An Enhanced Performance of Distance Relay Algorithm To Prevent (Tesis)

AN ENHANCED PERFORMANCE OF DISTANCE RELAY ALGORITHM TO PREVENT
UNDESIRABLE ZONE 3 OPERATION DURING LOAD ENCROACHMENT
MR.SATHAPORN SITTIWONG
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE
IN ELECTRICAL POWER ENGINEERING
SIRINDHORN INTERNATIONAL THAI-GERMAN GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
(TGGS)
GRADUATE COLLEGE
KING MONGKUT'S UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY NORTH BANGKOK
ACADEMIC YEAR 2007
COPYRIGHT OF KING MONGKUT'S UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY NORTH BANGKOK
Name
: Mr.Sathaporn Sittiwong
Thesis Title
: An Enhanced Performance of Distance Relay Algorithm to

Prevent Undesirable Zone 3 Operation During Load Encroachment
Major Field
: Electrical Power Engineering

King Mongkuts University of Technology North Bangkok
Thesis Advisor : Assistant Professor Dr.Teratam Bunyagul

Academic Year : 2007
Abstract
Distance relays are used to detect and protect faults in transmission lines. The
distance relay provide three zones of protection. Zone 3 is necessary as a backup for
Zone 1 and Zone 2. However Zone 3 has a disadvantage that during a heavy load
condition it may operates because the high load impedance moves into the zone. If
Zone 3 misoperates, it causes disconnection to transmission line consequently the
adjacent lines may be over rated because the change of power flows. This may lead to
cascading outage and power system instability. The thesis propose the use of steady
state signal and transient
state signal to distinguish
between faults and load
encroachment into Zone 3. The models are built and simulated in PSCAD/EMTDC
software. Then transient components are detected to distinguish from high load
moving into Zone 3. The thesis propose the use of steady state signal and transient
state signal to distinguish between faults and load encroachment into Zone 3. The
models are built and simulated in PSCAD/EMTDC software.
(Total 83 pages)
Keywords : Distance Relay, PSCAD/EMTDC, Load Encroachment
______________________________________________________________ Advisor
ii
:
:
: 2550
3 3
1 2
3 1 2
3

PSCAD/EMTDC
( 83 )
: , PSCAD/EMTDC,
_____________________________________________
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere gratitude for Assistant Professor Dr.Teratam

Bunyagul, my advisor, for providing excellent guidance and introduce me to the area
of power system protection including the subjects in this thesis. It is because of his
constant assistance that this thesis has been successful. Under her guidance, I have
learned much more than scientific knowledge.
I would also like to thank my teachers, friends, the staff of the Electrical
Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering and the staff of Sirindhorn
International Thai-German Graduate School of Engineering, King Mongkut's
University of Technology North Bangkok for all their support
Finally, I am extremely grateful to my family for always loving and supporting
me. This thesis would have not been finished without their encouragement and
inspiration throughout the duration of my study.
Sathaporn Sittiwong
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Abstract (in English)
ii
Abstract (in Thai)
iii
Acknowledgements
iv
List of Tables
vii
List of Figures
viii
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Distance relay in power systems
1.2 Basic Requirement of Protection Systems
1.3 Fundamental of Distance Protection Systems
1.4 Protection Zones for Distance Relays
1.5 Performance of Zone Protection
1.6 Zone Protection and Disturbance
1.7 Problems of Distance Protection
1.8 Purpose of The Study
1.9 Scope of The Study
1.10 Methods
1.11 Utilization of The Study
1.12 The Structure of Thesis
Chapter 2 Distance Relays and Zone Protection
11
2.1 Fundamentals of Distance Relaying
11
2.2 Operation of Distance Relays
12
2.3 Zone Application of Distance Relaying
13
2.4 General Characteristics of Distance Relays
15
2.5 Application of Distance Relays
21
2.6 Types of Disturbances
23
2.7 Load Power Effect to Distance Relays
26
2.8 Load Encroachment
29
Chapter 3 Literature Survey
31
3.1 Previous Works on Disturbance for Zone 3 of Distance

Protection
31
TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)

Page
Chapter 4 Algorithm and Signal Analysis
39
4.1 Fundamental Considerations
39
4.2 Digital Distance Measurement
39
4.3 Fourier Analysis
41
4.4 Fourier Analysis Based Algorithm
42
4.5 Principle of Algorithm
43
Chapter 5 Software Model in PSCAD/EMTDC
45
5.1 Power System Parameters
45
5.2 Protection System and Evaluation Setting Values
47
Chapter 6 Simulation Results
53
6.1 The Sequence of Simulation
53
6.2 Three-Phase Fault Condition
54
6.3 Line-to-Line Fault Condition
66
6.4 Single Line-to-Ground Fault Condition
70
Chapter 7 Simulation Results
77
7.1 Conclusion
77
7.2 Discrimination
78
7.3 Speed
79
References
81
Biography
83
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table
page
5-1 Data of transmission lines and generator source
46
6-1 Setting of threshold value
76
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
page
1-1
Distance relays characteristic
1-2
The three protection zones for the transmission line
2-1
The distance relay connected to line and instrument transformers
12
2-2
Principle of the distance relay
12
2-3
Beam type distance relay
13
2-4
Step time zones of distance relay protection
14
2-5
Step time zones of distance relay protection
15
2-6
Distance relay characteristics on R-X diagram
15
2-7
Distance relay of mho characteristic type
16
2-8
Increased arc resistance coverage
17
2-9
Minimum load impedance permitted with lenticular, offset mho and

impedance relays
18
2-10 Quadrilateral characteristic
19
2-11 Application of out-of-step tripping relay characteristic
20
2-12 Distance relays on various lengths of adjacent line section
21
2-13 Effect of infeed on impedance measured by distance relays
22
2-14 The apparent impedance as the complex power vary and the power
factor vary
27
2-15 An apparent impedance as the active and the reactive power vary
29
2-16 Load encroachment on mho distance element characteristics
30
3-1
The impedance changes when a power swing with oscillation frequency

equal to 0.1 Hz
31
3-2
Power swing blocking characteristic
32
3-3
Block diagram of the proposed fault detector
35
4-1
Distance protection measuring principle PD = protection device,

R F = fault resistance
40
4-2 Operation of transmission system
43
4-3
43
Fault 1 occur at 200 km both breaker 5 and 6
viii
LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)
Figure
page
4-4
Fault 2 occur at front of breaker 3
44
5-1
The single line diagram of circuit typical 230 kV substation
45
5-2
PI section model for a transmission line
46
5-3
Distance relay zone protection
47
5-4
Input signal are into Fast Fourier transform Block
48
5-5
Input signal are into sequence component Block
48
5-6
Calculation the line-to-line impedance block
49
5-7
Calculation the line to ground impedance block
49
5-8
Mho characteristics of distance relay
50
5-9
Model of circuit typical 154kV substation
50
6-1
Model when fault occur on power system
53
6-2
Active power when fault between 2 s to 2.1 s
54
6-1 Active power when fault at 5.4 s
55
6-2 Change rates of active power between 2 s to 2.1 s
55
6-3
Change rates of active power at 5.4 s
56
6-6
Trajectory of impedance distance relay 1
56
6-7
State of distance relay 1 at fault(1) and fault(2)
57
6-8
Trajectory of impedance distance relay 2
58
6-9
State of distance relay 2
58
6-10 Trajectory of impedance distance relay 3
59
6-11 State of distance relay 3
60
6-12 Trajectory of impedance distance relay 4
60
61
6-14 Active power when fault between 2 s to 2.1 s
61
62
6-16 Change rates of active power between 2 s to 2.1 s
62
6-17 The power swing and fault(2) at 5.4 s
63
6-18 State operation of distance relay when fault(1) and fault(2)
63
64
ix
LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)

Figure
page
6-20 The power swing of impedance and fault(2) at 5.4 s
65
65
6-22 The power swing impedance and fault(2) at 5.4 s
66
66
67
6-25 Change rates of active power at 5.4 s
68
6-26 The trajectory of impedance when fault(2) at 5.4 s
68
69
69
70
70
71
71
72
6-34 R-X diagram of distance relay 1
72
73
73
74
6-38 The power swing impedance and fault(2) at 5.4 s
75
75
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter introduces fundamental operations of a distance relay and theories
of transmission line protection. It also describes the purpose and the background of
the research. The study focuses on discrimination of the distance relays, misoperation
of distance relays and the effect of disturbance to distance relays.
1.1 Distance Relay in Power Systems

Distance relays are protective devices in electrical power system. They detect
faults in transmission systems and isolate abnormal or fault conditions by sending trip
signals to associated circuit breaker.
In the event of an electrical fault, the normal balance between generation and
load requirement is suddenly disturbed. Most of the energy previously supplied to the
load is diverted into the fault path. In order to retain system stability and to limit the
damage at the fault location, rapid isolation of the faulted section is necessary.
1.2 Basic Requirement of Protection Systems

Maintaining continuity of electrical supply to customers is a major work of the
electricity generating authority. Protective relays are responsible for discriminating
between normal and faulted conditions in the system. When fault happens, a local
relay should have a high speed operation. The distance relay should detect the fault
within 20 to 40 milliseconds [1]. Allowing the time of about 40 milliseconds for
circuit-breaker to operate a total fault clearance time of 80 millisecond or less is
desirable [1]. Measurement of distance from the current and voltage waveforms
during the fault period may contain transient errors which affect the accuracy of the
distance relay. We must be careful when considering the output requirement of the
current and voltage transformers.
2
Mal-operation of protective devices can give rise to widespread disturbance in
the electricity supply system. This emphasizes the need for continued improvements
in speed of operation, discrimination and reliability [1].
1.3 Fundamental of Distance Protection Systems

Distance protection systems are typically used for the protection of transmission
lines. The protection is managed in overlapping zones. No part of the system is left
unprotected. A comparison of local signals (voltage and current) enables the relay to
decide which zone contains the fault [1]. In this way, a distance assessment is made
from the relay location to the fault location.
Distance relaying applies the principle of ratio comparison between the voltage
and current which equates to the impedance. The relay, located at the beginning of a
line calculates the apparent impedance of the line using the measurements of the
current and voltage transformers at the same location as the relay. Impedance of
transmission line increases with the length of the line. Each type of faults produces a
different impedance value. Due to this reason the settings of a distance relay must be
selected to distinguish the faults between the phase and the ground. Furthermore, a
fault resistance may create a problem for distance measurement because the value of
the fault resistance may affect apparent impedance. This causes inaccuracy of the
apparent impedance calculation.
The distance relay is capable of rapidly detecting faults on the transmission
line. It operates when the impedance of the line is within the impedance characteristic
of the distance relay (impedance plane circle). The provided operating characteristics
of distance relay may have different shapes, depending on application and suitability.
The characteristic consideration must be adapted to the changes of the loading
levels, different values of fault resistance, effects of power swings, and reversals of
fault direction. Most of the relay characteristics that we use are quadrilateral and mho.
Quadrilateral relay is suitable for protecting ground fault. Mho relay is very effective
with detecting phase fault. The different operating characteristic shapes are shown in
Figure 1-1 [2].
FIGURE 1-1 Distance relays characteristic
1.4 Protection Zones for Distance Relays

Most of the transmission line protections are arranged into three protection
zones. Each zone uses different protect sections. Figure 1-2 shows the arrangement of
the three protection zones. These protection zones are used to define the relay reach
and their operation times.
FIGURE 1-2 The three protection zones for the transmission line
Each protection zone is set to cover the pre-defined length of the transmission
line. Typical selection of the zones in the transmission line protection is to cover 80 to
90% of the line in Zone 1, 120150% in Zone 2, and 200250% in Zone 3 [1]. The
relays operation times associated with each zones are different: in Zone 1 the relay
operates instantaneously, Zone 2 is delayed to allow zone 1 relays to operate first, and
Zone 3 times allows the corresponding relays closer to the fault to operate first in
either the zone 1 or zone 2.
This time-step approach for different protection zones allows the relays closest
to the fault to operate first. If they fail to operate, the relays located at the remote
terminals that see the same fault as in Zone 2 will still disconnect the failed
4
component. If Zone 2 relay fails to operate, the relays located further away from the
faulted line will operate next with the zone 3 settings.
The advantage of this approach is a redundant coverage of each line section.
They are also covered with multiple relay zones of the relay located on the adjacent
lines, ensuring that the faulted component will be eventually removed even if the
relay closest to the fault fails.
1.5 Performance of Zone Protection

When protective relays correctly tripped a faulted line, its current flow will be
transferred to other lines which may become overloaded. These overloaded lines may
trip Zone 3 backup relay, eventually leading to a widespread blackout.
If the overloaded lines can be identified as the flow transferring from the faulted
line and thus preventing the relays from tripping, cascading trips can be prevented and
actions such as under-voltage load-shedding and manual load-shedding can be taken
to save the system and avoid whole system blackout [2].
Some expert systems are presented to prevent cascading trips but these expert
systems emphasize only the optimal fault clearance and how to avoid incorrect
operation of backup relay. They are not, however, intended to avoid the Zone 3
distance relay trip caused by the aforementioned overloading of other lines.
Zone 3 distance relay is used to provide remote backup protection in case the
primary protection fails. Operation of the distance relay depends on the settings of the
characteristics distance relays. If the relays only take local measurements (such as the
voltage and current) as inputs without taking the impact of the whole network to make
decisions to trip, the system will be deteriorated. In the worst scenario even resulting
in cascading trips due to flow transferring overload after the clearance of a faulted line
[2].
1.6 Zone Protection and Disturbance

Power utility networks are becoming larger and transmission lines are now
operating closer to their limit than ever before. Power systems are subjected to a
variety of small or large disturbances during its operating conditions. Changes in the
regulations and the opening of the power markets result in rapid changes in the way
5
that the power grid is operated. As a result, power system are more vulnerable to
disturbances which increases the possibility that an interconnected network may lose
stability thereby leading to regional or even total blackout.
The background of blackout, the power swing and the load encroachment will
be briefly outlined in this section.
1.6.1 The background of blackout
The major blackouts in the United States of America, such as the two blackouts
in 1996 in the Western region on 2nd July 1996 and again on 10th August, and 2003 in
the Midwest and the Northeast on 14th August, are the results of heavy load and a
number of multiple outages that had occurred within a short period of time.
For example, the Northeast Blackout on 9th November 1965 resulted in the loss
of over 20,000 MW of load. The initiation of the disturbance was the faulty setting of
a relay thus resulting in the tripping of one of the five heavily loaded 230-kV
transmission lines. The flow of power on the disconnected line was thus shifted to the
remaining four lines causing them to become overloaded and to trip successively in a
total of 2.5 seconds. The cascading tripping of additional lines then began which
resulted in the regional blackout.
On 2nd July 1996 the West Coast Blackout resulted in the loss of 11,850 MW of
load and affected 2 million people in the West. The outage began when a 345-kV
transmission line in Idaho sagged into a tree and tripped out. A protective relay on a
parallel line also detected the fault and incorrectly tripped a second line. Other relays
tripped two of the four generating units at Jim Bridger plant. About 23 seconds later,
the Mill Creek to Antelope 230-kV line was tripped by Zone 3 relay. Remedial action
relays separated the system into five pre-engineered electric islands which collapsed
eventually due to stability problems [2].
On 10th August 1996 the second West Coast Blackout resulted in the loss of
over 28,000 MW of load. Faults caused by trees put three 500-kV line sections out of
service: (1) at 3:48 p.m., the Keeler-Allston 500-kV line had sagged into a tree and
tripped, which caused the loss of 1300 MW of loading. The transmission line outages
overloaded parallel lower-voltage lines in Portland area. (2) About 5 minutes later a
relay failure tripped a 115-kV line and (3) at the same time a 230-kV line had sagged
into a tree and also tripped. At about the same time generators at the McNairy
6
hydroelectric plants started tripping because of the faulty relays. Increasing
oscillations soon caused synchronous instability and the ensuing cascading tripping of
transmission lines broke the interconnection into four electric islands [2].
On 14th August 2003, the latest blackout in the Midwest and the Northeast
regions resulted in the loss of 70,000 MW of load. The blackout happened
consecutively in different locations. At 1:31 p.m. the Eastlake 5 generation unit was
tripped and at 2:02 p.m. the Stuart-Atlanta 345-kV line was tripped due to contact
with a tree. From 3:05 to 3:57 p.m. a 345-kV line was tripped due to contact with
trees. Later, from 3:39 to 4:08 p.m., a 138-kV line was tripped due to overloading.
Then from 4:05 to 4:10 p.m. many lines which operated on Zone 3 impedance relays
eventually led to cascading trips and blackout [2].
These types of events most likely occur following sequential outages on a
stressed system when the system is operated marginally in compliance with planning
criteria. For example, some generators and/or lines for maintenance, line trips due to
fault which overload other lines. If another disturbance occurs, for example, another
line gets in contact with a tree and then trips, it will bring the system into a more
serious state, which may result in a blackout [2].
1.6.2 The power swing
The power swing is the variation in three phase power flow which occurs when
the system generator rotor angles are advancing or retarding relative to each other in
response to changes in load magnitude such as line switching, loss of generation,
faults, and other system disturbances. In most cases, the power swings are stable if the
generators do not slip poles and the system reaches a new state of equilibrium.
On the other hand, if a system is transiently unstable and the power swing
results in the generator experiencing pole-slipping which eventually leads to a loss of
synchronism between groups of generators, it is called an out-of-step (OOS)
condition.
The power system should be maintained to survive larger types of disturbances
such as faults, loss of a large generator, line switching and heavily loaded. Power
system disturbances could cause loss of synchronism between a generator, low
network voltages and consequent voltage or angular instabilities or severe loss of
interconnected power systems of neighboring utilities. Depending on the severity of
7
the disturbance, the system may remain stable or return to a new stability state
experiencing what is referred to as a stable power swing.
Large power swings, make stable or unstable happen and unwanted relay
operations at these events, which it can aggravate further the power system
disturbance and possibly lead to cascading outages and power blackouts. When power
swings happen the distance relay must not operate due to the reason that the apparent
impedance (falls below) decreases within the relays operating characteristic.
Operations of distance relays due to a power swing result in undesired tripping
of transmission lines or other power system elements, thereby weakening the system
and possibly leading to cascading outages and the shutdown of major portions of the
power system.
Therefore, distance relays should not trip during power system disturbance
conditions from stable or unstable power swings because the power system may
return to a stable operating condition after some time.
Power swing has been proven to influence the distance relays. In some
situations of power swing and out-of-step conditions, the distance relay cannot
distinguish the power swing from the three-phase line fault.
1.6.3 The load encroachment
The load encroachment is a problem particularly in Zone 3 distance relay
caused by increasing load. This Zone 3 is given a delay time longer than that
associated with Zone 2 to achieve time coordination, and the time delay is typically in
the range of 1-2 s.
Because Zone 3 is set to detect faults down adjacent lines out of the remote
station, in-feed at the remote station causes the relay to under-reach. Likewise, outfeed causes an over-reach effect. Additionally, distance relays may misoperate during
events such as transient and voltage instabilities. This undesirable Zone 3 tripping has
often contributed to cascading outages.
According to a report from the latest 2003 blackout in the US, a lot of Zone 3
distance relays operated under the overload and power swing situations, which further
stressed the system thereby causing the cascading blackout in the end. Power swing,
either stable or unstable, may have impacts on distance relays judgment. This kind of
relay mal-operation may further weakened the system.
8
1.7 Problems of Distance Protection
Many problems affect the application of distance protection in a power system.
These problems are outlined as follows :
1.7.1 The transient of current and voltage signals at the occurrence of a fault.
1.7.2 The distance relay mal-operates during a power swing condition due to the
reason that the apparent impedance in system may come inside the zone.
1.7.3 Discrimination between a healthy load and a system fault condition which
the distance relay must be able to identify these condition to prevent mal-operation.
1.7.4 The fault resistance may create problems for distance measurements
because the value of the fault resistance makes to distance relay produce error
apparent impedance which may be difficult to forecast.
1.7.5 The current in-feed from other transmission lines causes a voltage drop on
the fault resistance. Affect to distance relays to measure incorrect apparent
impedance. This may contribute to incorrect calculation of the apparent impedance.
1.8 Purpose of The Study

1.8.1 To study PSCAD/EMTDC software especially for distance relay
modeling.
1.8.2 To study and simulate a distance relay model for Zone 3 protection.
1.8.3 To study the effect of power swing on zone protections.
1.8.4 To identify faults occurring during power swings.
1.9 Scope of The Study

The Thesis studies the prevention methods of undesirable Zone 3 protection
operation during load encroachment and power swing. The aims are to design an
algorithm, model and simulate the transmission systems using PSCAD/EMTDC
simulation software; and to design the algorithm using MATLAB software.
The distance relay is designed to identify between a power swing and a fault
conditions in order to prevent cascading trips under the power swing condition, which
might result in a widespread blackout.
9
1.10 Methods
1.10.1 To study zone protection of transmission line and distance relay setting.
1.10.2 To learn the PSCAD/EMTDC simulation software.
1.10.3 To study, model and simulate transmission systems using the
PSCAD/EMTDC software.
1.10.4 To designs an algorithm that distinguishes between a fault and a power
swing.
1.10.5 To test the algorithm with PSCAD/EMTDC simulation.
1.11 Utilization of The Study

1.11.1 The algorithm can be used to detect and distinguish a fault occurrence
during a power swing.
1.11.2 To prevent the maloperation of distance relay due to power swing.
1.12 The Structure of Thesis

The research presents the study of the discrimination of distance relays
protection at fault occurrence during a power swing. The distance relay is modeled
and simulated using PSCAD/EMTDC and MATLAB softwares. (The simulation
results of the distance relay operating sequence and time are analysed.) The model of
distance relays is confirmed by simulation results of the operating sequence and
operating time.
The methodology, data and analysis of the research is divided into six chapters :
Chapter 2: The basics of the distance relay protection.
Chapter 3: Literature survey.
Chapter 4: The basic algorithm of the mathematic used for the research.
Chapter 5: The transmission line and the distance relays parameters are
evaluated and modeled using PSCAD/EMTDC.
Chapter 6: The simulation results of PSCAD/EMTDC.
Chapter 7: The conclusion of the research and recommendation for future work.
CHAPTER 2
DISTANCE RELAYS AND ZONE PROTECTION
This chapter discusses fundamental, operation, zone application, characteristics
and the load power effect of the distance relays as well as the disturbance in power
system and the load encroachment. The causes of the problems in distance relay and
the disturbances which affect the zone operation of the relay are also presented.
2.1 Fundamentals of Distance Relaying

Distance relay detects the fault impedance obtained from the measured ratio of
voltage to current faults. The apparent impedance is measured between the relay
location and the point of fault occurrence. If the measured fault impedance is smaller
than the impedance set for the distance relay to indicate an internal fault happen, then
send a trip signal to the circuit breaker. At the fault occurrence on a transmission line
the impedance will move into zone protection impedance because the fault impedance
is smaller than the load impedance.
The distance protection scheme is normally a multi-zone arrangement in which
the first zone of protection provides instantaneous tripping and the next zones
incorporate time delayed tripping. Three protective zones are usually included, giving
the stepped time-distance characteristic. The aim of the scheme is to provide correct
high speed tripping of circuit-breakers, with adequate discrimination provided
between internal and external faults [1].
This kind of relay is known as a distance relay and is designed to operate only
for faults that occur between the relay location and the selected reach point thus
giving discrimination for faults that may occur in different line sections [3].
The reach point of a relay is the point along the line impedance locus that is
intersected by the boundary characteristic of the relay. Since this is dependent on the
ratio of the voltage to current and the phase angle between them, it may be plotted on
12
an R/X diagram. The locus of power system impedances as seen by the relay during
faults, power swings and load variations may also be plotted on the same diagram [3].
2.2 Operation of Distance Relays

The distance relay is connected with a power line through instrument
transformers, as shown in Figure 2-1. Assuming that the fault occurs on the line at a
distance of nZ1L W from the relay, the voltage VR on the relay will be the I R nZL
drop from the distance relay to the fault since the voltage at the fault is 0 V [4].
FIGURE 2-1 The distance relay connected to line and instrument transformers
Therefore, the impedance of the distance relay is :

ZR =
VR I R nZ1L
=
= nZ1L
IR
IR
Eq. 2-1
FIGURE 2-2 Principle of the distance relay
In Figure 2-2, When a fault occurs between the distance relay and Z L , the
impedance from the relay is ( ZL - DZL ) W . The restraint force will then be
13
I R ( ZL - DZL ) and it will be less than the operating force for the same current
magnitude. As a result, the beam will incline down at the current end, closing the
contacts. If the fault is beyond Z L distance, say at ( ZL + DZL ) W from the relay, then
the restraint force VR will be greater than the operating force IR . The beam will then
incline down at the voltage end, and the contacts will not close [4].
In Figure 2-3 the voltage provides a magnetic force or pull on one end of the
beam. If, for this fault, the current or the operating force IR on the other end of the
beam is adjusted to be equal to the voltage or the restraint force VR , the beam will be
balanced.
FIGURE 2-3 Beam type distance relay
2.3 Zone Application of Distance Relaying

Throughout all transmission lines there will be three protection zones which are
used to protect a line section and to provide backup for the remote section. The
common practice has been to use separate distance units for the several protection
zones. This is in contrast with distance relays that use a single distance-measuring unit
initially set for Zone 1 reach. If the fault persists, the reach is extended by switching
to Zone 2 after T2 time delay, then after T3 to Zone 3.
Separate units provide the comfort of redundancy because for faults in the Zone
1 primary reach area, all three distance units will operate. Thus, Zones 2 and 3 are
used back up in case Zone 1 unit fails.
These zones and typical settings are illustrated in Figure 2-4 which shows the
zones at several locations. Each of the three zones uses instantaneous operating
distance relays. Zone 1 is set for 80 to 90% of the line impedance. The resulting 10-
14
20% safety margin ensures that there is no risk in the Zone 1 protection over-reaching
the protected line due to errors in the current and voltage transformers, inaccuracies in
line impedance data provided for setting purposes and errors of relay setting and
measurement.
FIGURE 2-4 Step time zones of distance relay protection
Zone 2 is adjusted for 100% of the line, plus approximately 50% of the shortest
adjacent line off the remote bus which operates through a timer T2. Zone 3 is set for
100% of both lines, plus approximately 25% of the adjacent line off the remote bus.
Wherever possible, Zones 2 and 3 provide backups for all the adjacent lines at
operating times of T2 and T3 [2]. These original settings define the protection zones
only if there are no infeed effects.
Figure 2-5 shows the operating circles for the three zone at bus G, breaker 1
(solid line) and at bus H, breaker 2 (broken line) plotted on the RX diagram. The
relays operate when the ratio of fault voltage to current falls within the circles.
Load can be represented on these R-X diagrams as an impedance phasor,
generally lying near the R axis (depending on the power factor of the load current on
the line). The phasor lies to the right (first quadrant of the R-X diagram) when
flowing into the protected line from the bus and to the left (third quadrant of the R-X
diagram) when flowing out of the line to the bus. The operating circles must be set
such that they do not operate on any system swings from which the system can
15
recover. Such swings occur after a system disturbance, such as faults, sudden loss of
generation or load, or from switching operations.
X
R
Load area
from G to H
Load area
from H to G
FIGURE 2-5 Step time zones of distance relay protection
2.4 General Characteristics of Distance Relays

The distance relay characteristics plotted on the R-X diagram are shown in
Figure 2-5. The operating zones are defined such that the apparent impedance falls
inside the circles for the relay characteristics labeled a, b, and c. In another words,
whenever the ratio of V/I falls inside the circle, the distance unit operates [4].
FIGURE 2-6 Distance relay characteristics on R-X diagram
Figure 2-6a has the non-directional impedance characteristic. When it is used for
fault protection, a separate directional unit is added to limit the tripping to line faults
[13]. The mho characteristic of Figure 2-6c is a circumference that passes through the
origin.
16
In the event that high values of earth fault resistances are expected, the
reactance protection scheme of Figure 2-6b may be used. In this scheme, it is
important to ensure that the reach setting of the fault detector dose not result in
operation during maximum circuit loading condition [1].
2.4.1 Mho characteristics
The mho characteristic in distance protection scheme, as shown in Figure 2-6c,
is widely used for Zones 1 and 2, with Zone 3 providing back-up protection for fault
immediately at the relay [1].
FIGURE 2-7 Distance relay of mho characteristic type
Figure 2-7 shows the impedance element that will operate only for faults in the
forward direction along line AB. Advantages are fixed reach as a function of the
protected line impedance and so independence of system operating and fault levels
over a very wide range [2].
2.4.2 Effect of fault resistance with mho relay
The impedance reach varies with the fault angle. The fault angle will be
dependent upon the relative values of R and X at the system operating frequency.
Under an arcing fault condition, or an earth fault involving additional resistance, such
as tower footing resistance or fault through vegetation, the value of the resistive
component of fault impedance will increase. This increase results in a change to the
impedance angle. Thus relay having a characteristic angle equivalent to the line angle
will under-reach under resistive fault conditions [3].
In Figure 2-8 the relay characteristics angle (RCA) is set at less than the line
angle so that it is possible to accept a small amount of fault resistance without causing
17
under-reach. When the line AB corresponds to the length of the line to be protected.
With set to be less than , the actual amount of line protected, AB, would be equal
to the relay setting value AQ multiplied by cosine (q-j). Therefore the required relay
setting AQ is given by
AQ =
AB
cos ( q - j )
Eq. 2-2
FIGURE 2-8 Increased arc resistance coverage
When the earth resistance happen, it should be realized that this does not need to
be considered with regard to the relay settings other than the effect that reduced fault
current may have on the value of arc resistance seen. The earthing resistance is in the
source behind the relay and only modifies the source angle and source to line
impedance ratio for earth faults. It should therefore be taken into account only when
assessing relay performance in terms of system impedance ratio.
2.4.3 Application of lenticular characteristic
Figure 2-9 shows the risk that the offset mho relay may operate under
maximum load transfer conditions if Zone 3 of the relay has a large reach setting. A
large Zone 3 reach may be required to provide remote back-up protection for faults on
the adjacent feeder [3].
18
X
Offset Lenticular
Characteristic
b
Offset Mho
Characteristic
a
ZD3
ZD1
ZD2
LOAD
AREA
Impedance
Characteristic
FIGURE 2-9 Minimum load impedance permitted with lenticular, offset mho
and impedance relays
To avoid maximum load, a shaped type of characteristic may be used, where the
resistive coverage is restricted. With a lenticular characteristic, the aspect ratio of the
lens ( a b ) is adjustable, enabling it to be set to provide the maximum fault resistance
coverage consistent with non-operation under maximum load transfer conditions.
Figure 2-9 shows how the lenticular characteristic can tolerate much higher
degrees of line loading than offset mho and plain impedance characteristics [3].
Reduction in load impedance from ZD3 to ZD1 corresponds to an equivalent increase
in load current.
2.4.4 Quadrilateral characteristic
The quadrilateral impedance characteristic is shown in Figure 2-10. The
characteristic is provided with forward reach and resistive reach settings that are
independently adjustable. It therefore provides better resistive coverage than any
mho-type characteristic for short lines. This is especially true for earth fault
impedance measurement where the arc resistances and fault resistance to earth
contribute to the highest values of fault resistance.
To avoid excessive errors in the zone reach accuracy, it is common to impose a
maximum resistive reach in terms of the zone impedance reach. Recommendations in
this respect can usually be found in the appropriate relay manuals [3].
19
FIGURE 2-10 Quadrilateral characteristic
Quadrilateral elements with plain reactance reach lines can introduce reach error
problems for resistive earth faults where the angle of total fault current differs from
the angle of the current measured by the relay. This will be the case where the local
and remote source voltage vectors are phase shifted with respect to each other due to
pre-fault power flow. This phase difference can be overcome by using a phase current
for polarization of the reactance reach line. Polygonal impedance characteristics are
highly flexible in terms of fault impedance coverage for both phase and earth faults.
2.4.5 Protection against Power Swings-use of the ohm characteristic.
During severe power swing conditions in which a system is unlikely to recover,
the system might return to stability if the swinging sources are separated. Where such
scenarios are identified, power swing or out-of-step tripping protections can be
deployed to strategically split a power system at a preferred location. Ideally, the split
should be made so that the plant capacity and the connected loads on either side of the
split are matched.
Normally this type of disturbance cannot be correctly identified by an ordinary
distance protection. As previously mentioned, it is often necessary to prevent distance
protection schemes from operating during stable or unstable power swings in order to
avoid cascade tripping.
20
To initiate system separation for a prospective unstable power swing, an out of
step tripping scheme employing ohm impedance measuring elements can be
deployed.
FIGURE 2-11 Application of out-of-step tripping relay characteristic

Ohm impedance characteristics are applied along the forward and reverse
resistance axes of the R/X diagram and their operating boundaries are set to be
parallel to the protected line impedance vector, as shown in Figure 2-11.
As the impedance changes during a power swing, the point representing the
impedance moves along the swing locus, entering the three zones in turn and causing
the ohm units to operate in sequence.
When the impedance enters the third zone the trip sequence is completed and
the circuit breaker trip coil can be energized at a favorable angle between system
sources for arc interruption with little risk of restriking.
Only an unstable power swing condition can cause the impedance vector to
move successively through the three zones. Therefore, other types of system
disturbance such as power system fault conditions will not result in relay element
operation.
Discrimination of the protection zones can be achieved using distance relays
provided that fault distance is a simple function of impedance. While this is true in
principle for transmission circuits, the impedances actually measured by a distance
relay also depend on the following factors:
21
2.4.5.1 The magnitudes of current and voltage (the relay may not see all
the current that produces the fault voltage).
2.4.5.2 The fault impedance loop being measured.
2.4.5.3 The type of fault.
2.4.5.4 The fault resistance.
2.4.5.5 The symmetry of line impedance.
2.4.5.6 The circuit configuration (single, double or multi-terminal
circuit).
2.5 Application of Distance Relays

2.5.1 Distance relays with various lengths.
When several remote lines have different lengths as shown in Figure 2-12 the
settings of Zones 2 and 3 are compromised. Since line HV is short compared to lines
HS and HR, setting Zone 2 at G for 50% of line HV provides a maximum of 5.5%
coverage for line HR and 8.4% for line HS. This coverage is further reduced by the
infeed effect.
FIGURE 2- 12 Distance relays on various lengths of adjacent line section

Additional coverage could be obtained by increasing the G Zone 2 setting and
the corresponding T2 setting to coordinate with the T2 times on lines HV, VW, and
WX. The result would be long end-zone clearing for line G. If pilot relaying is used
for primary protection, increased backup with longer T2 times could be employed.
Setting Zone 3 to cover line HR would provide coverage through several
sections HV, VW, WX, and XY requiring a longer T3 setting. Again, the infeed effect
22
from lines HS and HV probably would not provide T3 coverage for line HR. This fact
re-emphasizes the need for local backup in modern power systems.
2.5.2 The infeed effect on distance relay
On interconnected power systems, the effect of fault current infeed at the remote
busbars will cause the impedance presented to the relay to be much greater than the
actual impedance to the fault. This effect needs to be taken into account when setting
Zone 3. In some systems, variations in the remote busbar infeed can prevent the
application of remote back-up Zone 3 protection but on radial distribution systems
with single end infeed, no difficulties should arise [3].
Undesired operation of Zone 3 distance relays applied for remote backup
protection during major system disturbances has caused the magnitude of the scope of
such disturbances to be expanded. Large ohmic settings are typically applied to the
Zone 3 relaying in order to obtain the desired backup protection. Power swings and
low voltage conditions that often exist during system disturbances resulted in the
impedance seen by the Zone 3 relay to be within its operating characteristic for a
sufficient length of time for it to initiate a trip command. Such experiences have
resulted in utilities restricting the use or reach applied to Zone 3 relaying [2].
FIGURE 2-13 Effect of infeed on impedance measured by distance relays
When there is a source of fault current within the operating zone of the distance
relay, its reach will be reduced and variable. This infeed effect can be seen from
Figure 2-13 where there are other lines and sources feeding current to a fault at F from
bus H. The relays at bus G are set beyond this fault point to F . With a solid 0-V fault
at F, the voltage for the relay at G is the drop along the lines from the fault to the
relay, or
23
VG = IG ZL + ( IG + I H ) ZH
Eq. 2-3
Since relay G receives only current IG, the impedance appears to be

ZG apparent =
VG
IG
= ZL + ZH +
= ZL +
IH
ZH
IG
Eq. 2-4
ZH
K
and
K=
IG
( IG + IH )
Eq. 2-5
Where K is the current distribution factor (phasor). This apparent impedance are
compared to the actual impedance to fault F of [4].
ZG apparent = ZL + ZH
Eq. 2-6
If IH is 0 (no infeed), Z apparent equals to Z actual. As the infeed increases in

proportion to IG , Z apparent increases by the factor ( I H IG ) ZH . Since this impedance,
as measured by the distance relay, is larger than the actual impedance, the reach of the
relay decreases. That is, the relay protects less of the line as infeed increases.
Since the reach can never be less than ZL as shown in Figure 2-13, Zones 2 and
3 provide protection for the line. However, remote backup for the adjacent line may
be limited since infeed is very common and can be quite large in modern power
systems [4].
Note that the infeed effect varies with system configurations and that the
apparent impedance may be a maximum under either maximum or minimum system
conditions [4].
2.6 Types of Disturbances

The disturbances happen when the power systems are heavy loaded and a
number of multiple outages occur within a short period of time, causing power
oscillations between near utility systems, low voltages of network, and consequent
voltage instability or angular instability.
24
All of these disturbances cause loss of generation and loads. Power system faults
such as line switching, generator disconnection, and the loss of load result in sudden
changes of electrical power. These system disturbances affect the oscillations in
machine rotor angles and can result in severe power flow swings.
Distance relay for transmission line protection is designed to isolate the faults
that occurred within the desired zone only. It is not supposed to trip the line during a
power swing caused by the disturbances outside the protected line. Even for the outof-step conditions, the preferred operation is to separate the system with an out-ofstep tripping (OST) protection at pre-selected network locations and blocking other
distance relays by out-of-step blocking (OSB) protection.
2.6.1 Power swing
This situation is a variation in three phase power flow which occurs when the
generator rotor angles are advancing or retarding relative to each other in response to
changes in load magnitude and direction, line switching, loss of generation, faults, and
other system disturbances.
Operation of distance relays during a power swing may cause undesired tripping
of transmission lines, thereby weakening the system and possibly leading to cascading
outage and the shutdown of major portions. Distance or other relays should not trip
during abnormal system conditions such as stable or unstable power swings (OOS),
and sometime after stable power swing may be the power system to return to a stable
operating condition.
Distance relay elements possible to operate during stable or transient power
swings should be restrain from operating to prevent system separation from this event.
Power Swing Block (PSB) function is available to prevent unwanted distance
relay element from operating during power swings. The main purpose of the PSB
function is to identify the faults and power swings and to block distance or other relay
elements from operating during a power swing. Faults that occur during a power
swing must be detected and cleared with a high degree of selectivity and
dependability.
The effect of system disturbances results from large separation of generator
rotor angles, large swings of power flows, large swing of voltages and currents, and
last mean loss of synchronism between groups of generators or between neighbouring
25
utility systems. Large power swings, stable or unstable, can cause unwanted relay
operations which can aggravate further the power-system disturbance and possibly
lead to cascading outages and power blackouts.
The power swing block and out of step will use the difference in the rate of
change of the positive-sequence impedance to detect a power swing or an out of step
condition and then send a to block (or not to block) signal before the apparent
impedance move into the protective relay operating characteristics.
Power swing detectors prevent distance relays from mal-operation under power
swing and out-of-step conditions. In another words, the rate of change of the
impedance will be observed from a trajectory slow during power swings.
It takes a finite time for the generator rotors to change position with respect to
each other because of their large inertias. On the contrary, the rate of change of the
impedance phasor is very fast during a system fault.
In theory, the impedance rate of change is normally measured using two
impedance measurement elements together with a timing device. If the measured
impedance stays between the settings of the two impedance measurement elements
for a predetermined time, the relay sees and decision be a power swing condition and
thus issues a blocking signal to block the distance relay element operation. After a
predetermined time the relay will trip if the power swing element is not reset.
It is not recommended to apply power swing blocking for unstable power
swings without some form of OST being applied at some predetermined location.
2.6.2 Out-of-Step Detection
Out-of-step or unstable power swing are conditions that result from system
instability such as short-circuits fault, line switching and generator tripping [5]. When
system instability occurs in a power system they may lead to outage in the
transmission system and also create stress on the electrical equipment.
At a damped oscillation the generators will be able to return to a normal state
condition which is known as stable power swing. In some cases the swing is so large
that the generators lose synchronism and run out of step. This power swing and out of
step situations cause the current and the voltage of the power system network not to
be constant and affect also the swing in amplitude and phase.
26
An impedance calculation error based on voltages and currents will also
oscillate in amplitude and phase with the power swing frequency. Every time a power
swing or out of step happen the apparent impedance can become small such that it
will enter the zone detect fault of operation distance relay or as well the instantaneous
zone of a distance relay and lead to a mal-operation of the distance relay element.
A trip due to out of step and power swing situation can be desirable on
transmission lines to separate the unstable interconnect. An additional logic in the
protection relay should distinguish between a stable power swing where the system
get back to stable system and an unstable out of step situation particularly issued only
for the out of step situation, must be sent logic trip to circuit breaker tripping in
system [6].
The main operation of Out-of-Step Trip (OST) is provided in distance relays to
detect a power swing and block the operation of a distance relay due to the power
swing. To maintain power system stability and service continuity the most common
method used to detect a power swing is to measure the rate of change of impedance as
it travels into the protection zones of the relay.
2.7 Load Power Effect to Distance Relays

The load which is serviced by the transmission line and affect to the distance
relay as impedance. When the load increases will affect to the impedance in distance
relay measurement to decreases also. In some situations the load is large enough that
it overlaps the relay characteristic. This is referred to generally as load encroachment.
If it occurs, the distance relay will detect the reduced load impedance. It can move
within the characteristic circle of distance relay. The distance relay not identify
between fault and actually load. The decrease impedance affect to see as indicating a
fault condition on the line, and will trip the circuit breaker. This of course is no fault
condition is in fact present on the line. It is a false trip, which is undesirable the false
trip occurs at a very inconvenient time in the operation of the power system, when the
demand for power is very high [7].
The load encroachment caused by load power is a problem to distance relay
using Zone 3. An impedance depends on the magnitude and the power factor of the
load impedance.
27
The apparent impedance as seen by a distance relay is given by
2
Za =
V ( P + jQ )
P2 + Q2
V S
S
Eq. 2-7
Za
= The apparent impedance seen by a distance relay.
= The line voltage.
= The complex power.
P , Q = The active and reactive powers
If the magnitude of complex power fixed is follow in Equation 2-8. The

apparent impedance is illustrated in Figure 2-14 where the radius of circle is increased
because of the larger of the magnitude of the complex power and the m1 direction of
apparent impedance as the power factor decreases [8].
Za =
Eq. 2-8
a1
r1
m1
a2
Zone 3
r2
m1
m2
FIGURE 2-14 The apparent impedance as the complex power vary ( a1 , a2 ) and
the power factor vary ( m1 )
In Figure 2-14, when the power factor is fixed, the apparent impedance is
illustrated follows and the m2 direction of apparent impedance as the magnitude of
the complex power becomes larger. This scenario is possible as the distance relay
mal-operates due to the reason that the load power becomes greater [8].
28
The apparent impedance of the real parts and imaginary part are written as
R=
X =
V2 P
P2 + Q2
V2 Q
P2 + Q2
Eq. 2-9
Eq. 2-10
The R and X can written as

R +X =
2
P2 + Q2
Eq. 2-11
If Equation 2-11 written depend on R and X from Equation 2-9 and Equation
2-10 can be written as
R2 + X 2 =
RV
Eq. 2-12
2
4
V
V
R + X2 =
2P
4P2
R +X =
2
V
2
R +X 2Q
XV
Eq. 2-13
2
Eq. 2-14
V
=
4Q 2
Eq. 2-15
When P and Q fixed, Equation 2-12 and Equation 2-14 is a circle with
2
V2
V
Center of P :
, 0 , Radius of P:
2P
2P
V2
Center of Q: 0,
2Q
V
, Radius of Q:
2Q
In Figure 2-15 the apparent impedance is the direction when the active power
increases. In part direction when reactive power increases. Therefore, the distance
relay may lead to mal-operation because to encroach Zone 3.
29
X
V
Q
a
m1
b
Zone3
m2
V
P
FIGURE 2-15 An apparent impedance as the active and the reactive power vary
2.8 Load Encroachment

The maximum load that, sometime greater than loadability limit in system. Until
distance relay can not distinguish from a fault and last will lead to trip of transmission
line. The impedance of heavy loads can actually be less than the impedance of some
faults. However, the protection must be made selective enough to discriminate
between load and fault conditions. Unbalance aids selectivity for all faults except
three-phase faults [9].
When power flows out, the load impedance is in the wedge-shaped loadimpedance area to the right of the X-axis. When power flows in, the load impedance
is in the left-hand load impedance area.
There is overlap (shaded solid) between the mho circle and the load areas.
Should the load impedance lie in the shaded area, the impedance relay will detect the
under-impedance condition and trip the heavily-loaded line. Such protection
unnecessarily limits the load carrying capability of the line.
For better load rejection, the mho circle can be squeezed into a lenticular or an
elliptical shape. Unfortunately, this also reduces the fault coverage.
Alternatively, we could use additional comparators to make blinders parallel to
the transmission line characteristic to limit the impedance-plane coverage, and
30
exclude load from the tripping characteristic. Or, we could build quadrilateral
characteristics, which box-out load.
FIGURE 2-16 Load encroachment on mho distance element characteristics
All traditional solutions have the same common approach: shape the operating
characteristic of the relay to avoid load. The traditional solutions have two major
disadvantages:
2.8.1 Reducing the size of the relay characteristic desensitizes the relay to faults
with resistance. Avoiding a small area of load encroachment often requires sacrificing
much larger areas of fault coverage.
2.8.2 From a user's point of view, the more complex shapes become hard to
define, and the relays are harder to set.
However, long lines, infeed, and load encroachment may cause difficulties to
obtain that result in a secure manner. It is the opinion of the authors that uncontrolled
disconnection of power lines should be avoided during voltage instability [10].
CHAPTER 3
LITERATURE SURVEY
3.1 Previous Works on Disturbance for Zone 3 of Distance Protection

This chapter present previous works on disturbance affect distance protection.
Which simulation on software to test influence of disturbance on distance protection.
3.1.1 Evaluation and Performance Comparison of Power Swing Detection
Algorithms [11]
Research comparison of power swing detection algorithms. The research
studied operation of the power swing detectors, analyzed for different conditions and
the operation of different algorithms. The method utilize compare such as the
decreased impedance method, the V cos j algorithm, the superimposed method and
the decreased resistance method. Result of research found that the decreasing
resistance algorithm has the best behavior, because this method is able to detect slow
and fast power swings and can detect three-phase fault during power swing better
other method.
FIGURE 3-1 The impedance changes when a power swing with oscillation
frequency equal to 0.1 Hz
32
Testing simulating different types of conditions on the power system and
include power swing without and with fault, and different types of faults without
power swing. Varying the load angle of generator with different frequencies and the
maximum power angle creates different power swings. Such disturbances on the
system will cause the power to swing with different oscillation frequencies.
Simulation result for the power swing curve of the proposed model is given in
Figure 3-1. These figures show the impedance changes when a power swing with
oscillation frequency equal to 0.1 Hz has occurred.
3.1.1.1 The Decreased Impedance Method
The principle of this method is based on the impedance locus changes slower
during a power swing than when a fault occurs. Figure 3-2 shows power swing
blocking characteristics, which consists of two concentric mho characteristics. The
outer characteristic is an offset mho characteristic and set concentric with the inner
mho characteristic. The criteria for operation is the time t taken for the impedance
locus to pass through the area between the two mho characteristics. If there is a fault
condition, the impedance locus will move instantaneously from the load position to
the fault position inside the power swing blocking characteristic, and no blocking will
occur. During a power swing however, the locus moves much slower, at a speed
determined by the inertia of the system, and if the time taken to travel between the
outer characteristic and the inner characteristic exceeds setting t, the power swing
blocking unit will operate.
FIGURE 3-2 Power swing blocking characteristic
33
3.1.1.1.1 The simulation in various frequency of slip
Test the method can the outputs of distance relay and Power Swing Detector
(PSD) for a power swing with fs = 0.1 Hz and max = 180 degrees. As shown the
PSD has operated at t=1.6 s and the distance relay has operated at t=2s. Operation of
PSD will block operation of the distance relay. When power swing occurs the
impedance enters the distance relay characteristic, and cause relay misoperation if
steps are not taken to prevent this.
Then to test in case at fs = 5 Hz and max = 90 degrees. It shows that the PSD
has not operated but the distance relay has operated. More tests show that this method
cant distinguish power swings with slop frequency of 5 Hz or more than that.
3.1.1.1.2 The simulation when earth fault with high resistance
When test an earth fault, the outputs as shown, the distance relay has not
operated but the PSD has operated. The time the impedance locus will take to pass the
power swing blocking characteristic at this type of fault has been longer than setting
time ( Dt ) and therefore the PSD has operated.
a) The conclusion disadvantage of the method as
follows.
b) This method is not able to distinguish fast power
swings.
c) This method may operate for earth faults with high
fault resistance.
d) If during a power swing a three-phase fault occurs, it
is possible that the blocking relay will not reset.
3.1.1.2 The Vcos Algorithm.
When power swings occur different electrical quantities vary as a function of
the angle at a greater or lesser speed. When a fault occurs, however, these quantities
change suddenly. Those, which vary considerably regardless of the location in a wide
range around phase opposition, are the voltage component Vcos.
This algorithm evaluates the change in Vcos as a function of time. The
criterion upon which the response by the power swing-blocking relay depends is the
steady reduction in the absolute value of Vcos. This value is measured once every
half-cycle.
34
As shown, after the fault, the value of Vcos decreases as before fault.
Therefore if during a power swing a three-phase fault occurs, it is possible that the
blocking relay will not reset and that the distance relay will remain blocked.
3.1.1.3 The Superimposed Method.
A power swing produces continuous superimposed signals as a result of the
change in current and voltage signals between power frequency cycles. This method
uses the superimposed current signals for detecting the power swing.
When test simulated changes in superimposed currents for a three phase fault
that has occurred during a power swing with fs = 0.1 Hz and max = 180 degrees. As
shown, after the fault, the value of superimposed currents change as continually.
Therefore if during a power swing a three phase fault occurs, the blocking relay will
not reset and the distance relay will remain blocked. As shown, after power swing
superimposed currents increased for two cycles and this increase can be used as the
criteria for detection of faults. But when faults with high resistance occur, this
increase is low and cannot detect these faults.
3.1.1.4 The Decreased Resistance Method.
When power swing occurs, the resistance component of the measured
impedance will change continuously. But when a fault occurs, the resistance
component of the measured impedance will not change except at the initial instant of
short circuit. This phenomenon is proposed to be used to distinguish between the
system fault and power swing.
Results of simulation show that is able to detect slow and fast power swings.
This method can even detect three-phase fault during power swing.
Result to compare the behavior of different algorithms, the response of each one
of the algorithms was obtained for different power swings with presence of fault and
without it. The test results of different algorithms during power swings with different
power angles and different slip frequency. As shown, the Vcos method and the
superimposed method have operated for all conditions but the decreased impedance
method is unable to detect fast power swings.
The test results of different algorithms for different three-phase faults during
power swings with different conditions. It is shown that the decreasing resistance
algorithm is always able to detect faults during power swings at different conditions
35
and for more cases other methods are not reset and the distance relay has remained
blocked.
The performance studies that the superimposed method is better than other
methods. This method is able to detect different power swings and it can detect faults
during power swing. In addition it is stable for high resistance faults.
This paper describes the evaluation and performance comparison of different
power swing detectors. The purpose several conventional algorithms were evaluated.
It is found that the decreasing resistance algorithm has the best behavior, because this
method is able to detect slow and fast power swings and can even detect three-phase
fault during power swing.
3.1.2 An Enhanced Zone 3 Algorithm of a Distance Relay Using Transient
Components and State Diagram [12]
This research presents a novel zone 3 scheme based on combining the steadystate components and the transient components. The simulation results show the novel
zone 3 distance relay elements using the proposed method operate correctly for the
various events.
The frequency components can also be used to detect the transient state during
faults. The fundamental frequency component of the voltage or current is very large
and the other frequency components are much smaller in pre-fault. However, during a
fault, the other frequency components become prominent. In this paper are used to
extract the TCs by digital algorithms based on fast Fourier transform (FFT).
FIGURE 3-3 Block diagram of the proposed fault detector
Figure 3-3 shows a block diagram of the fault detector using the steady-state
and transient state characteristics. Signal S are generated by the fault detector using
steady-state. At the same time signal T are generated by the fault detector using
36
transient state characteristics. In this paper, the signal S is generated when the
apparent impedance as seen by a relay is within zone 3, whereas the signal T is
generated when the sum value of the transient components (amplitudes) exceeds the
preset threshold value.
Conclusion of a novel scheme for transmission line fault detection using zone 3
and the transient components that are combined by using the state diagram. Two fault
detection signals and are generated based on the steady-state and transient state
characteristics, respectively. A comprehensive set of simulation results has shown that
a distance relay employing the proposed method has no problems of the
maloperations that are caused by the heavy loading or the voltage instability
associated with conventional distance relay. Furthermore, as an adjunct to the
aforementioned attributes, faults can also be detected during encroachment of zone 3
due to heavy loading.
3.1.3 Use of Wavelets for out of step Blocking Function of Distance Relays
[13]
Present wavelet analysis to detect power swings. Analysis power swing during a
symmetrical fault occurrence. Different power swing conditions and fault instants are
simulated with PSCAD/EMTDC software to test the methodology.
Out of step blocking is function in distance relays to detect a power swing and
block the operation of a distance relay due to the power swing. The method to detect a
power swing is to measure the rate of change of impedance as it travels into the
protection zones of the relay. However, if there is a fault during a power swing, this
function must unblock and agree to let the relay trip.
However, if a symmetrical fault occurs during a power swing when the
impedance has already passed the blinders, it is impossible to detect with this
methodology. This could result in the relay not being able to clear a fault.
A distance relay can also trip on load. In relaying parlance, this behavior is
known as load encroachment. Usually, loads have a large power factor. Hence, the
relay characteristic is modified to avoid this region. A line-tripping contingency can
also lead to load encroachment. It can be detected by computing the relay impedance
from a load flow analysis.
37
3.1.4 Adaptive Blinder for Distance Relay Based on Sensitivity Factors [14]
After clearance of fault, some transmission lines may be overloaded, which may
cause cascading trips even total blackout. This paper presents an adaptive distance
relaying based on linear sensitivity
In this research study one part of algorithm to enhance discriminate overload
and fault, and block zone 3 trip caused by overload. The result can take work together
with blinder scheme of distance relays.
3.1.5 A Novel Scheme to Identify Symmetrical Faults Occurring During Power
Swings [15]
In this paper present fast unblocking scheme for distance protection to identify
symmetrical fault occurring during power swings. When the power swing occurs
affect to a change appear in the reactive voltage phase angle between machine. The
method use the change rate of change of active power and reactive power. When a
fault occurs, the rate of change will level off to zero. Convention algorithm for power
swing detection such as the decreasing impedance, the rate of change angle voltage,
the superimposed current method.
The conclusion of disadvantage of the purpose. First, the relay may not respond
to genuine faults occurring during the power swing period since it is blocked from
operation. Second, the time delay has to be set with a knowledge of the likely speed of
movement of the impedance during the power swing.
CHAPTER 4
ALGORITHM AND SIGNAL ANALYSIS
4.1 Fundamental Considerations [16]
Continuously vary signal usually sinusoidal current and voltage from C.T. and
P.T. are applied to the input of the converter. These, however, may not just consist of
the fundamental, but may include superimposed high frequency interference,
harmonics, subharmonics and also a DC component. The general equation for the
input signal is thus.
p
v ( t ) = V1 cos ( w1t - a1 ) + V0 e - t Ta + Vk cos ( kw1t - a k )
Eq. 4-1
k =2
Where
V1 = Amplitude of the fundamental at rated frequency
V2 ...Vp = Amplitude of the harmonics k times higher than the rated frequency
V0 = Initial value of the DC component which decays at a time constant Ta
4.2 Digital Distance Measurement [16]

By far the greater part of all the publication on the subject of selective digital
protection are concerned with the determination of the distance between the relay
location and fault on highvoltage line. This complex of problems is so dominant that
even the equation for the discrete power were mere by-products during the
development of the algorithm for calculating reactance and resistance.
As is the case with analog protection device, the operation principle of most
digital distance protection systems is based on the determination of whether the values
of resistance and reactance (or resistance and inductance) measured at the relay
location lie inside the operating characteristic, thus indicating a fault in the zone of
protection.
The majority of digital distance relay perform their task by first calculating the
resistance Rs and the reactance Xs = w1Ls from the given input variable for the
40
current i ( t ) and voltage u ( t ) and then determining whether the values obtained lie
within the operating characteristic in the R X plane.
FIGURE 4-1 Distance protection measuring principle PD = protection device,

R F =fault resistance
There many factors which influence the accuracy of the values determined for
the resistance and reactance of a fault on the values determined for the resistance and
reactance of a fault on an overhead line. Amongst these are:
4.2.1 Distortion of the current and voltage curves by decaying DC component
and high frequency oscillation
4.2.2 Fault resistance ( R F )
4.2.3 C.T and P.T. errors, primarily saturation phenomena caused by decaying
DC components.
4.2.4 Inductive coupling and insulation breakdown the conductors of the
faulted line, respectively between the faulted and healthy circuit of a double circuit
line.
The derivations of the algorithm for calculating R s and Xs generally only take
account of the above factors, because it is assumed that the mutual impedance
between conductors can be compensated with the aid of the zero-sequence
component, respectively with the aid of the current of healthy lines. It is also assumed
that the amplitude and phase errors of C.T. and P.T. and the error due to the fault
resistance R F are relatively small compared with the reactance Xs and may therefore
be neglected. As is explained later, these assumption are not permissible in all cases.
41
4.3 Fourier Analysis [17]
4.3.1 Trigonometric form
Any periodic function f ( t ) can normally be represented by a Fourier series of
discrete harmonics
f (t) =
a0
+ a n cos nw0 t + bn sin nw0 t
2 n =1
n =1
Eq. 4-2
Where w0 is the angular fundamental frequency = 2pf 0 = 2p T

T is the time period of the fundamental component
nw0 is the nth harmonic angular frequency
t1 is arbitrary
Given the known function f ( t ) (which in most practical situation is a function

is a function that varies with time), the coefficients a 0 , a1 , b1 ,...a n , bn can be
determined from expressions of the from of Equation 3-2 to 3-4
a0 =
2
an =
T
bn =
t1 + T
2
T
f ( t ) dt
Eq. 4-3
t1
t1 + T
f ( t ) cos nw0 t dt
Eq. 4-4
t1
2
T
t1 + T
f ( t ) sin nw0 t dt
Eq. 4-5
t1
Alternative, by combining corresponding sine and cosine terms of the same

frequency, Equation 4-2 can be written as
f ( t ) = A n cos ( nw0 t + qn )
Eq. 4-6
n =0
Where
An =
a0
, q0 = 0
2
Eq. 4-7
And
A n = a n 2 + b n 2 , q = tan -1
bn
( n = 1, 2,...)
an
Eq. 4-8
42
4.3.2 Complex form
In some applications it is more convenient to use the complex form of Fourier
series give in Equation 4-9. It will be apparent that the latter equation is directly
equivalent to the basic Fourier series expression given in Equation 4-2.
f (t) =
Fn e jnw t
0
Eq. 4-9
n =-
Where
Fn = ( a n - jb n ) 2, n = 1, 2 ...
= a 0 2, n = 0
By substituting Equation 4-2 to 4-4 into the above equation, Fn reduces to
1 t1 + T f ( t ) e
Fn =
T t1
- jnw0 t
dt, n = 1, 2...
Eq. 4-10
1 t1 + T
=
f ( t )dt, n = 0
T t1
4.4 Fourier Analysis Based Algorithm [17]

Function of time f ( t ) can be represented by s Fourier series and each
coefficient of the series can be found according to the formula given in Equation 4-1
to 4-3.
Voltage and current waveforms are of course function of time and they can be
consequently expanded using the Fourier series. If we take, for example, a voltage
waveform v ( t ) , then
v(t) =
a0
+ a n cos nw0 t + bn sin nw0 t
2 n =1
n =1
Eq. 4-11
And from Equation 4-4 and 4-5

2
an =
T
2
bn =
T
t1 + T
v ( t ) cos nw0 t dt, n = 0,1,...
Eq. 4-12
t1
t1 + T
v ( t ) sin nw0 t dt, n = 1, 2,...

t1
Eq. 4-13
43
Where w0 is the angular frequency of the fundamental component and T is its
period.
Equation 4-12 and 4-13 show that the fundamental component of a voltage and
current waveform can be extracted from the corresponding faulted waveform simply
by setting n = 1
4.5 Principle of Algorithm

Figure 4-5 to add block diagram of sT and Theshold part. This blocks will
detect fault. The detecting fault will operate when change rate power increase morn
than threshold value setting.
FIGURE 4-2 Algorithm of detection fault
In Figure 4-3, the algorithm suppose fault 1 occur between circuit breaker 5 and
6 at 2 second. Then fault clear at 2.1 second. After that the power swing occurring and
effect to circuit breaker 1, 2, 3 and 4. This occurrence result from the power swing
blocking (PSB) function to operate because the impedance move to zone protection of
distance relay. Then fault 2 occurring in front of circuit breaker 3.
FIGURE 4-3 Fault 1 occur at 200 km both breaker 5 and 6
44
As fault 2 occurrence during power swing, the relay cannot to operate because
relay perform blocking from power swing blocking (PSB). This is maloperation of the
relay and effect to system instability.
FIGURE 4-4 Fault 2 occur at front of breaker 3
In thesis to present solve this problem by unblock scheme to detect fault

occurring between power swing. When power swing occur cause distance relay no
operate. Because distance relay block operate by power swing block function.
CHAPTER 5
SOFTWARE MODEL IN PSCAD/EMTDC
This chapter discusses the power system network and protection system that are
used in this research. To model the power system network, both transmission lines
and protective relay parameters are required. The power system network and
protective relays are modeled by using the libraries in PSCAD/EMTDC. The typical
and improved circuit break failure schemes are also modeled.
5.1 Power System Parameters

A typical 230 kV substation was chosen to model in PSCAD/EMTDC. The
single line diagram is illustrated in Figure 5-1.
FIGURE 5-1 The single line diagram of circuit typical 230 kV substation
Transmission lines are modeled by using PI Section model in PSCAD program.

It is illustrated in Figure 5-2. A set of simulation tests was carried in the test model of
a power system shown in Figure 5-1 which is interfaced with the model of a relay
implemented using the PSCAD/EMTDC models. The transmission system modeled
contains of a total line length of 400 km and 200 km. The nominal power frequency is
60 Hz.
46
BRK1
T
LINE A 200km
I1
BRK2
E1
Er
T
LINE B 200km
BRK3
BRK4
Er
T
LINE C 400km
BRK5
BRK6
FIGURE 5-2 PI section model for a transmission line
The electrical parameter are as shown in Table 5-1.
TABLE 5-1 Data of transmission lines and generator source

R
Sequence
Line
Impedance
Source
impedance
[W km ]
[W km ]
[mF
km ]
Z1
0.1236
0.5084
0.0090
Z2
0.1236
0.5084
0.0090
Z0
0.451
1.327
0.0052
Z1
0.6
18.285
The PI section model requires impedance and capacitive reactance data in

ohm/m. In this research, the impedance and capacitive reactance are calculated and
entry in W m as follows:
5.1.1 Calculating parameters of transmission lines 200 km.
kV
230 kV
Distance =
200 km
The impedance and capacitive reactance data in and respectively are

required :
Z1
0.1236 + j0.5084 W km
C1
0.009
mF km
294.731
MW m
X C1 =
Z0
0.0.451 + j1.327 W km
C0
0.0052
mF km
47
X C0 =
510.119
MW m
5.2 Protection System and Evaluation Setting Values

5.2.1 Transmission line protection system.
Distance relays are used to protect medium and long transmission lines [1]. The
relays will respond from the installed position to the fault point, which is represented
with impedance (Z). Distance relays have many characteristics such as Impedance
relay, Quadrilateral relay, Lenticular relay, Offset Mho relay, and Mho relay. Mho
relays are suitable to protect medium and long transmission lines. The Mho circle
distance relays in the PSCAD/EMTDC is relay library are selected and modeled.
5.2.1.1 Setting of zones of protection
Distance relays normally set three zones to protect per one side of transmission
line. However, impedance setting may be not similar. It is depended on each user
scheme. In this research, zones of protection of distance relays are illustrated in
Figure 5-3. They are :
Zone 1 normally set 85% of transmission line length to protect the over-reach
tripping effect. Over-reach in the distance relay is present when impedance is less
than the apparent impedance to the fault.
Zone 2anormally set 100% of protected transmission line plus 20-50% to next
shortest transmission line.
Zone 3anormally set 120% of protected transmission line plus next longest line.
85% ZA
ZC
>>(ZA + ZC )
ZA + (50% ZB )
ZA
ZA + (50% ZC )
85% ZA
FIGURE 5-3 Distance relay zone protection
>>(ZA + ZB )
ZB
48
5.2.2 Operation model of distance protection scheme.
vam vbm vcm

1
1
1
X1
X2
X3
Mag1 Mag2 Mag3

(7)
(7)
(7)
Ph1
(7) 1
FFT
Ph2 vap
(7) 1
Ph3 vbp
F = 60.0 [Hz]
(7) 1
dc1 dc2 dc3
vcp
iam ibm icm

1
1
1
1
X1
X2
X3
Mag1 Mag2 Mag3

(7)
(7)
(7)
Ph1
(7) 1
FFT
Ph2 iap
(7) 1
Ph3 ibp
F = 60.0 [Hz]
(7) 1
dc1 dc2 dc3
icp
FIGURE 5-4 Input signal are into Fast Fourier transform Block
The distance relay protection model to detect three-phase fault. Figure 5-4
shows input signal are voltage and current into Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), which
can determine the harmonic magnitude and phase of the input signal as a function of
time. The input signals first sampled before they are decomposed into harmonic
constituents.
vam
|A|
|P|
/_A
/_P
vap
vbm
|B|
/_B
vbp
vcm
A
B
C
+
0
|N|
iam
vpp
iap
vnm
ibm
/_N
|C|
|Z|
/_C
/_Z
vcp
vpm
|A|
|P|
/_A
/_P
ipp
|B|
/_B
vnp
ibp
vzm
icm
vzp
icp
ipm
A
B
C
+
0
|N|
inm
/_N
inp
|C|
|Z|
/_C
/_Z
izm
izp
FIGURE 5-5 Input signal are into sequence component Block
Figure 5-5 perform calculates the magnitudes and phase angles of sequence
components, of voltage and current, which receive input from Fast Fourier Transform
Block (Figure 5-4).
49
VM1
VP1
IM1
IP1
VM2
VP2
Va - Vb
Ia - Ib
Xab
IM2
IP2
vm
vp
im
ip
RRab
X
VM1
VP1
IM1
IP1
VM2
VP2
Va - Vb
Ia - Ib
RRbc
X
Xbc
IM2
IP2
VM1
VP1
IM1
IP1
VM2
VP2
Va - Vb
Ia - Ib
RRca
X
Xca
IM2
IP2
FIGURE 5-6 Calculation the line-to-line impedance block
Figure 5-6 component computes the line-to-line impedance. The output

impedance is in rectangular format (R and X), and is optimized for use with the Mho
circle.
VM
vm
vp
VP
IM
IP
I0M
I0P
Va
Ia+ kI0
R Ra
X
Xa
VM
im
ip
iseqm
iseqp
VP
IM
IP
I0M
I0P
Va
Ia+ kI0
R Rb
X
Xb
VM
VP
IM
IP
I0M
I0P
Va
Ia+ kI0
R Rc
X
Xc
FIGURE 5-7 Calculation the line to ground impedance block
50
Figure 5-7 component computes the line-to-ground impedance. The output
impedance is in rectangular format (R and X), and is optimized for use with the Mho
circle.
RabR
Xab
RbcR
Xbc
Ra R
Xa
21
Rca
R
Xca
21
21
Rb R
Xb
Rc
Xc
21
21
X
R
21
FIGURE 5-8 Mho characteristics of distance relay
Mho circle relay. It compares fault impedance from line to line impedance
calculating with its impedance setting. Which checks whether or not a point described
by inputs R and X, lies inside a specified region on the impedance plane. R and X
represent the resistive and reactive parts of the monitored impedance. Then trip signal
is sent when fault impedance is inside its setting.
5.2.3 Calculation of impedance setting values for zones of protection.
In this research, protection zone 1 of the distance relay is calculated and
modeled. However, protection zone 2 from nearby substations are calculated and
modeled in order to present the remote trip. The calculation setting values are :
FIGURE 5-9 Model of circuit typical 230 kV substation
Distance Relay at CB1

Voltage
= 230 kV
MVA
= 100 MVA
Distance
= 200 km
51
Z1 of line A
= 200 ( 0.1236 + j0.5084 )
Ohm
= 24.7265 + j101.6826
Ohm
= 104.64581.3323
Ohm
= 104.645876.33o
Ohm
Zone setting for Mho relay at relay CB1.

Zone 1 reach setting
80% of transmission line A
0.8 (104.64581.3323)
83.71671.3323
Ohm/Phase
83.7167
= 41.858
2
Ohm
Set radius of the mho circle =
Zone 2 sets to back up Mho relay at relay B1.

= 100% of line A + 20% next line (line B)

= 1 x (104.64581.3323) + 0.2 x (104.64581.3323)
Set radius of the circle
125.571.3323
Ohm/Phase
125.57
= 62.785
2
Ohm
Zone 3 sets to back up mho relay at relay B1.

= 100% of line A + 120% next line (line B)

= 1 x (104.64581.3323) + 1.2 x (104.64581.3323)
= 230.211.3323
Set radius of the circle
230.21
= 115.105
2
Ohm/Phase
Ohm
CHAPTER 6
SIMULATION RESULTS
This chapter discusses about the simulation result from PSCAD/EMTDC. The
result considers three case are Three phase fault, Line to line fault and Single line to
ground fault. The result of simulate to show both power swing and no power swing of
all case. This result to show detecting fault during power swing occur.
Threshold value from rate of change active power can be use detect fault during
power swing. This value can determine from 10% and 90% of peak value of rate of
change active power. The value during 10% to 90% can detect fault during power
swing because sudden change of active power.
6.1 The Sequence of Simulation
FIGURE 6-1 Model when fault occur on power system

The simulation provides two step of fault. Fault(1) is first fault at 2 second and
then at 2.1 second will clear fault. Fault(2) is second fault at 5.4 second and occur in
front of circuit breaker 3.
Circuit breaker 5 and 6 operate to clear fault at 2.1 second when fault(1) occur
at 2 second. These event effects to power swing occur on line A and B. Then fault(2)
occur in front of circuit breaker 3.
54
6.2 Three-Phase Fault Condition
Determine three phase fault occur at 5.4 second and fault(2)
6.2.1 No effect power swing case
6.2.1.1 Active power
Figure 6-2 to measure active power of fault between 2 to 2.1 s. This figure show
clear fault time at 2.1 s have transient about 1.475 kW, which small effect to circuit
breaker 1. Because fault (1) no occur on line A and B.
Active Power
1.48
P (kW)
1.475
1.47
1.465
1.46
1.455
2.05
2.1
2.15
2.2
Time(s)
FIGURE 6-2 Active power when fault between 2 s to 2.1 s
55
Active Power
450
400
350
P (kW)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
-50
5.36
5.38
5.4
5.42
5.44
5.46
5.48
5.5
Time(s)
FIGURE 6-3 Active power when fault at 5.4 s

Figure 6-3 show active power at fault (2) 5.4 s which morn than Figure 6-2 and
active power be equal 400 kW. Because fault (2) happen on line A and B cause large
active power.
6.2.1.2 Change rates of active power
Figure 6-4 and 6-5 show change rate of active power both fault (1) and (2).
Which Figure 6-5 show the large value about 5.2 kW/s.
Change Rates of Active Power
8
6
4
dP/dt (W/s)
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
2
2.05
2.1
2.15
Time(s)
FIGURE 6-4 Change rates of active power between 2 s to 2.1 s
56
Figure 6-5 can determine threshold value about 80-90% of 5.2 is 4.68 kW.

5000
dP/dt (W/s)
-5000
-10000
-15000
5.39
5.4
5.41
5.42
5.43
5.44
5.45
5.46
Time(s)
FIGURE 6-5 Change rates of active power at 5.4 s

6.2.1.3 R-X diagram of distance relay
Figure 6-6 show trajectory of impedance and move to zone 3 and 2 of distance
relay 1. Therefore distance relay operate at Zone 2 and delay time at 0.2 s.
R-X Diagram of Distance Relay 1

200
150
X (ohm)
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-100
100
200
300
400
R (ohm)
FIGURE 6-6 Trajectory of impedance distance relay 1
57
6.2.1.4
State of distance relay 1
Figure 6-7 show state operation, which Zone 2 and Zone 3 operate and cause
trip signal operate.
TripSignal
Zone 3
Zone 2
Zone 1
State of Zone Protection

1
0.5
0
0
1
0.5
0
1
0.5
0
1
0.5
0
Time(s)
FIGURE 6-7 State of distance relay 1 at fault(1) and fault(2)

6.2.1.5 R-X diagram of distance relay 2
Figure 6-8 impedance not move to zone protection because fault happen outside
of zone protection.
58

300
200
X (ohm)
100
-100
-200
-400
-300
-200
-100
100
R (ohm)

6.2.1.6 State of Distance Relay 2
State of distance relay 2 no operate because fault occur outside zone protection.
TripSignal
Zone 3
Zone 2
Zone 1

1
0.5
0
0
1
0.5
0
1
0.5
0
1
0.5
0
Time(s)
FIGURE 6-9 State of distance relay 2
59
The trajectory of Figure 6-10 move to Zone 3, 2 and 1 be cause fault occur on
front of distance relay 3. Therefore all of three zone protection operates.

350
300
250
X (ohm)
200
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-100
100
200
300
400
R (ohm)

6.2.1.8 State of distance relay 3
Figure 6-11 show operation of zone 1, 2 and 3 and time delay setting
instantaneous time.
60
TripSignal
Zone 3
Zone 2
Zone 1

1
0.5
0
0
1
0.5
0
1
0.5
0
1
0.5
0
Time(s)

Distance relay 4 have method same of distance relay 1 because fault occur in
zone protection.
200
X (ohm)
100
Fault at 5.4 s
-100
-200
-100
100
200
300
400
500
R (ohm)
61
State operations of distance relay 4 same distance relay1 because fault occurs in
Zone 2 of zone protection.
TripSignal
Zone 3
Zone 2
Zone 1

1
0.5
0
0
1
0.5
0
1
0.5
0
1
0.5
0
Time(s)

6.2.2 Power swing case
Figure 6-14 show the power swing between 2.1 to 5.4 s.
Active Power
Power Swing
350
300
P (kW)
250
200
150
100
50
0
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
Time(s)
62
Figure 6-15 show fault during power swing occur at 5.4 s. Threshold setting is
80-90% of peak about 27.78 kW.
x 10
3.5
3
dP/dt (W/s)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
5.38
5.39
5.4
5.41
5.42
5.43
5.44
5.45
Time(s)

Figure 6-16 show impedance when fault (1) between 2 to 2.1 s.
200
100
X (ohm)
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
-200
-100
100
200
300
400
500
600
R (ohm)
FIGURE 6-16 R-X diagram when fault(1) between 2 s to 2.1 s
63
Figure 6-17 show impedance of power swing and then show impedance move to
zone protection.
200
100
X (ohm)
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
-500
-100
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
R (ohm)
FIGURE 6-17 The power swing and fault(2) at 5.4 s

Figure 6-18 show state operation of Zone 3 due to power swing. This is
maloperation of distance relay.
TripSignal
Zone 3
Zone 2
Zone 1

1
0.5
0
0
1
0.5
0
1
0.5
0
1
0.5
0
Time(s)
FIGURE 6-18 State operation of distance relay when fault(1) and fault(2)
64
6.2.2.5
R-X diagram of distance relay 2
The power swing of Figure 6-19 and fault at 5.4 s

600
500
400
X (ohm)
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-1200
-1000
-800
-600
-400
-200
200
R (ohm)

6.2.2.6 State of Distance Relay 2
The state of distance relay same the result Figure 6-9. Because power swing no
effect to distance relay 2 even though power swing happen.
The figure show power swing of distance relay 3.
65

500
400
300
X (ohm)
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
200
400
600
800
1000
R (ohm)
FIGURE 6-20 The power swing of impedance and fault(2) at 5.4 s

State of distance relay 3 operate on zone 1 because fault (2) occur in front of
circuit breaker 3. This thesis to suppose for distance relay 3 maloperate. Therefore
distance relay 1 which is back up of distance relay 3 operate.
TripSignal
Zone 3
Zone 2
Zone 1

1
0.5
0
0
1
0.5
0
1
0.5
0
1
0.5
0
Time(s)
66
Power swing from Figure 6-22 will show trajectory of impedance between 2.1
to 5.4 s and trajectory of fault impedance at 5.4 s.

300
200
Power swing 2.1-5.4 s
X (ohm)
100
0
Fault at 5.4 s
-100
-200
-300
-400
-500
-800
-600
-400
-200
200
R (ohm)
FIGURE 6-22 The power swing impedance and fault(2) at 5.4 s

This figure to show state operation of distance relay 4. Which the state have
operation same distance relay 1.
TripSignal
Zone 3
Zone 2
Zone 1

1
0.5
0
0
1
0.5
0
1
0.5
0
1
0.5
0
Time(s)
67
6.3 Line-To-Line Fault Condition
For this case to simulate at fault (2) at 5.4 s will suppose about line to line fault.
Active Power
500
400
P (kW)
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
5.4
5.45
5.5
5.55
Time(s)

Figure 6-27 show change rates of active power, first cycle have peak about
4.615 kW/s. Threshold value can setting approximately 80 to 90% of peak around
4.16 kW/s as follow figure.
68

6000
During Fault
Threshold = 4.16 kW
4000
dP/dt (W/s)
2000
0
-2000
-4000
-6000
5.38
5.4
5.42
5.44
5.46
5.48
5.5
Time(s)


200
X (ohm)
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
-200
-100
100
200
300
400
500
600
R (ohm)
FIGURE 6-26 The trajectory of impedance when fault(2) at 5.4 s

69
TripSignal
Zone 3
Zone 2
Zone 1

1
0.5
0
0
1
0.5
0
1
0.5
0
1
0.5
0
Time(s)

Active Power
350
300
P (kW)
250
200
150
100
50
0
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
Time(s)
70
x 10
3.5
3
dP/dt (W/s)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
5.4
5.42
5.44
5.46
5.48
5.5
Time(s)
6.3.2.3 R-X Diagram of distance relay 1

200
100
X (ohm)
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
-500
-100
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
R (ohm)
71
TripSignal
Zone 3
Zone 2
Zone 1

1
0.5
0
0
1
0.5
0
1
0.5
0
1
0.5
0
Time(s)
6.4
Single Line-To-Ground Fault Condition

For this case to simulate at fault (2) at 5.4 s will suppose about line to ground
fault.
Active Power
250
200
P (kW)
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
5.4
5.45
5.5
5.55
Time(s)
5.6
72
1.159 kW/s. Threshold value can setting approximately 80 to 90% of peak around 1
kW/s as follow figure.

3000
2000
dP/dt (W/s)
1000
0
-1000
-2000
-3000
5.4
5.45
5.5
5.55
Time(s)

6.4.1.3 R-X Diagram of Distance Relay 1

250
200
150
X (ohm)
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
-100
100
200
300
400
R (ohm)
FIGURE 6-34 R-X diagram of distance relay 1
73
TripSignal
Zone 3
Zone 2
Zone 1

1
0.5
0
0
1
0.5
0
1
0.5
0
1
0.5
0
Time(s)

Active Power
350
300
P (kW)
250
200
150
100
50
0
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
Time(s)
74

18000
During Fault
16000
Threshold = 14.2 kW
14000
dP/dt (W/s)
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
-2000
5.38
5.39
5.4
5.41
5.42
5.43
5.44
Time(s)
5.45
75

300
200
100
-100
-200
-300
-400
-500
-100
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
R (ohm)
FIGURE 6-38 The power swing impedance and fault(2) at 5.4 s
Zone 3
Zone 2
Zone 1
TripSignal
X (ohm)
1
0.5
0
0
1
0.5
0
1
0.5
0
1
0.5
0
Time(s)
76
6.5 Threshold Setting
The threshold setting at 90 % of maximum of change rates of active power.
From table can setting threshold between 1 kW to 31.76 kW
TABLE 6-1 Setting of threshold value

Fault
90 % of Maximun
Three phase
4.68 kW
Three phase
(Power Swing)
Line to Line
Line to Line
(Power Swing)
Single Line to Ground
Single Line to Ground
(Power Swing)
27.78 kW
4.16 kW
31.76 kW (Max)
1 kW (Min)
14.2 kW
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATIONS
7.1 Conclusion
Power swing effect to electrical system vary. When a power swing occurs, the
value of voltage, current, active power P, and reactive power Q will then vary as a
function of this occur. Distance protection relays are more likely to mal-operate
during power system swing because of the changing impedance. In order to prevent
the distance protection from tripping during such conditions, power swing blocking is
utilized.
The problems of method are relay may not respond to genuine faults occurring
during the power swing period since it is blocked from operation. More problems, if
quick changes in apparent impedance occur, the relay may not correctly block.
Previous work use detect scheme on the basis of the change rates of three-phase
active and reactive powers. The method uses the change rate of active power equal to
zero after fault. The problem is after fault the change rate of active power use time
more than until be constant.
This thesis presents the result of fast unblocking scheme for distance protection
to identify faults occurring during power swings. In this case to use detect extremely
amplitude of change rate of active power between faults occur. When fault occurring,
the value of change rate of active power will to peak. Which can used detect fault by
use the maximum value before move to zero.
The detection fault by use the peak value of change rate of active power period
fault occurring during power swings. It can detect fault before the change rate of
active power become to lower constant or lead to be zero after fault occurrence.
The determined of threshold for the purpose detect fault that. It can define by
safety margin less than about 10% of maximum and safety margin 10% of minimum
of the change rate of active power. This setting because simulate all fault cases, the
peak value of change rate of active power be apparent between 10 - 90% of all fault
case.
78
The simulation results show that the scheme can be unblock the protection
rapidly, improve the sensitivity and the response of distance protection when a fault
occurs during power swings.
The high frequency of noise sometime may be effect to identify for detect fault.
The relay may maloperation when switching of load and high frequency noise happen
because this value may be in period of threshold setting. Disadvantage of high
frequency affect to detect fault of the algorithm. However the problem can solve by
the change rate of active power equal to zero because it can detect fault if the change
rate equal to zero.
7.2 Discrimination
7.2.1 Detection fault of zone protection
The principle of protective relay will to clearing fault as rapidly in order to
maintain stability. The relay should be distinguish normal condition, short circuit,
power swing and out of step condition.
7.2.2 Power Swing
When the load sudden changes lead to power swings happen between generator
and load. In order to prevent the distance protection tripping during this condition,
power swing blocking (PSB) often utilized. If fault occur during power swing, device
in system may damage.
In this thesis present a new power swing blocking to clear the block when a
fault occurs within the zone protection of relays. The result show detection fault and
clear fault by detect the peak value of the change rate of active power by define
threshold value.
7.2.3 Load Encroachment
The August 14, 2003 North American blackout and the November 4, 2006
European disturbance happen because the relays that are affected by load
encroachment conditions. As seen during the blackout, the apparent impedance seen
by the relays under very heavy loads may lead to relay tripping. The relays to provide
the load encroachment function combined with fault detection. If a fault occurs during
load encroachment, this function must be unblocking trips due to fault happen in
79
system. This function can identify load and fault, in case impedance apparent in zone
protection.
7.3 Speed
The result that demonstrated the algorithm can detect fault with in 1
millisecond. Conversely the change rate of active power will spend time approximate
7 millisecond then become to zero.
In this thesis suppose fault occur during power swing at 5.4 second. The
algorithm can detect fault at 5.401 second or spend time about 1 millisecond. The
portion of previous work detect fault at 5.407 second which spend time 7
milliseconds.
The unblocking signal is generated if the change rate of active power exceeds a
threshold value.
REFERENCES
1. Cook V. Analysis of Distance Protection. Research Studies Press. New York :
John Wiley & Sons, 1985.
2. Lewis Blackburn J. Protective Relaying Principle and Application. Third
Edition. New York : Marcel Dekker, 1997.
3. Gec Alsthom Measurements Limited. Protective Relays Application Guild.
Third Edition. UK : Stafford, 1987.
4. Walter A Elmore. Protective Relaying Theory and Applications. Second
Edition. New York : Marcel Dekker, 2003.
5. So K.H., Heo J.Y., Kim C.H., et al. Out-of-step detection algorithm using
frequency deviation of voltage. The Institution of Engineering and
Technology. (January 2007) : 440-746.
6. Mike McDonald. Power Swing and Out-of-Step Considerations on Transmission
Lines. A report to the Power System Relaying Committee of the IEEE
Power Engineering Society. (July 2005) : 1-59.
7. Edmund O. Schweitzer. Distance relay with load encroachment protection, for
use with power transmission lines. United States Patent. (November
1994) : 1-9.
8. Chul-Hwan Kim. An Enhanced Zone 3 Algorithm of a Distance Relay Using
Transient Components and State Diagram. IEEE Trans Power Delivery.
(January 2005) : 1-8.
9. Schweitzer E.O. and Feff Roberts. Distance relay element design. Texas : A&M
University College Station, 1993.
10. Mattias Jonsson and Jaap Daalder E. An Adaptive Scheme to Prevent
Undesirable Distance Protection Operation During Voltage Instability.
IEEE Transaction on power delivery. (January 2003) : 1-8.
82
11. Khorashadi-Zadeh H. Evaluation and Performance Comparison of Power Swing
Detection Algorithms. IEEE Transaction on power delivery. (November
2005) : 1-10.
12. Chul-Hwan Kim. An Enhanced Zone 3 Algorithm of a Distance Relay Using
Transient Components and State Diagram. IEEE Transaction on power
delivery. (January 2005) : 1-8.
13. Brahma S. M. Use of Wavelets for out of step Blocking Function of Distance
Relays. IEEE Transaction on power delivery. (July 2006) : 1-9.
14. Han-Chuan Yuan, Seong-Jeong Rim, et al. Adaptive Blinder for Distance Relay
Based on Sensitivity Factors. International Conference on Power System
Technology. (May 2006) : 25-34.
15. Xiangning Lin. A Novel Scheme to Identify Symmetrical Faults Occurring
During Power Swings. IEEE Transaction on power delivery. (January
2008) : 1-7.
16. Helmut Ungrad. Protection Techniques in Electrical Energy Systems. Second
Printing. New York : Marcel Dekker, 1995.
17. Johns A.T. and S.K. Salman. Digital Protection for Power Systems. England :
Peter Peregrinus Ltd, 1997.
83
BIOGRAPHY
Name
: Mr.Sathaporn Sitthiwong
Thesis Title : An Enhanced Performance of Distance Relay Algorithm to Prevent

Undesirable Zone 3 Operation During Load Encroachment
Major Field : Electrical Power Engineering
Biography
I was born on July 9, 1982. I graduated high vocational Certificate in
Electronics from Nakhonratchasima Thecnical College in 2001, and graduated
Bachelor degree from Department of Electrical Technology, major in Power
Electronic Thechnology in 2003 at College of Industrial Technology of King
Mongkuts Institute of Technology North Bangkok.
My contact address is 53/173 Soi Bangkok-Nontabuti 44, Bangkok-Nontabuti
Rd.,
Bangsue,
Bangkok,
Sittiwong999@Hotmail.com
10800
Thailand.
My
e-mail
address
is

An Enhanced Performance of Distance Relay Algorithm To Prevent (Tesis)

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AN ENHANCED PERFORMANCE OF DISTANCE RELAY ALGORITHM TO PREVENT

UNDESIRABLE ZONE 3 OPERATION DURING LOAD ENCROACHMENT

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

: An Enhanced Performance of Distance Relay Algorithm to

: Electrical Power Engineering

Thesis Advisor : Assistant Professor Dr.Teratam Bunyagul

state signal to distinguish

between faults and load

Keywords : Distance Relay, PSCAD/EMTDC, Load Encroachment

I would like to express my sincere gratitude for Assistant Professor Dr.Teratam

Abstract (in Thai)

1.1 Distance relay in power systems

1.2 Basic Requirement of Protection Systems

1.3 Fundamental of Distance Protection Systems

1.4 Protection Zones for Distance Relays

1.5 Performance of Zone Protection

1.6 Zone Protection and Disturbance

1.7 Problems of Distance Protection

1.8 Purpose of The Study

1.9 Scope of The Study

1.11 Utilization of The Study

1.12 The Structure of Thesis

Chapter 2 Distance Relays and Zone Protection

2.1 Fundamentals of Distance Relaying

2.2 Operation of Distance Relays

2.3 Zone Application of Distance Relaying

2.4 General Characteristics of Distance Relays

2.5 Application of Distance Relays

2.6 Types of Disturbances

2.7 Load Power Effect to Distance Relays

2.8 Load Encroachment

Chapter 3 Literature Survey

3.1 Previous Works on Disturbance for Zone 3 of Distance

TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)

4.1 Fundamental Considerations

4.2 Digital Distance Measurement

4.3 Fourier Analysis

4.4 Fourier Analysis Based Algorithm

4.5 Principle of Algorithm

Chapter 5 Software Model in PSCAD/EMTDC

5.1 Power System Parameters

5.2 Protection System and Evaluation Setting Values

Chapter 6 Simulation Results

6.1 The Sequence of Simulation

6.2 Three-Phase Fault Condition

6.3 Line-to-Line Fault Condition

6.4 Single Line-to-Ground Fault Condition

Chapter 7 Simulation Results

5-1 Data of transmission lines and generator source

6-1 Setting of threshold value

Distance relays characteristic

The three protection zones for the transmission line

The distance relay connected to line and instrument transformers

Principle of the distance relay

Beam type distance relay

Step time zones of distance relay protection

Step time zones of distance relay protection

Distance relay characteristics on R-X diagram

Distance relay of mho characteristic type

Increased arc resistance coverage

Minimum load impedance permitted with lenticular, offset mho and

2-10 Quadrilateral characteristic

2-11 Application of out-of-step tripping relay characteristic