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Nutritional and health benefits of quinoa

(Chenopodium quinoa Willd.)
Article in Journal of Cereal Science May 2016
Impact Factor: 2.09 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcs.2016.05.004

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Journal of Cereal Science 69 (2016) 371e376

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Review

Nutritional and health benets of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.)

Semra Navruz-Varli 1, Nevin Sanlier*
Gazi University, Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Besevler, Ankara, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 25 April 2016
Accepted 4 May 2016
Available online 5 May 2016

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a plant species of the Chenopodiaceae family, which originated in
the Andean region and can adapt to different types of soil and climatic conditions. It is a pseudo grain
with high nutritional value as it is rich in proteins, lipids, ber, vitamins, and minerals, and has an
extraordinary balance of essential amino acids. Quinoa also contains a high amount of health-benecial
phytochemicals including saponins, phytosterols, phytoecdysteroids. It is known that quinoa has
considerably positive effects on metabolic, cardiovascular, and gastrointestinal health in humans. Despite
all these health benets, quinoa is not widely consumed due to several reasons, such as high import costs
of the grain and lack of knowledge regarding its benets among consumers. As we believe that further
research is needed to provide more information about quinoa, this review was prepared to investigate its
basic compounds and health effects.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.)
Pseudo-cereal
20-Hydroxyecdysone
Health effects

Contents
1.
2.

3.

4.

5.
6.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Energy and nutritional value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
2.1.
Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
2.2.
Carbohydrates and fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
2.3.
Lipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
2.4.
Vitamins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
2.5.
Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Phytochemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
3.1.
Saponins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
3.2.
Phytosterols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
3.3.
Phytoecdysteroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Effects on health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
4.1.
Human studies concerning the effects of quinoa consumption on health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
4.2.
Animal studies concerning the effects of quinoa consumption on health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
4.2.1.
Quinoa's anti-diabetic, anti-obesity, and blood-fat reducing effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
4.2.2.
Antioxidant activity of quinoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Allergic effects of quinoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Conclusions and suggestions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

1. Introduction
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 90 312 216 26 01; fax: 90 312 216 26 36.
E-mail
addresses:
semra_nvrz@hotmail.com,
semranavruz@gazi.edu.tr
(S. Navruz-Varli), nevintekgul@gmail.com, ntekgul@gazi.edu.tr (N. Sanlier).
1
Tel.: 90 312 216 26 14; fax: 90 312 216 26 36.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2016.05.004
0733-5210/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) plant belongs to the Chenopodiaceae family, which also includes spinach and beet. There are

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S. Navruz-Varli, N. Sanlier / Journal of Cereal Science 69 (2016) 371e376

approximately 250 species of this family all over the world and it is
an endemic plant peculiar to South America. However, it was
domesticated by people living in the Andes, particularly in Peru and
Bolivia, thousands of years ago. The oldest archeological quinoa
remains date back to 5000 BC. While local languages use different
names, such as supha, suba, jupha, and dahue to refer to quinoa, it is
called quinua and quinoa in especially Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador,
Argentina, and Chile. Due to its rich protein content and incredible
balance of essential amino acids, it has been consumed by people as
a holy plant (Jancurova, 2009; Maradini Filho et al., 2015). It draws
attention with its high nutritional value, and more importantly, it is
highly resistant to weather, climate, and soil conditions. While both
its seeds and leaves constitute the edible parts, it is the seeds that
are investigated most in terms of economic and scientic aspect.
Although it has the characteristics of grains, it is considered as
pseudo-cereal and even pseudo-seed as it does not belong to the
Gramineae family, has botanical features, such as cluster-type
inorescence, and possesses a balance of proteins and lipids as
well as rich protein content (sulfur amino acids and lysine) (VegaGalvez et al., 2010; Repo-Carrasco-Valencia et al., 2010). Quinoa has
traditionally been used by a variety of native populations in South
America (Vega-Galvez et al., 2010). Similar to rice, its seeds are
consumed in soups, by pufng them to make breakfast cereal, or by
ouring them to produce baked products like cookies, bread, biscuits, pasta, crisps, tortilla, and pancake (Bhargava et al., 2006).
Quinoa leaves are consumed in a similar way to those of spinach
(Oelke et al., 1992), and its sprouts are added to salad (Schlick and
Bubenheim, 1996). In addition, quinoa seeds can be fermented to
make beer or a kind of traditional alcoholic drink used for a religious ceremony called chicha in South America (FAO, 2011). It is also
used as a rich nutritional source in feeding farm animals, such as
cattle, pigs or poultry (Bhargava et al., 2006).
As there seems to be a need for further studies to explore quinoa
better, this review was prepared to investigate its basic components
and health effects.
2. Energy and nutritional value
Grains play an important role in human diet by meeting
approximately half of an individual's need for energy and protein
intake. Wheat, corn, rice, barley, oat, rye, and sorghum are the most
crucial foods in the world in human and animal diets. A comparison
of the nutritional values of these grains in relation to quinoa is
given in Table 1 (USDA, 2015). Quinoa's superiority over other
grains results from its richer protein, lipid, and ash content.
2.1. Proteins
Protein content in the dry matter of quinoa seeds varies between 13.8% and 16.5%; however, it is reported as 15% on average.
The total protein content of quinoa is higher than that of rice,
barley, corn, rye, and sorghum, and is close to wheat (USDA, 2015).
While the majority of the stored proteins in quinoa is composed
of albumins (35%) and globulins (37%), it contains low

concentrations prolamins, and these percentages may vary in

different species (Abugoch James, 2009). Quinoa, which provides a
protein value similar to casein in milk, contains essential amino
acids (Vega-Galvez et al., 2010).
With its values close to those specied by Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO), its perfect amino acid balance and rich content
with thionic amino acids and lysines, quinoa is one of the few
plants that provide all the amino acids necessary for human life,
and contrary to grain proteins poor in especially lysines, quinoa
proteins are accepted as high-quality proteins (Maradini Filho et al.,
2015).
Bioavailability of amino acids or protein digestibility in quinoa
varies based on the kind of quinoa consumed, and it considerably
increases with cooking. Comai (2007) reported that quinoa did not
only have rich protein content but also had a sufciently high
concentration of amino acid composition and tryptophan, which is
generally the second limiting amino acid. In addition, it contains a
high amount of non-protein tryptophan that can be absorbed more
easily and help increase the usability of this amino acid in the brain,
thus having inuence on serotonin neurotransmitter synthesis
(Comai, 2007).
2.2. Carbohydrates and ber
The main carbohydrate component of quinoa is starch, and it
constitutes 52%e69% of it. Its total diet ber is close to that in grain
products (7%e9.7%) while its soluble ber content is known to be in
the 1.3%e6.1% band. Quinoa contains sugar by about 3%. It mostly
contains maltose, D-galactose, and D-ribose in addition to low
levels of fructose and glucose (Abugoch James, 2009).
Due to its perfect freeze-thaw stability, low gelling point, and
endurance at low storage temperatures, quinoa is an ideal thickener for sauces, soups, and ours. Moreover, its resistance to
retrogradation makes it possible to use quinoa in other applications
and in obtaining a creamy and smooth texture similar to that of fats
(Vega-Galvez et al., 2010; Abugoch James, 2009).
Amylose content in quinoa starch varies between 3% and 22%,
which is lower in quantity than that of wheat and corn, higher than
that of some kinds of barley, and similar to that of basic rice types.
When compared to wheat and barley starch, quinoa starch has
maximum viscosity, a higher water absorption capacity, and a
bigger swelling capacity. In addition, it has a wonderful stability
even in freezing and retrogradation processes (Tang et al., 2002).
2.3. Lipids
Due to the quality and quantity of its lipid fraction, quinoa is
accepted as an alternative oily seed. It has an oil rate of 2.0%e9.5%,
and is rich in terms of essential fatty acids such as linoleic and
alpha-linolenic acids. It contains antioxidants like alpha and gtocopherol in high concentrations. Its oil content (7%) is higher than
that of corn (4.7%) and other grains, and lower than that of soy
beans (19.0%). When the fatty acid prole of quinoa seeds is
compared to that of corn and soy beans, linoleic (C18:2), oleic

Table 1
Comparison of the nutritional values of grains and quinoa (edible 100 g).
Composition

Quinoa

Rice

Barley

Wheat

Corn

Rye

Sorghum

Lipid (g)
Protein (g)
Ash (g)
Fiber (g)
Carbohydrate (g)
Energy (kcal)

6.07
14.12
2.7
7.0
64.16
368

0.55
6.81
0.19
2.8
81.68
370

1.3
9.91
0.62
15.6
77.72
352

2.47
13.68
1.13
10.7
71.13
339

4.74
9.42
0.67
7.3
74.26
365

1.63
10.34
0.98
15.1
75.86
338

3.46
10.62
0.84
6.7
72.09
329

S. Navruz-Varli, N. Sanlier / Journal of Cereal Science 69 (2016) 371e376

(C18:1), and alpha-linolenic (C18:3) fatty acids were observed to be

at similar levels. These fatty acids equal to nearly 88% of the total
fatty acid amount of quinoa seeds (Maradini Filho et al., 2015;
Abugoch James, 2009).
Palmitic fatty acid, which exists in quinoa as a basic saturated
fatty acid, constitutes 10% of its total fatty acids. From among unsaturated fatty acids, oleic (19.7%e29.5%), linoleic (49.0%e56.4%)
and alpha-linolenic (8.7%e11.7%) fatty acids constitute 87.2%e87.8%
of its total fatty acids in a similar way to soy bean composition
(Repo-Carrasco et al., 2003).
2.4. Vitamins
Quinoa is also rich in micronutrients, such as vitamins and
minerals (USDA, 2015). Although there is limited research on the
vitamin content of quinoa seeds, it is known that it contains pyridoxine (B6) and folic acid in high concentrations. Pyridoxine and
folic acid levels in 100 g of quinoa are reported to meet adults' daily
needs. It is stated that riboavin in 100 g of quinoa meets 80% of
children's and 40% of adults' needs (Abugoch James, 2009). Its
niacin content does not meet the daily need; however, it constitutes
an important source for diet. The thiamin level of quinoa is lower
than that of oat and barley; however, its riboavin, pyridoxine, and
folic acid levels are higher than those of most other grains like
wheat, oat, barley, rye, rice, and corn. Moreover, it is an excellent
source of vitamin E in an amount higher than that of wheat
(Abugoch James, 2009; Alvarez-Jubete et al., 2010). Its ascorbic acid
levels vary in a band of 0e63.0 mg/100 g. As the given vitamin
concentrations are valid for dry weight, data concerning the
vitamin content could be misleading. Both sweet and bitter kinds of
quinoa usually go through the washing process. Bitter kinds are
exposed to pearling process before cooking in order to get rid of
saponins. All these processes could change the vitamin levels in the
raw material (Koziol, 1992).
2.5. Minerals
Quinoa's ash content (3.4%) is higher than that of rice (0.5%),
wheat (1.8%), and most other grains. Because of this, quinoa seeds
contain large amounts of mineral. Its calcium and iron content is
considerably higher than that of other commonly used grains. In
comparison to wheat (0.16%) and corn (0.14%), quinoa contains
approximately 0.26% magnesium. Since calcium, magnesium, and
potassium in quinoa are found in biologically appropriate forms,
their amounts in seeds are considered to be sufcient for a balanced
diet (Vega-Galvez et al., 2010; Repo-Carrasco et al., 2003).
Quinoa contains more iron than traditional grains. However,
saponins and phytic acids in seeds could affect its bioavailability to
some extent. Animal studies have revealed that iron availability in
quinoa-based diets is at least as good as that of ferrous sulfate
(Koziol, 1992; Ruales and Nair, 1993). Still, bioavailability of quinoa
minerals in humans should be further examined.
3. Phytochemicals
Basic groups of phytochemicals in quinoa are saponins, phytosterols, and phytoecdysteroids (Graf et al., 2015a).
3.1. Saponins
As saponins negatively affect quinoa's taste and digestibility,
they should be removed before consumption. Although some
quinoa types named as sweet quinoa (<%0.11 free saponins) have
often become less resistant to the damage of birds that feed on
insects and plants, they have been crossbred so that they would

373

have lower amounts of saponins. Though they give the plant a bad
taste, saponins have a variety of biological effects including antifungal, antiviral, anticancer, hypocholesterolemic, hypoglycemic,
antithrombotic, diuretic, and anti-inammatory activities (VegaGalvez et al., 2010).
3.2. Phytosterols
Even though the phytosterol content in quinoa has not been
taken into consideration much, 100 g of quinoa seeds could contain
up to 118 mg phytosterol. Important phytosterol components in
quinoa are b-sitosterol, campesterol, brassicasterol, and stigmasterol (Villacr'es et al., 2013). In a study carried out by Ryan et al., it
was found that quinoa seeds contained b-sitosterol (63.7 mg/
100 g), campesterol (15.6 mg/100 g), and stigmasterol (3.2 mg/
100 g), and that the quantities of these components were higher
than those in barley, rye, millet, and corn (Ryan et al., 2007).
Phytosterols are lipophilic compounds that are structurally
similar to cholesterol. Epidemiological evidence, intervention
studies, and meta-analyses have consistently concluded that phytosterols have a vital effect on lowering cholesterol in humans (Graf
et al., 2015a; Marangoni and Poli, 2010). Phytosterols lower serum
cholesterol levels by competing for cholesterol's intestinal absorption and probably reducing atherogenic lipoprotein production
in the liver and the intestines (Ho and Pal, 2005). In addition, antiinammatory, antioxidative and anticarcinogenic effects of phytosterols were revealed (Ryan et al., 2007).
3.3. Phytoecdysteroids
Among the plants that are edible by people, quinoa seeds are the
ones that contain phytoecdysteroids at the highest level. In addition
to their known effects, such as molt control in insects, ecdysteroids
are polyhydroxylated steroid hormones that display potential
pharmacological and metabolic properties in mammals (Foucault
et al., 2011; Dinan, 2009). Quinoa's total phytoecdysteroid content
was reported to be in the 138e570 mg/g range. Among the ecdysteroids, the most common one is 20-hydroxyecdysone, which is
found in many plants like quinoa. From at least 13 different phytoecdysteroid kinds that are isolated from quinoa seeds, the most
common one is 20-hydroxyecdysone (20HE), and it constitutes
62%e90% of total phytoecdysteroids (Graf et al., 2015b).
4. Effects on health
It is stated that quinoa may benet high-risk group consumers,
such as children, the elderly, high-performance sports people, individuals with lactose intolerance, women prone to osteoporosis,
people with anemia, diabetes, dyslipidemia, obesity, and celiac
disease due to its properties including a high nutritional value,
therapeutic features, and gluten-free content. These features are
considered to be linked with the existence of the ber, minerals,
vitamins, fat acids, antioxidants, and especially phytochemicals in
quinoa, and they provide quinoa a big advantage over other crops in
terms of human nutrition and health maintenance (Vega-Galvez
et al., 2010; Repo-Carrasco-Valencia et al., 2010; Pasko et al.,
2010a; Bhargava et al., 2006).
4.1. Human studies concerning the effects of quinoa consumption
on health
The number of clinical studies regarding the effects of quinoa
consumption on human health is quite low.
In a childhood nutrition study performed in 50e65 month-old
boys in low-income families in Ecuador, it was found that 100 g

374

S. Navruz-Varli, N. Sanlier / Journal of Cereal Science 69 (2016) 371e376

consumption of quinoa-added baby food twice a day for 15 days

signicantly increased the plasma insulin-like growth factor (IGF1) levels in kids, when compared to the control group. It was
determined in this study that baby food with quinoa provided
sufcient protein and other essential nutritional elements, which
have a key role in preventing malnutrition among kids (Ruales
et al., 2002).
In a study that aimed at investigating in vivo effects of quinoa
consumption among adults with celiac disease, 19 celiac patients
under treatment were made to consume 50 g of quinoa every day
for 6 weeks as part of a gluten-free diet, and the diet, serology, and
gastrointestinal parameters were evaluated. The study ndings
showed that the individuals' gastrointestinal parameters were
normal. The rate of villus height to crypt depth was slightly lower
(2.8:1) than the normal values at rst, but this value reached a
normal level (3:1) at the end of the study. Moreover, although total
cholesterol, LDL, HDL, and triglyceride levels decreased, it was
conrmed that the median values for all blood tests were within
normal levels. Quinoa addition to a gluten-free diet in celiac patients was well tolerated and did not deteriorate the disease.
Improved histological and serological parameters, and a positive
tendency towards especially mild hypocholesterolemic effect were
identied (Zevallos et al., 2014). This study revealed the rst clinical
data that showed the daily consumption of 50 g of quinoa over a
six-week period was safely tolerated by celiac patients. Still, there is
a need for further studies to determine the long-term effects of
quinoa consumption.
Another study revealed that daily consumption of quinoa
candies by 22 students aged between 18 and 45 for 30 days
considerably reduced their triglyceride, total cholesterol, and LDL
levels. In addition, their values regarding blood glucose, body
weight and blood pressure reduced, but the decrease was statistically insignicant (Farinazzi-Machado et al., 2012).
In a different study carried out with 35 postmenopausal overweight women who consumed 25 g of quinoa akes and cornakes
every day for four weeks successively, a statistically signicant
decrease in their serum triglyceride, TBARS, and vitamin E levels
was observed while there was a statistically signicant increase in
urinary secretion of enterolignans in both groups. A decrease in
total cholesterol and LDL as opposed to an increase in GSH levels
were observed. The fact that this effect only occurred in the group
which consumed quinoa akes is important in terms of revealing
the possible benets of quinoa akes in reducing blood fat (De
Carvalho et al., 2014).
However, in another study that investigated the effects of
quinoa, amaranth, and kaniwa consumption on weight gain and
Type 2 diabetes, 110 middle-aged individuals (22 diabetic and 88
non-diabetic people) were observed and it was discovered that
individuals with normal body-mass index consumed these grains
more often than those who were overweight or obese. It was also
found out that individuals with diabetes consumed these grains
more often and our less often than those who were non-diabetic
(Sanchez, 2012).
Because of their steroid structure, potential anabolic and performance enhancing properties of 20HE and other phytoecdysteroids are investigated. In a double-blind placebo controlled clinical
study carried out with men with an average age of 20.5 3 who
voluntarily did resistant exercise for three times a week for at least
one year, the results revealed that 30 mg/day 20HE supplementation for an eight-week period neither affected body composition,
anabolic/catabolic hormone status (free and active testosterone,
and cortisol), or universal indicators of catabolism, nor provided a
signicant improvement in performance. Inclusion of only 9 people
in each group and 8-week implementation of 20HE were the limitations of this study. The study also claimed that the effect of 20HE

on performance could be stronger in inexperienced individuals as

opposed to experienced sports people (Wilborn et al., 2006).
4.2. Animal studies concerning the effects of quinoa consumption
on health
4.2.1. Quinoa's anti-diabetic, anti-obesity, and blood-fat reducing
effects
In a study inquiring the effects of quinoa seeds on lipid prole
and glucose levels in male Wistar rats that fed on a high amount of
fructose, it was determined that, when compared to the control
group, serum total cholesterol, LDL, triglycerides, and glucose levels
of those that were fed with quinoa reduced considerably. In the
control group, fructose noticeably decreased the HDL levels. After
quinoa was added to the diet, the decrease in HDL levels was
inhibited, but the negative effects of increasing triglycerides due to
fructose could not be prevented. It was revealed that quinoa seeds
could reduce most of the negative effects of fructose on lipid prole
and glucose levels (Pasko et al., 2010a).
Recent studies on the biological effects of 20HE focused on the
potential role of this compound in preventing and treating metabolic syndrome and post-menopausal disorders (Foucault et al.,
2014). A study by Kizelsztein et al. (2009) showed that a 13-week
implementation of 10 mg/kg 20HE in obese and hyperglycemic
C57Bl/6J rats that were stimulated by a high-fat diet reduced
adiposity and blood glucose levels while increasing insulin sensitivity. In a different study performed on rats fed a high-fat diet and
25e50 mg/kg 20HE treatment for a 12-week period reduced the
body weight and muscle fat accumulation, and increased insulin
sensitivity (Wang et al., 2011). Yet another study was carried out to
investigate the potential of quinoa extract in preventing diet-based
obesity and regulating the expression of adipocyte-specic genes.
For a 3-week period, the rats in this study were fed on quinoa
enriched with 20-hydroxyacdysone supplement or a standard lowfat or high-fat diet including pure 20-hydroxyacdysone. In the case
with quinoa supplement, it was observed that the development of
adipose tissue in mice fed a high-fat diet could be reduced without
a change in body weight gain. This adipose tissue-specic effect
was linked to the reduction in the expression of many genes taking
part in lipid storage (Foucault et al., 2011).
In addition, in post-menopausal studies in which animals were
given 18e121 mg/day 20HE for 12 weeks, the results showed that
the implementation did not prevent fat increase and loss in bone
density while it reduced hot ush and, in the standard rodent
model, improved the dermal thickness in rats whose ovaries were
removed (Seidlova-Wuttke et al., 2010; Ehrhardt et al., 2011).
However, further research on human subjects is needed to test the
effects of 20HE on metabolic indicators in relation to diabetes,
obesity, cardiovascular health, and postmenopausal symptoms.
Additionally, studies show that 20HE treatment induces in vivo
protein synthesis, and increases physical performance in rodents
while the primary mechanism of 20HE activity is not known yet
(Gorelick-Feldman et al., 2008; Dinan, 2009). In fact, neuroprotective effects of 20HE are attributed to the modulation of
GABAA receptors, and its hypocholesterolemic activity is explained
through its increasing characteristic of cholesterol's transformation
into bile acid (Dinan and Lanfort, 2006). In studies performed on
rats that were fed a high-fat diet, anti-obesity and antidiabetic
activities of 20HE are linked with a reduction in dietary lipid absorption, increase in glucose oxidation and energy expenditure, and
increased mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (Foucault et al.,
2014; Wang et al., 2011).
4.2.2. Antioxidant activity of quinoa
In a study on the antioxidant activity and immunoregulatory

S. Navruz-Varli, N. Sanlier / Journal of Cereal Science 69 (2016) 371e376

activity of quinoa polysaccharides, polysaccharides extracted from

quinoa via water (QWP) and alkali (QAP), and their four subfractions (QWP-1, QWP-2, QAP-1, and QAP-2) were puried by
isolation, anion exchange, and gel ltration chromatography. It was
concluded that QWP-1, QWP-2, QAP-1, and QAP-2 were vital antioxidants and that they had a strong immunoregulatory effect. It
was stated that these fractions could be used as potential antioxidants and immunoregulators (Yao et al., 2014a).
In another study analyzing the effects of a diet supplemented
with quinoa seeds on plasma and oxidative stress, concurrent
implementation of quinoa seeds in oxidative stress-generated rats
maintained normal activities of some enzymes, and also inuenced
oxidative stress by reducing malondialdehyde in the plasma and
the activities of antioxidant enzymes, such as erythrocyte superoxide dismutase, catalase, and plasma glutathione peroxidase.
These ndings show that quinoa seeds can act as moderately protecting agents for rats by reducing the lipid peroxidation in the
plasma and different tissues and increasing the antioxidant capacity (Pasko et al., 2010b).
Furthermore, it was revealed that 20HE reduced oxidative stress
in 3 different mammal cells (Graf et al., 2015c; Hu et al., 2012; Hu
et al., 2010). In addition to this, 20HE leads to the activation of
anabolic P13K/Akt path and the downregulation of hepatic gluconeogenesis path by affecting the mammals' gene expression
(Kizelsztein et al., 2009; Dinan and Lanfort, 2006). As shown in
mesenchymal root cells and keratinocytes, 20HE modulates cell
differentiation, too. Although there is no support that it directly
bonds to receptors, transcriptional effects of 20HE probably occur
through nuclear hormone receptor interaction (Graf et al., 2015a).
In a recent study by Yao et al., it was revealed that quinoa seed
extracts rich in saponins reduced inammatory mediating nitric
oxide production and inhibited the oscillation of TNF-a and IL-6
inammatory cytokines (Yao et al., 2014b).
Quinoa's role as an antioxidant still remains uncertain and there
is need for further studies in animal models.
5. Allergic effects of quinoa
In the case of a 38-year-old female patient diagnosed with
eosinophilic esophagitis resulting from wheat, cross-reactivity was
determined between buckwheat and quinoa. Skin prick test was
implemented through samples prepared with the extracts of
quinoa seeds and buckwheat our, and both extracts yielded positive results. As a result, the patient was advised to avoid consuming
buckwheat and quinoa. Thus, it is advised to carry out a crosssensitization study before recommending buckwheat and quinoa
as an alternative product for future patients who are extremely
sensitive to our (Lopez et al., 2014).
In a different study, it was revealed that a 29-year-old woman
had rash on the arms and the chest, urticaria, itching on the palms
and soles of feet, and angioedema in the lips just 5 min after having
quinoa salad. Skin prick test was performed to determine the food
allergy, and it yielded positive results for quinoa. This was the rst
case report regarding quinoa allergy in the USA (Hong et al., 2013).
In addition, another case with a 52-year-old male patient from
France diagnosed with quinoa allergy was reported (Astier et al.,
2009).
6. Conclusions and suggestions
It was reported that one serving of quinoa consumption (about
40 g) meets an important part of daily recommendations (RDA) for
essential nutrients and health-improving compounds (Graf et al.,
2015a). As it offers an excellent nutritional quality and has a high
commercial value, it is thought that more research is needed to

375

increase individuals' awareness of this pseudo-grain's nutritional

content and consumption, to reveal its nutritional benets and to
investigate its effects on health.
Acknowledgments
No conict of interest was declared by the authors.
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