury. However, the majority of black bear attacks tend to be motivated by hunger rather than
territoriality, and thus victims have a higher probability of surviving by fighting back rather

than submitting. Unlike grizzlies, female black bears do not display the same level of
protectiveness to their cubs, and seldom attack humans in their vicinity.[59] However,
occasionally, attacks by protective mothers do occur.[38] The worst recorded fatality incident
occurred in May 1978, in which a black bear killed three teenagers who were fishing in
Algonquin Park in Canada.[108] Another exceptional, spree-like attack occurred in August
1997 in Liard River Hot Springs Provincial Park in Canada, when an emaciated black bear
attacked a child and mother, killing the mother as well as an adult man who tried to intervene.
This bear was shot while mauling a fourth victim.[109][110]
The majority of attacks happened in national parks, usually near campgrounds, where the
bears had become habituated to close human proximity and food conditioned.[59] Out of
1,028 incidents of black bears acting aggressively toward people, 107 resulted in injury, were
recorded from 1964 to 1976 in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, and occurred
mainly in tourist hotspots where people regularly fed the bears handouts.[108] In almost every
case where open dumps or handouts that had previously attracted black bears were ceased, the
amount of aggressive encounters with bears have decreased precipitously over time.[38]
However, in the aforementioned case of the spree attack in Liard River Hot Springs, the
attacking bear was believed to have been previously almost fully dependent on a local
garbage dump that had closed and was starving as a result of the loss of that food source.[109]
Attempts to relocate bears are typically unsuccessful, as black bears seem to be able to return
to their home range even without familiar landscape cues.[38]

Livestock and crop predation

A limitation of food sources in early spring and wild berry and nut crop failures during
summer months may be contributing factors to black bears regularly feeding from commercial
human-based food sources. Crops are frequently eaten by these bears, especially during
autumn hyperphagia when natural foods are scarce. Favored crops may include apples, oats
and corns.[5] Black bears can do extensive damage in some areas of the northwestern United
States by stripping the bark from trees and feeding on the cambium. Livestock depredations
by black bears occur mostly in spring. Though black bears have the capacity to (and
occasionally do) hunt adult cattle and horses, they seem to prefer smaller, more easily
overwhelmed prey such as sheep, goats, calves, and pigs. They normally kill by biting the
neck and shoulders, though they may break the neck or back of prey with blows from the
paws. Evidence of a bear attack includes claw marks and is frequently found on the neck,
back, and shoulders of larger animals. Surplus killing of sheep and goats are common. Bears
have been known to frighten livestock herds over cliffs, causing injuries and death to many
animals; whether or not this is intentional is not known.[91] Occasionally, pets, especially
dogs, which are most prone to harass a bear, are killed by black bears.[111] It is not
recommended to use unleashed dogs as a deterrent from bear attacks. Although large,
aggressive dogs sometimes cause a bear to run, if pressed, angry bears frequently turn the
tables and end up chasing the dog in return. A bear in pursuit of a pet dog has the potential to
threaten both canid and human lives.[112][113]

Bear awareness in towns

In an effort to help prevent conflicts with bears, many towns in British Columbia developed
bear aware programs. The main premise of these programs is to teach humans to manage
foods that attract bears. Keeping garbage securely stored, harvesting fruit when ripe, securing
livestock behind electric fences, and storing pet food indoors are all measures promoted by

bear aware programs. Revelstoke, British Columbia is a community that demonstrates the
success of this approach. Before the community had an education program, an average of 27
bears were killed in Revelstoke each year; after the program began, the average mortality has
dropped to just 7 bears per year.[114] See Revelstoke Bear Aware for more information.

Hunting and exploitation

Hunting
Historically, black bears were hunted by both Native Americans and European settlers. Some
Native American tribes,[which?] in admiration for the black bear's intelligence, would decorate
the heads of bears they killed with trinkets, and place them on blankets. Tobacco smoke
would be wafted into the disembodied head's nostrils by the hunter that dealt the killing blow,
who would compliment the animal for its courage.[52] The Kutchin typically hunted black
bears during their hibernation cycle. Unlike the hunting of hibernating grizzlies, which was
fraught with danger, black bears took longer to awaken, and was thus safer and easier.[26]
During the European colonisation of eastern North America, thousands of black bears were
hunted for their meat, fat and fur.[4] Theodore Roosevelt wrote extensively on black bear
hunting in his Hunting the Grisly and other sketches, in which he stated "in [a black bear]
chase there is much excitement, and occasionally a slight spice of danger, just enough to
render it attractive; so it has always been eagerly followed". He wrote that black bears were
difficult to hunt by stalking, due to their habitat preferences, though were easy to trap.
Roosevelt described how, in the southern states, planters regularly hunted black bears on
horseback with hounds. General Wade Hampton was known to have been present at 500
successful black bear hunts, two thirds of which he killed personally. He killed thirty or forty
black bears with only a knife, which he would use to stab the bears between the shoulder
blades while they were distracted by his hounds.[90] Unless well trained, horses were often
useless in black bear hunts, as they often bolted when the bears stood their ground.[52] In 1799,
192,000 black bear skins were exported from Quebec. In 1822, 3,000 skins were exported
from the Hudson's Bay Company.[115] In 1992, untanned, fleshed and salted black bear hides
were sold for an average of $165.[116]
In Canada, black bears are considered as both a big game and furbearer species in all
provinces save for New Brunswick and Northwest Territories, where they are only classed as
a big game species. There are around 80,900 licensed black bear hunters in all of Canada.
Canadian black bear hunts take place in the fall and spring, and both male and female bears
can be legally taken, though some provinces prohibit the hunting of females with cubs, or
yearling specimens.[30]
Currently, 28 of the USA's states have black bear hunting seasons. Nineteen states require a
bear hunting license, with some also requiring a big game license. In eight states, only a big
game license is required to hunt black bears. Overall over 481,500 black bear hunting licences
are sold per year. The hunting methods and seasons vary greatly according to state, with some
bear hunting seasons including fall only, spring and fall, or year-round. New Jersey, in
November 2010, approved of a six-day bear-hunting season in early December 2010 to slow
the growth of the black bear population. Bear-hunting had been banned in New Jersey for five
years.[117] A Fairleigh Dickinson University PublicMind poll found that 53% of New Jersey
voters approved of the new season if scientists concluded black bears were leaving their usual
habitats and destroying private property.[118] Men, older voters, and those living in rural areas
were more likely to approve of a bear-hunting season in New Jersey than women, younger

voters, and those living in more developed parts of the state.[118] In the western states, where
there are large black populations, there are spring and year-round seasons. Approximately
18,000 black bears were killed annually in the USA between 19881992. Within this period,
annual kills ranged from six bears in South Carolina to 2,232 in Maine.[30]
According to Dwight Schuh in his Bowhunter's Encyclopedia, black bears are the third most
popular quarry of bowhunters, behind deer and elk.[119]
Meat
Black bear meat
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
649 kJ (155 kcal)
Energy
Carbohydrates

0.00 g

Fat

8.30 g

Protein

20.10 g

Vitamins
(10%)
78 g
(14%)
0.160 mg
(57%)
0.680 mg
(21%)
3.200 mg

Vitamin A equiv.
Thiamine (B1)
Riboflavin (B2)
Niacin (B3)
Minerals

(55%)
7.20 mg
(23%)
162 mg

Iron
Phosphorus
Other constituents
Water

71.20 g

Units
g = micrograms mg = milligrams
IU = International units

Percentages are roughly approximated using

US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Black bear meat had historically been held in high esteem among North America's indigenous
people and colonists.[52] Black bears were the only bear species the Kutchin hunted for their
meat, though this constituted only a small part of their diet.[26] According to the second

volume of Frank Forester's field sports of the United States, and British provinces, of North
America:
The flesh of the [black] bear is savoury, but rather luscious, and tastes not unlike pork. It was
once so common an article of food in New-York as to have given the name of Bear Market to
one of the principal markets of the city.
Frank Forester's field sports of the United States, and British provinces, of North America
p. 186
Theodore Roosevelt himself likened the flesh of young black bears to that of pork, and not as
coarse or flavourless as the meat of grizzlies.[120] The most favoured cuts of the black bear's
meat are concentrated in the legs and loins. Meat from the neck, front legs and shoulders is
usually ground into minced meat or used for stews and casseroles. Keeping the fat tends to
give the meat a strong flavour. As black bears can have trichinellosis, cooking temperatures
need to be high in order to kill the parasites.[121]
Black bear fat was once valued as a cosmetic article that promoted hair growth and gloss. The
fat most favoured for this purpose was the hard white fat found in the body's interior. As only
a small portion of this fat could be harvested for this purpose, the oil was often mixed with
large quantities of hog lard.[52] However animal rights activism over the last decade has
slowed the harvest of these animals; therefore the lard from black bear has not been used in
recent years for the purpose of cosmetics.[citation needed]

See also

List of fatal bear attacks in North America

References
1.
Garshelis, D.L., Crider, D. & van Manen, F. (2008). Ursus americanus. In: IUCN 2008.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved January 27, 2009.
Ursus americanus, Mammal Species of the World, 3rd ed.
Krause, J.; Unger, T.; Noon, A.; Malaspinas, A.; Kolokotronis, S.; Stiller, M.;
Soibelzon, L.; Spriggs, H.; Dear, P. H.; Briggs, A. W.; Bray, S. C. E.; O'Brien, S. J.; Rabeder,
G.; Matheus, P.; Cooper, A.; Slatkin, M.; Pbo, S.; Hofreiter, M. (2008). "Mitochondrial
genomes reveal an explosive radiation of extinct and extant bears near the Miocene-Pliocene
boundary". BMC Evolutionary Biology 8 (220): 220. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-8-220.
PMC 2518930. PMID 18662376.
Craighead, Lance (2003) Bears of the World, Voyageur Press, ISBN 0-89658-008-3
Hunter, Luke (2011) Carnivores of the World, Princeton University Press, ISBN
9780691152288
Woodburne, Michael O. (2004). Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic Mammals of North
America: Biostratigraphy and Geochronology. Columbia University Press. pp. 178, 252.
ISBN 978-0-231-13040-0.
Kurten, B., and E. Anderson (1980). Pleistocene mammals of North America. Columbia
University Press, New York, ISBN 0231516967.

 Wolverton, S.; Lyman, R. L. (1998). "Measuring late Quaternary Ursid diminution in the
Midwest". Quaternary Research 49 (3): 322329. Bibcode:1998QuRes..49..322W.
doi:10.1006/qres.1998.1964.
Lisette Waits, David Paetkau, and Curtis Strobeck, "Overview" from Genetics of the
Bears of the World chapter 3 of Bears: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan, compiled
by Christopher Servheen, Stephen Herrero and Bernard Peyton, IUCN/SSC Bear Specialist
Group
Herrero, Stephen. "Aspects of Evolution and Adaptation in American Black Bears (Ursus
americanus Pallas) and Brown and Grizzly Bears (U. arctos Linne.) of North America" (PDF).
Environmental Sciences Centre (Kananaskis). Retrieved February 21, 2011.
"The American Black Bear". Grizzlybear.org. Archived from the original on March 15,
2010. Retrieved February 21, 2011.
Qiu, Z. (2003). "Dispersals of Neogene Carnivorans between Asia and North America".
Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 279: 1831. doi:10.1206/00030090(2003)279<0018:C>2.0.CO;2.
Schubert, B. W.; Hulbert, Jr.; MacFadden, B. J.; Searle, M.; Searle, S. (2010). "Giant
short-faced bears (Arctodus simus) in Pleistocene Florida USA, a substantial range
expansion". Journal of Paleontology 84: 7987. doi:10.1666/09-113.1.
Hybrid Bears. messybeast.com
Darwin, Charles (1868). The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication.
Volume 2 (1st ed.). London: John Murray. p. 151. ISBN 1-4068-4250-8.
Smith, Richard P. (2007) "Hybrid Black Bear" in Black Bear Hunting, Stackpole Books,
ISBN 0-8117-0269-3
Black Bear Subspecies, CoveBear
"Haida Gwaii Black Bear (Ursus Americanus Carlottae Subspecies)" (PDF). Retrieved
February 21, 2011.
"SPECIES VARIATION Editorial Comment". Wildlife1.wildlifeinformation.org.
Archived from the original on July 23, 2011. Retrieved February 21, 2011.
Black Bear, Parks Canada
"Spirit Bear Facts". Province of British Columbia. Archived from the original on
December 17, 2009. Retrieved December 3, 2009.
. ''Louisiana Black Bear''. (PDF). Retrieved September 15, 2011.
"Abnaki-Penobscot Animal Words". Native-languages.org. Retrieved February 21, 2011.
"Algonquin Animal Words". Native-languages.org. Retrieved February 21, 2011.
"Muskogee Creek Animal Words (Muscogee)". Native-languages.org. Retrieved August
8, 2014.
Nelson, Richard K. Hunters of the northern forest: designs for survival among the
Alaskan Kutchin, University of Chicago Press, 1986, ISBN 0-226-57181-5
"English-Tlingit Dictionary". Alaskool.org. Retrieved February 21, 2011.
English/Cherokee Dictionary. wehali.com
Diebold, A. Richard, Jr. (1982). "Alleged American Indian "Baribal" 'American Black
Bear': A Query". International Journal of American Linguistics 48 (1): 8991.
doi:10.1086/465718. JSTOR 1264753.
Pelton, Michael R.; Coley, Alex B.; Eason, Thomas H.; Doan Martinez, Diana L.;
Pederson, Joel A.; van Manen, Frank T.; Weaver, Keith M. "Chapter 8. American Black Bear
Conservation Action Plan" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 23, 2011.
Retrieved February 21, 2011.
Scheick, B. K.; W. McCown (2014). "Geographic distribution of American black bears in
North America". Ursus 25 (1): 2433. doi:10.2192/URSUS-D-12-00020.1.

 "Canadian Population". World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved August 31, 2011.

"United States Population". World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved August 31, 2011.
https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Mammals/Black-Bear/Population
Another black bear sighting in Union Co. wsoctv.com. June 25, 2013
Black bears make a comeback in NC. Associated Press. August 3, 2014
Hoffman, J., S. Wilson, and H. Genoways (2009). "Recent occurrence of an American
black bear in Nebraska". Ursus 20 (1): 6972. doi:10.2192/08SC030R.1.
Lariviere, S. (2001). "Ursus americanus". Mammalian Species 647: 111.
doi:10.1644/1545-1410(2001)647<0001:UA>2.0.CO;2.
"Bears of the World". Americanbear.org. Retrieved February 21, 2011.
Brown 1993, Ch. "Bear Anatomy and Physiology".
Brown 1993, Ch. "Behaviour and Activities".
"Learning and Color Discrimination in the American Black Bear" (PDF).
bearbiology.com.
Scorzafava, Dick (2007). Radical Bear Hunter. Stackpole Books. ISBN 978-0-81173418-9.
Bertram, M.R.; Vivion M. T. (2002). "Black bear monitoring in eastern interior Alaska"
(PDF). Ursus 13 (6977). Archived from the original (PDF) on November 8, 2004.
Peacock, Elizabeth (2004). Population, Genetic and Behavioral Studies of Black Bears
Ursus americanus in Southeast Alaska. PhD Thesis, University of Nevada, Reno
Ursus americanus (Pallas); Black Bear. Discoverlife.org. Retrieved December 20, 2012.
Barnes, V.G. and Bray, O.E. (1967) "Population characteristics and activities of black
bears in Yellowstone National Park". Final report, Colorado Wildl. Res. Unit, Colorado State
Univ., Fort Collins; cited in Characteristics of Black Bears and Grizzly Bears in YNP.
nps.gov
BLACK BEARS IN NEW YORK: Natural History, Range, and Interactions with People.
Bureau of Wildlife Black Bear Management Team, 2003; Second Edition: 2007
Audubon Field Guide. Audubonguides.com. Retrieved September 15, 2011.
Kronk, C. (2007). Ursus americanus. Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved September 15,
2011.
American black bear videos, photos and facts Ursus americanus. ARKive. Retrieved
September 15, 2011.
Wood, Gerald (1983). The Guinness Book of Animal Facts & Feats. Sterling Publishing
Co. ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9.
Stabile, Jim (December 16, 2011) "829-pound bear takes record in N.J. hunt". Daily
Record
Record-busting, 879-pound bear bagged in Poconos. PoconoRecord.com (November 19,
2010). Retrieved 2013-08-19.
Rogers, Lyn. "North American Bear Center Meet Our Bears > Ted's Page". Bear.org.
Retrieved February 11, 2011.
"North American Bear Center Meet Our Bears > Honey's Page". Bear.org. Retrieved
February 11, 2011.
Wood, John George (1865) The illustrated natural history, Vol. 2, George Routledge and
sons
Ursus thibetanus (G. Cuvier, 1823)[dead link]
Herrero, Stephen (2002). Bear Attacks: Their Causes and Avoidance. Globe Pequot.
ISBN 978-1-58574-557-9. Retrieved May 16, 2012.

 Macdonald, D.W. (2006) The Encyclopedia of Mammals. Oxford University Press,

Oxford ISBN 0199567999.
"Black Bear Biology & Behavior". Retrieved November 21, 2013.
Nowak, R.M. (1991) Walker's Mammals of the World. The Johns Hopkins University
Press, Baltimore and London.
"Urban Black Bears "Live Fast, Die Young"". Sciencedaily.com. October 1, 2008.
Retrieved February 21, 2011.
"North American Bear Center Reproduction". North American Bear Center.
"Worlds oldest-known wild black bear dies at 39" (Press release). Minnesota
Department of Natural Resources. August 27, 2013. Retrieved 2016-01-04.
Man Says Bear Saved Him From Mountain Lion Attack In Butte County CBS
Sacramento. Sacramento.cbslocal.com (March 29, 2012). Retrieved 2012-12-21.
"Hibernation". Bear.org. July 19, 2004. Archived from the original on June 8, 2010.
Retrieved February 19, 2011.
"Yellowstone National Park Denning and Hibernation Behavior (U.S. National Park
Service)". Nps.gov. April 15, 2008. Retrieved February 19, 2011.
Michigan, Department of Natural Resources (19 November 2004). "Michigan Black Bear
Facts". State of Michigan. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
Tien, ivind; Blake, John; Edgar, Dale M.; Grahn, Dennis A.; Heller, H. Craig;
Barnes, Brian M. (2011-02-18). "Hibernation in black bears: independence of metabolic
suppression from body temperature". Science (New York, N.Y.) 331 (6019): 906909.
doi:10.1126/science.1199435. ISSN 1095-9203. PMID 21330544.
Iaizzo, Paul A.; Laske, Timothy G.; Harlow, Henry J.; McCLAY, Carolyn B.; Garshelis,
David L. (2012-03-01). "Wound healing during hibernation by black bears (Ursus
americanus) in the wild: elicitation of reduced scar formation". Integrative Zoology 7 (1):
4860. doi:10.1111/j.1749-4877.2011.00280.x. ISSN 1749-4877.
Goals, Ben. "American Black Bear Teaching Guide" (PDF). Cornell. Retrieved November
22, 2009.
Lohuis, T. D.; Harlow, H. J.; Beck, T. D. I.; Iaizzo, P. A. (2007-05-01). "Hibernating
Bears Conserve Muscle Strength and Maintain Fatigue Resistance". Physiological and
Biochemical Zoology 80 (3): 257269. doi:10.1086/513190. ISSN 1522-2152.
Pardy, Connor K.; Wohl, Gregory R.; Ukrainetz, Philip J.; Sawers, Andrew; Boyd,
Steven K.; Zernicke, Ronald F. (2004-08-01). "Maintenance of bone mass and architecture in
denning black bears (Ursus americanus)". Journal of Zoology 263 (4): 359364.
doi:10.1017/S0952836904005412. ISSN 1469-7998.
McGee-Lawrence, Meghan E.; Wojda, Samantha J.; Barlow, Lindsay N.; Drummer,
Thomas D.; Bunnell, Kevin; Auger, Janene; Black, Hal L.; Donahue, Seth W. (2009-07-22).
"Six months of disuse during hibernation does not increase intracortical porosity or decrease
cortical bone geometry, strength, or mineralization in black bear (Ursus americanus)
femurs". Journal of Biomechanics 42 (10): 13781383. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2008.11.039.
ISSN 1873-2380. PMC 2707508. PMID 19450804.
Bennett, Bobby (Spring 2006). "Hibernation of the Black and Brown Bear". Mountain
Research Station. Retrieved November 22, 2009.
Becker, Jim (1993). "The Black Bear" (PDF). Spanning the Gap The newsletter of
Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area. Retrieved February 21, 2011.
McCain, Stephanie; Ramsay, Ed; Kirk, Claudia (2013-06-01). "The effects of hibernation
and captivity on glucose metabolism and thyroid hormones in American black bear (Ursus
americanus)". Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine: Official Publication of the American