The Christianization of Space along the via Appia: Changing Landscape in the Suburbs of Rome

Author(s): Lucrezia Spera

Source: American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 107, No. 1 (Jan., 2003), pp. 23-43
Published by: Archaeological Institute of America
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40026565
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The

Christianization

Changing

of

Space

Landscape

in

along
the

Suburbs

the

Via
of

Appia:
Rome

LUCREZIA SPERA
indiscriminately referred to as "Suburbium" or
"Campagna Romana."2In addition, studies of the
suburban area of the city have often treated the
evidence of funerary areas and residential sectors
separately. Finally, there has been markedly little
interest in the evolution of the suburban landscape in the Medieval period. This paper is intended as a contribution to our knowledge and
understanding of this question in its synthesis and
analysis of the archaeological evidence relating to
the Christianization of space between the third
and seventh centuries along the Via Appia, one of
several main roads connecting the city to its immediate hinterland.
I have chosen to focus chiefly on the Via Appia as
it is one of the few suburban areas of the modern
city in which intensive development has not taken
place, resulting in a largely intact archaeological
record relating to the period under study.3 As I
hope to show, the picture that emerges from the
evidence is of a suburban landscape profoundly
changed as a direct result of the Christianizationof
the urban core.

Abstract
This article examines the changes caused by the
Christianizationof the area along the ViaAppia between
the third and seventh century and its implications for
our knowledge and understanding of the evolution of
the suburbanlandscape in the LateAntique city.During
the mid-Imperialperiod this area was characterizedby a
complex systemof roads, residential districts,farms,and
funerarymonuments. Startingfrom the late second century,it wasincreasinglydevoted to the creation of "Christian spaces," first in the form of surface and subterranean funerary complexes, and later with churches and
monuments associatedwith the presence of the martyrs'
tombs. In the fourth and early fifth century, the presence of Christiancemeteries, between the AurelianWall
and the third milestone, contributed also to the growth
of secondaryaccess roads to the funerarycomplexes.*
INTRODUCTION

There has been a significant increase in research on suburban Rome in recent years geared
to achieving a better understanding of the transformation that occurred in the area beyond the
Aurelian Wall.1There are, to be sure, problems in
the definition of the extra-urbanspace vaguely and

*An earlierversionof this

paperwaspresentedat the workshop "FromVillato Monastery:Transformationsof the Italian
Landscapein LateAntiquityand in the EarlyMedievalPeriod"
of the NorwegianInstituteat Rome in November2000. 1 am
particularlygratefulto Anna Leone for her help with the Englishwriting.I wishto thankBruceHitchnerand LisaFentress
for their comments and their efforts in editing the English
text. Gratitudeis also due to the AJAanonymousreviewerfor
his constructivecriticism.
1The
startingpoint of this new streamin the studyof the
evolutionof Romein LateAntiquityhasto be seen in the Lexicon
UrbisRomae
(the firstvolume has been recentTopographicum
lypublished:LaRegina2001) and in the colloquium"Suburbi-

by 1996;in Brogiolo et al. 2000;and in Lavan2001;on Rome

see esp. Harris1999;PaniErmini1999.These articlesalsoprovide a complete collection of the large existing bibliography
on this subject.
2Often these two
expressionsare indifferentlyused. Nevertheless,it is necessaryto point out that the idea of "Campagna Romana"is modern, commonlyused principallyin topographicalstudiesin 19thand 20thcenturies(see Lanciani1909
and Tomassetti1975-1980). Suburbium
and suburbanus,
even
if it is literallyreferringto the space "suburben(i.e., beyond
the city- the area closer to the citywalls), has been used by
historicalsourceswitha broadtopographicalmeaning,generallywithin 20-25 miles from the citywalls (occasionallyit refers also to a largerdistance,such as in Simmachuswho mentions the "centerof Spoletium"as "suburbanus,"
becauseit is
included withinthe 100 miles of thejurisdictionof the urban
praefectura [Simm. Epist.3.13.2]). On these problems, see
Champlin1982, and more recentlyLa Regina 2001, 1-2) .
3On the
archaeologyof the ViaAppia,see Angeliniand Fea
1828;Canina1853;Ripostelliand Marucchi1908;Castagnoli
1956;Castagnoliet al. 1972;Quilici 1977, 1989;Quilici Gigli
1990;FondazioneMemmo1997;Spera1999;and mostrecently, Bruni et al. 2001.

um:Dalla crisidelsistemadelleville a GregorioMagno,"organized

byL'EcoleFrancaisede Rome,SoprintendenzaArcheologica
di Roma, SovraintendenzaComunale ai Beni Culturali,and
PontificiaCommissionedi Archeologia Sacra,16-18 March
2000, Rome (forthcomingproceedings include a CD with a
collectionof datafromnewexcavationsand a reanalysisof old
publicationswiththe aimto understandthe areasurrounding
the city defensivewalls). These new data have to be considered in connectionwith the publishedstudiesfocusing mainlyon the evolutionof the classicalcityin LateAntiquityand in
the EarlyMedievalperiod:see the papersin Christieand LoseAmericanJournal of Archaeology107 (2003) 23-43

23

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24

LUCREZIASPERA

[AJA107

THE SUBURBAN AREA ALONG THE VIA APPIA

IN THE IMPERIAL PERIOD: A STARTING POINT

EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL

EVIDENCE

The landscape of the Via Appia extending up

to the eighth-ninth milestone4 during the Imperial period was dominated by residential districts
linked by a complex system of secondary roads.5
The principal axis was, of course, the Via Appia,
though some secondary roads connected to the
Viae Ardeatina and Satricana to the southwest,6
and the Via Latina to the northwest.7 The residential areas included large private properties,
such as the Triopiumof Herodes Atticus between
the second and third miles,8 and the villa of the
Quintilii at the fifth mile.9 There were also a large
number of buildings containing production and
craft structures,10 commercial areas,11 as well as
sanctuaries, including a temple of Mars at the first
milestone, a temple of Rediculus at the second
milestone, and a sanctuary of Hercules at the
eighth milestone.12 There were numerous late Republican and early Imperial tombs, whose properties were managed either by families or by collegia funeraticia.15Generally, during this period, the
suburbiumseems to have been characterized principally by the private property, well organized by
functions of the different sector of the extramural territory.

The "Christianization"of the Via Appia appears

to have begun in the late second or early third century with the establishment of the first cemeteries
used by the community of the Church of Rome.14
Prior to this period Christians were buried in the
same areas as pagans.15This change suggests a preference for an independent burial space where Christians, reflecting a growingsense of community,could
act charitably,celebrate funerary rites, and experience death as a preparation for the resurrection.
One of these cemeteries sub divo was built in the
area between the Via Appia and the Via Ardeatina.
Excavatedin the late 19th and early 20th centuries,
it measured 30 x 75 m, and was occupied by graves
disposed in different layers so as to exploit as much
space as possible. Two underground axial galleries, reached by parallel stairs, were linked by crosstunnels, with a grid pattern that respected the edges
of the space above ground in relation with the enceinte (fig. 1). This cemetery has been plausibly identified as the one managed by the deacon and future
Pope Callixtus, following the decision of Pope Zefirinus (A.D. 199-217). 16
Another cemetery, initiated in the early third
century, has been identified in the Praetextatus

4The conventional
edge of the suburbiumof Romehasbeen
established between the eighth and ninth miles. This conventionalsubdivisionbetween the territoryof Rome and the
LatiumVetuswasproposed for the firsttime in the plan by H.
Kiepertin CIL14(1 887) . The samemaphasbeen republished
in CIL6.8.2 (1996). The same convention has been also recently used in the LTUR(La Regina 2001, 2).
5For the
privateroads,see CapogrossiColognesi 1976, 5264, 197-221, 244-8; BeltranLlorisand ArasaGil 1979-1980.
Comunedi Roma6Spera1999,451-52 and pl. 2, y,6,K,A,o;
UfficioCartadell'Agro1988,F. 24, 559s, 700s,and F. 24, 598s.
See alsoAshby1907,pl. 1. Roadsconnectingwiththe ViaSatricanaarefoundin De Rossi1967,107;Cecchinietal.1989-1990,
115,fig. 78;Comunedi Roma- UfficioCartadell'Agro1988,F.
25, 501s.
7Spera1999,452, 456, pl. 2, e,el,o,o,T;Comune di RomaUfficio Cartadell'Agro1988, F. 24-25, 393s, 126s.
8ForHerodesAtticus,see Graindor1979;Neugebauer1934;
Rutledge1960;Dickson1997.The name "Tpioniov"
appearsin
C/G1.26,3.6280;IG14.1389-1391; C/L6.1342.Cf.Lugli1924,
94-120; Quilici1968;Kammerer-Grothaus
1974;PisaniSartorio and Calza1976, 131-41; Coarelli1981, 38-43. A summary
is found in Spera 1999, 353-5.
9Ashby1909;Ricci 1998;Paris2000.
10Manacorda1979;Giitschow1938, 106;Spera 1999, 364,
n. 126, 366.

the sixth
see Spera1999,63-4, 363;for a statioor deversoriumdX
mile, Quilici 1977,86; Coarelli1981,59; Cecchinietal. 19891990, 119.
12No clear
archeaologicalevidencerelatedto these sanctusee Spera
arieshasbeen recorded.Fora completebibliography,
1999, 50-2 (on the temple of Mars), 184 (on the temple of
;Coarelli1981,62-3 (on the sanctuaryof Hercules).
Rediculus)
13Thetombs fall into two categories:late Republicanand
earlyImperialmonumental privatetombs along the ViaAppia and a well-organizedseries of funerarybuildings lined
up along secondary roads. The latter date from the end of
the first centuryA.D. Von Hesberg 1994, 32-8, 50-5, 112230, passim;1987, 43-60. For these necropoleis, see Fasola
1984; Spera 1999, 139-55 ("dellaTorretta"), 209-25, 2389, 246 (under St. Sebastian), 266-7, 280-3 (near the circus
of Maxentius);L. Fiorelli,NSc1877, 272, 311-2; R. Lanciani,
NSc1878, 36, 67, 134-6, 164-6, 369-70; BullCom1878, 10719; NSc1879, 15-6; BullCom1880, 46-8 (ForteAppio). For
the necropolis called "ofLucina,"see Reekmans 1964, 1134; Spera 1999, 99-108, 373, 376.
14The evidenceis earlierthan thatrecordedinside the
city,
where informationfor this period is lackingor only partially
known (PaniErmini2000,withall earlierbibliography).
15FiocchiNicolai 1997, 121; 1998, 13-4.
16Hyppol.Philosoph.,9.12.14. For the open-airenclosure,
see De Rossi 1864-1877, 3:498-9;Fasola1983;1986, 176-82;
Spera1999, 111-3, 173.Forthe callistian"areaI,"see De Rossi
1864-1877,vol. 2;Styger1925-1926;FiocchiNicolai1997,123;
1998, 16-7; Spera 1999, 124-7, 378-9.

11
E.g., Caediciaetabernae(adomini . . . vocatae:Paul. 39L) or
tabernaeplurimae, near the horti Crassipedis(Cic. Q. Fr. 3.7.2;

Spera1999,54, 363). ForexamplesnearPortaSanSebastiano,

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CHRISTIANIZATIONOF SPACE IN THE SUBURBS OF ROME

25

Fig. 2. Necropolis of Praetextatus:open-airgraves.(Courtesy

of ArchivioCommissionedi Archeologia Sacra)

Fig. 1. Catacomb of Callixtus:enclosure and underground

tunnels of "areaI"

complex, located along a crosswise axis of the Via

Appia, corresponding more or less to the modern
Appia Pignatelli.17It included an enceinte sub divo
(36 x 30 m) with tunnels reached by two stairs that

17Spera1999, 454-5, ns. 114-7; for the Via Asinaria,see

alsoMan 2001.
18For the enclosure, see
Josi 1932; Tolotti 1978, 160-1;
Spera 1999, 192, 375; for the earliercatacomb,Tolotti 1978;
Fiocchi Nicolai 1997, 123; 1998, 18; Spera 1999, 199-203.
19
Manycemeteries, in fact, were created by privatedona-

respected the edges of the enclosure (figs. 2-3).

On the east side of the enceinte a large abandoned
cistern was transformed into a burial complex with
numerous loculi dug into the walls. This structure
was later connected to the main area by new tunnels, which extended beyond the original limits of
the enclosure.18
These two burial complexes were established at
some distance from the Via Appia, presumably reflecting the need for undeveloped (and less expensive) space.19The expanding demand for a collective and egalitarian funerary space must certainly explain the construction of tunnels, now widely

tions, as shownby their toponomy,which often preservesthe

Praetextati
memory of the benefactor, as in the coemeterium
(FiocchiNicolai 1998, 23). The Callixtancomplex, however,
wasprobablypurchaseddirectlybythe Churchof Rome (Spera
1999,373).

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26

LUCREZIASPERA

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the originaltunnelsunderthe enclosure

Fig.3. Necropolisof Praetextatus:
understood to be the origins of the catacombs,20
that occurs simultaneously with the exploitation of
the aboveground funerary areas.
Christians were not always and exclusively buried in collective cemeteries; pagan family tombs
were occasionally used for the insertion of Christian graves.For instance, a third-centurya cassatomb
decorated with a scene from the Jonah cycle was
inserted into a second-century columbarium, sited
in front of the Circus of Maxentius (fig. 4) .21Similar evidence also has been recorded at the necropolis, later covered by the Basilica of Saint Sebastian.
Around the middle of the third century a representation of the "Gadarene madman" from the
Gospel of Matthewwas painted into the decoration
of the attic of the monumental second-centurymausoleum of Clodius Hermes. Evidence supporting
the identification of a specifically Christian iconography here included several tombs placed in a circle in the open area (piazzola)located in front of
this mausoleum. On some of these an anchor or a

fish was inserted into the epitaph, making a covert

declaration of the Christian faith (fig. 5).22 This
Christian presence ad catacumbas(i.e., the necropolis below Saint Sebastian) at the third mile of the
Via Appia became more evident from the second
half of the third century onward. In this phase the
burial ground on the piazzola was buried, and a
new cult area dedicated to Saints Peter and Paul
was created.23 This change was perhaps brought
about by the inaccessibility of the tombs of the two
martyrs,one at the Vatican cemetery and the other
along the Via Ostiensis as a result of the persecutions of Valerian in A.D. 257. A small porch, preceded by a square called the tricliaby its excavator,24
preserved on its walls hundreds of inscriptions with
the names of the devotees gathered for the funerary banquets (refrigeria)in honor of the two saints
(fig. 6).25 That the immediate area was not as yet
monopolized by Christian structures is revealed by
the dedication of three marble altars, two to the
God Attis and one to Jupiter by the vir clarissimus

20Fiocchi
Nicolai1997,122-4;1998,15-24;Pergola1997,
57-64.
21Nestori
1969;Brandenburg
1984,20-1;Spera1999,2802, 371.
22Carletti
1981,287-307.

23Spera1999,219-20.
1918,48-98.ThespacewasconsideredbyRodolfo
24Styger
Lanciani(Lanciani1920)tobe a tavernforwayfarers
because
of themodestyof itsstructure.
25ICUR5.12097-13096.

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2003]

CHRISTIANIZATIONOF SPACE IN THE SUBURBS OF ROME

Fig. 4. The scene from the Jonah cicle in the colombarium near the Circus of Maxentius. (Courtesy of Archivio
Commissionedi Archeologia Sacra)

Fig. 5. "Piazzola"under the Basilica of Saint Sebastian: loculuswith Christian epitaph.

(Courtesyof ArchivioCommissione di Archeologia Sacra)

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27

28

LUCREZIASPERA

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Fig. 6. The "Triclia"dedicated to SaintsPeter and Paul under the Basilicaof Saint Sebastian:plasticmodel. (Courtesy
of ArchivioCommissionedi Archeologia Sacra)

and augur Lucius Cornelius Scipio Orphitus, organizer of a taurobolium

in A.D. 295.26
and a criobolium
Before the reign of Constantine and the so-called
Peace of the Church the martyrs' graves were not
visited by many devotees. They were not yet characterized by distinctive structures, and were generally similarto other burialswithin the cemetery.27Thus
the martyr Pope Sixtus the second, executed during the persecution of Valerian, had a simple mensa
tomb, placed at the end of a cubiculumof the Callixtan complex where other members of the clergy
(nine third-century popes and some African bishops) were buried (fig. 7).28
TRANSFORMATIONS DURING THE FOURTH
CENTURY A.D.

As seen so far, the relatively undeveloped rural

landscape along the Via Appia provided ample

26CIL6.505 = 30781, 506 = 30782, 402. This evidence is

significant(but not the only one) to highlight the closeness
of Christianand Paganfuneraryand cult spaces.See Vermaseren 1977, 357; Chioffi 1998, 62; Spera 1999, 259.
27
Spera 1998, 21-36.
28
Spera 2000, 49-50.
29Forthe Christianizationof Romansuburbssee, in
general, Reekmans1968, 1989;Fiocchi Nicolai 1997, 122-34.

space for its initial exploitation as a burial area by

the emerging Christian community of Rome. This
process of exploitation gains speed and takes on
new forms in the fourth century,most notably in the
development of funerary complexes both aboveand underground, and in the emergence of structures relating to the Christian cult, principally connected with the presence of the martyrs'tombs.29
The New Funerary Complexes

During the fourth century, the collective cemeteries of the third century, such as those of Callixtus and Praetextatus,developed in an unprecedented fashion. In both cases the areas sub divo were
enlarged with the addition of the mausolea of
wealthy families (fig. 8).30 At the same time, the
underground complexes were extended, with new
nuclei connected

to the earlier tunnels, creating

30
and the Calventiiin
E.g., the mausolea of the Cercennii
Praetextatuscemetery (WindfeldHansen 1969;Rausa1997,
76-87) . These mausolea became the focal point for other
modest graves:also, in the Callixtusarea,during excavation,
De Rossifound numerousformaeand burialson differentlayersall aroundthe east trichora
(De Rossi1864-1877,vol. 3, tav.
39; Spera 1999, 109-11, 115).

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CHRISTIANIZATIONOF SPACE IN THE SUBURBS OF ROME

29

Fig. 7. Catacombof Callixtus:cubiculumwiththe tomb of Pope Sixtus. (Courtesyof

ArchivioCommissionedi Archeologia Sacra)

new ramifications and resulting in a more elaborate network. These new extensions contrasted
sharply with the uniformity of the earlier complex-

es: more grandiose architectural volumes were obtained by the excavation of the bedrock, with the
principal aim of showing off privileged social sta-

Fig. 8. Necropolis of Praetextatus:mausoleum of the Calventii.(Courtesyof ArchivioCommissionedi Archeologia

Sacra)

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LUCREZIASPERA

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Fig. 9. Catacombof Callixtus:monumental cubiculum. (Courtesyof ArchivioCommissionedi ArcheologiaSacra)

tus, as was the case with the open-air mausolea (fig.

9) .31The same features are evident in the new necropoleis of the fourth century, such as the complexes
of Marcusand Marcellianusand of Marcusand Balbina, both of which were created near the Via Ardeatina, or that "of the Holy Cross,"32on the eastern
side of the Via Appia, and in the burial area connected with the Basilica Apostolorum.33These new
complexes were located within the third milestone
and contained both an aboveground cemetery and
a catacomb.
These new necropoleis marked a major transformation in the earlier patterns of the suburban
area. Rural areas that were once used for farming
were occupied by two large funerary complexes,
one associated with Pope Marcus34and the other

with the martyrsMarcus and Marcellianus. Excavations by the Trappist fathers at the beginning of
the 20th century demonstrated that the latter cemetery was located over a rural villa of the late Republican or early Imperial period.35A rural landscape can also be suggested from the archaeological evidence under the large funerary basilica
dedicated to Pope Marcus (336) and partially excavated by Vincenzo Fiocchi Nicolai (fig. 10) .36This
structure and the Basilica Apostolorum later dedicated to Saint Sebastian at the third mile of the
Via Appia are "circiform"or ambulatory basilicas,37
and their construction changed the physical landscape considerably. In both cases the land first was
terraced and leveled to create large areas for the
construction of imposing structures.38It is inter-

31Fiocchi Nicolai 1997, 126,

esp. 129-31; 1998, 41-5. On
the Callixtuscomplex, see Spera 1999, 123-33, 403; on the
Praetextatuscatacomb,see Tolotti 1978 (see also Spera1999,
199-205,403-4).
32The catacombhasbeen named aftera
paintedcrosslocated in one of the galleries in the complex by the discoverer,
Antonio Ferrua(Ferrua1953).
33For the
cemeteryof Marcusand Marcellianus,see Saint
Roch 1999;Spera 1999, 88-9 and, most recently,Saint Roch
2001; for that of Marcusand Balbina,see Spera 1999, 80-7;
2001;on the catacombof the HolyCross,see Ferrua1953;Spera
1999, 178-82. For the BasilicaApostolorum,see Spera 1999,

252-6.
34Fiocchi Nicolai 1995; Fiocchi Nicolai et al. 1995-1996
(1999).
35O. Marucchi,JV&1906,310-2; Nestori 1990, 110-1 (see
also Spera 1999, 87-9).
36Fiocchi Nicolai et al. 1995-1996 (1999), 73-5, 139-45.
37Six structureswith these characteristicsare knownin the
suburbsof Rome. The most importantstudies on them are
Krautheimer1960;Tolotti 1982;Torelli 1992;Jastrzebowska
1993.
38Quilici1968, 334-7, n. 2; De Angelis Bertolotti 1983.

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CHRISTIANIZATIONOF SPACE IN THE SUBURBS OF ROME

31

of Pope Marcus.(Courtesyof ArchivioCommissionedi Archeologia

Fig. 10.Ambulatoria-basilica
Sacra)

esting to note that the complex of the emperor

Maxentius, which included a villa, the mausoleum of Romulus, and a circus, was also undertaken
during the same period.39 These simultaneous
developments highlight the emerging importance
of the new ecclesiastical purchaser relative to the
emperor.

The basilica of Marcus was built in an area of irregular landforms, where substantial terracing of
the bedrock must have been necessary.40Similarly,
the Basilica Apostolorum, dedicated to Sts. Peter
and Paul in the Constantinian period, was built on
irregular terrain covered by earlier buildings (fig.
11). Here all of the earth and earlier structures

39PisaniSartorioand Calza 1976 on the villa;Rasch 1984

on the mausoleum; Ioppolo, Pisani Sartorio et al. 1999 on

the circus.
40FiocchiNicolai et al. 1995-1996 (1999), 74-5, 142-5.

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LUCREZIASPERA

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Fig. 11. Basilicaof Saint Sebastian:plastic model. (Courtesyof Archivio Commissione di Archeologia Sacra)

near the Via Appia (on the east), which lay at a higher level, were cut away,exposing traces of the underground tunnels while the lower structures on the
west side were filled in.41The huge ambulatorybasilicas,created as collective funeraryareas,also served
as the focal points for the construction of rich mausolea, which were distributed all around them42and
influenced the position of the catacombs.
These Christian cemeteries were the principal
feature of the landscape between the Aurelian Wall
and the third milestone of the Via Appia during the
late fourth and early fifth century. New roads and
secondary lanes were created to reach the funerary
complexes. This phenomenon is particularly clear
in the area near the Via Ardeatina, on the northern
side of the cemetery of Callixtus, where the alignment of the stairsof some of the underground complexes follows that of the basilica of Marcus,which
suggests the existence of at least two new tracksthat
were used to reach the cemeteries (fig. 12).43
The rise of collective Christian cemeteries reduced the number and importance of smaller prop-

erties owned privatelyor by collegiaor different religious groups. A few are known- the Jewish catacombs44and the one dedicated to devotees of Mithras and Sabatius45(fig. 13)- but they do not seem
to have had much impact on the landscape. There
are very few burials sub divo that are not connected
to the large cemeteries,46while the number of private underground complexes, with a limited
amount of burials, is exiguous.47
Although the creation of the new cemeteries
must be considered in the light of a mass phenomenon of Christianization that included all
social classes,48 we must consider the degree to
which the new structures themselves transformed the funerary customs of the suburbs. The
evidence from the Via Appia provides a significant example of these changes. Before the Christian period both epigraphic evidence and historical sources describe the Roman desire for
commemoration in the eyes of passers-by.49Landowners often built their tombs within the limits
of their praedia,and adjacent to a major road (fig.

41
Spera 1999, esp. 229-30, 387-8.
42See
fig. 15.
43
Spera 1999, 455-6 and pl. 2, 6,91,1.
44Forthe VignaRandammcatacomb,Vismara1986,371-8;
Rutgers1990;Vitali 1994, 25-9; Spera 1999, 262-5. For the
Vigna Cimarracatacomb,De Rossi 1867;Vismara1986, 360;
Vitali1994, 29; Spera 1999, 258, 325-6; see also the historical
discussionin Rutgers1992.
45For the catacombof Vibia,see Ferrua1971, 1973
(Spera
1999, 174-5).
46
E.g.,the one whereConstantiniancoins havebeen found,

locatednearthe mausoleumof CeciliaMetella(Cereghinoand

Meogrossi1986;Spera 1999, 292, 392).
47
E.g., the SchneiderHypogeum (Ferrua1963) or the one
of the Hunters (Wumbrand-Stuppach
1927), both locatedon
the east side of the Via Appia (Spera 1999, 171, 400-1).
48Mazzarino1974, esp. 51-73; Sordi 1984, 79-103; Meeks
1992. See also Brown 1972;Pietri 1978;Brown1982.
49Purcell1987;von Hesberg 1994,esp. 32-50; see also Susini 1978;Eck1996.On theViaAppia,withinthe thirdmile,Spera
1999,esp. 347-50. Forsome images,see Canina1853,pls.2, 6,
16-18, 20-21, 25-26, 29-31, 33, 36, 39, 41-42, 44-47.

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2003]

CHRISTIANIZATIONOF SPACE IN THE SUBURBS OF ROME

33

Fig. 12. General map with the catacombs of Marcus-Marcellianusand Balbina at the beginning of fifth century: 1, basilica of
Pope Marcus;2, catacomb of Balbina;3, catacomb of Saints Marcusand Marcellianus. (After Fiocchi Nicolai et al. 1995-96
[1999])

14).50 Of course, many people were buried far

from their homes inside the city. In the late
Republican and early Imperial periods, the in-

scriptions on some tombs mention not only the

dead person's profession, but also the area of
Rome in which they worked.51

50Mansuelli1978.
51
(banker) macellimagniwasburied at
E.g., an argentarius
the fourthmile of the ViaLatina( CIL6.9183), while another
manworkedin awineforum,perhapson the CampusMartius,
andwasburiedbetween the eighth and the ninth miles of the
ViaLabicana( CIL6.9182). The epitaphsof twoinhabitantsof
Rome, a crepidarius
(shoemaker) deSubura(CIL6.9284) and
a midwifeat MonsEsquilinvs
( CIL6.9721) both come fromTor
Sapienza,on the Via Praenestina,a long wayfrom the center

of the city. Some similarinscriptionswere found along this

route, heading towardthe ViaAppia.The epitaphsfound far
from the citywall mention a vinarius(wine seller) de Velabro
(CIL6.9993) from CasalRotondo, a pigmentarius
(perfumer)
in vicusLorarius( CIL6.9796) found in TorreSelci,both located at the sixth mile; and a margaritarius
(jeweler) deViaSacra
( CIL6.9545), who probablylivedat the end of the Republican
period, wasburied between the sixth and the seventhmile of
the ViaAppia.

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LUCREZIASPERA

[AJA107

Fig. 13. Catacombof Vibia:arcosolium of two devotees of Mithrasand Sabatius.(Courtesyof ArchivioCommissionedi

Archeologia Sacra)

Fig. 14. Funerarybuildings along the Via Appia. (After Canina 1853)

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2003]

CHRISTIANIZATIONOF SPACE IN THE SUBURBS OF ROME

35

Fig. 15. Basilicaof SaintSebastian:plasticmodel with the south-sidemausolea. (Courtesyof ArchivioCommissione

di Archeologia Sacra)

From this it appears that, prior to the Christian

development of the area, there was an unregulated
and unsystematicquality to the placement of tombs
as far as the eighth-ninth mile.52In the third and
fourth centuries, however, there is notable decrease
in funerary activityalong the Via Appia, beyond the
zone intensively occupied by the common Christian
cemeteries, that is, between the third and eighthninth mile.53Specifically, only 10 funerary inscriptions are known beyond the third milestone that can
be dated to the fourth century A.D. or later as opposed to the over 6,000 Christianepitaphs from the
Christiancomplexes along the Via Appia published
in ICUR4 and 5. In essence, the population of Rome
seems to have accepted the creation of an articulated networkof suburbannecropoleis, ringing the city
up to the third milestone, markinga clear breakwith

the burial patterns of the Imperial period. Senators

and members of the upper classesgenerallychanged
their custom of building isolated mausolea on their
own properties, and began to build them inside the
collective cemeteries (fig. 15). The individual identityof the owner and his familywasmaintained,along
with the display of his wealth, but now the principal
determinant of the location of the tomb was the vicinity of the tomb of a martyr.This is particularlytrue
of the imperial mausolea associated with some of
the major complexes.54

52Evidenceof
people workingin the Via Sacracomes from
distinctpartsof the Via Appia:from the necropolis near the
gate ( C/L6.9548,9935, 5287, 9212) , from the areaat the third
mile ( CIL6.9239) aswell as for the alreadycited margaritarius;
then two inscriptionsrelated to people ab aramarmorea
were
found respectivelynearPortaCapena ( CIL6.9403) and at the
third-fourthmile of the Appia (CIL6.10020).
53Canina1853, 9. E.g., CIL6.1428, 31651 (a. 241; see Canina 1853, 113-5; Quilici 1977, 70; Coarelli1981, 51). E.g., the
(CIL6.117'43)sarcophagusof L. AnniusOctaviusValerianus

third/fourth century- comes from the ViaAppia,at the sixth

mile (CasalRotondo): see FellettiMaj1976, 245-7. The only
exception is the site at the fourth mile, which I will analyze
below.
54
ExamplesincludeHelen'smausoleumadduoshums(Guyon 1987,217-9) , Constanza'smausoleumin SantAgnese (Frutaz 1976, 72-93) , and Theodosius'smausoleumnear the Vatican Basilica(Bieringand von Hesberg 1987;Johnson 1990,
38-43; Rasch1990). See also FiocchiNicolai 1997, 128.

THE CHRISTIAN PRESENCE IN RURAL AREAS

Beyond the ring of Christian complexes we find

cemeteries associated with rural settlements. These
are often very simple and poor, and, for this reason,
difficult to date with precision. The only example

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LUCREZIASPERA

[AJA107

olis located on the remains of a second-centuryvilla

connected to the Via Appia by a privatelane flanked
by opusmixtumwalls.56At the end of the fourth century the road was partiallyblocked by a monumental
tomb in brick, which has recently been excavatedby
a Norwegian team. The tomb was intended to contain sarcophagi, but was also used for burials in formae,which were covered by an opussectilepavement.57
Two sepulchral exedrae on the sides of the building
were found, while the tombswere located in the open
area. There were also several burials in amphorae,
probably for children,58 randomly distributed
around the abandoned spaces of the villa, some of
which were intentionally restored to be reused as
funerary areas.59The 61 graves recorded to date in
the area belong to the late fourth or earlyfifth century.60Inscriptions, lamps, and decorated glassware
containing Christian symbols were also found (fig.
17).61In sum, the site appears to be a large funerary
complex with a single distinctivetomb, the mausoleum that belonged to the dominusof the fundus and
his family.The high number of burials suggests the
presence of a settlement nearby,perhaps in the villa
itself; indeed, the creation of a late storeroom containing dolia was recorded during the excavation.62
'
CHRISTIANIZATIONOF SPACEAND MARTYRS
CULTS

along the via Appia is a site on the west side at the

fourth milestone excavated at the end of the 19th
century (fig. 16) .55It includes a late Roman necrop-

In addition to the expansion of cemeteries in

the fourth century, the role of the martyrs' cults
increased. The "Holy Space" that they defined had
a significant new role in the organization of the
suburbs. In the course of a very few decades new
basilicas and oratories were constructed, although
not all of these have been recovered (fig. 18). Many
of these were constructed above the early funerary
complexes: for example, above the catacomb of
Callixtus a sanctuarywas constructed over the tomb
of Pope Zefirinus, associated with the one of the

55NSc1883, 130, 420-1; 1884, 80, 104;1885, 71; 1887, 27783;1889,272;1893,33 (Lanciani1884,54;Lanciani1885,104).
See alsoLugari1890,1882,1910;RipostelliandMarucchi1908,
196-204;most recently,WindfeldHansen 1990;1996.
56See, in
general, CantinoWataghin1994, esp. 145- 6 with
bibliography.
57WindfeldHansen 1990, 1996.
58Becker 1994. For burialsin
amphoras,see Green 1977,
esp. 47; Soren and Soren 1999, 463-651 (esp. 490s).
59NSc1884, 80; 1887, 177-283; 1889, 272; 1893, 33.
60The excavationsdid not
identify the limits of the cemetery,makingit likelythat that there were more burials.The
chronologicallimitsfor this cemeteryare determined by an
inscriptiondatedbetweenAD. 365and373 (/CC/R5.15351),
a coin of Constans,a fragmentof a sarcophaguswitha crossat
either side, a transennadecoration, and a stampreferringto
the emperorsValens,Valentinian,and Gratian.For the sarcophagus,NSclSS7, 278 (Deichmannetal. 1967,n. 243, 687,
856 aresimilarsarcophagi);for the stampon a brick,probably

CIL15.1662 (ArchivioCentraledello Stato,Roma,Ministero

dellapubblicaistruzione.DirezioneGenerateAntichitae Belle
Arti, 2 versamento: affari generali - scavi e antichitamusei- galleriee pinacoteche- oggettid'artedivisiper province:busta246 (RomaSuburbio-ViaLatinae
ViaAppia)f. 4270
(Relazione 1882-1883).
61ICUR5.15351, 15427, 15431; NSc 1887, 277, 279,
282;
1889, 272.
62NSc 1883, 420-1; 1884, 80; 1893, 33;
Spera (forthcoming), n. 133. From the villa of the Quintilii comes other evidence connected to Christianity.An alabasterdisc (fig. 17)
showedthe monogramof Christand wasinscribedwitha genitivepluralname,perhaps[ Quintiliiarum(ICUR5.15413). The
integration is that of De Rossi (1873, 88-94); most recently
Carletti1999, 16 n. 12 (fourth/fifth century).A fourth-centuryinscription,discoveredin the 17th centuryat the same site,
asksGodfor protectionfor the landbelonging to the virperfectissimusSustus (ICUR5.15410;see C. Lega and S. Orlandi,in
Di Stefano Manzella1997, 270-1). It is possible that this site

Fig. 16. The site on the west side of the ViaAppia (proprieta
Lugari):map of the archaeologicalevidence. (AfterRipostelli
and Marucchi1908)

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2003]

CHRISTIANIZATION OF SPACE IN THE SUBURBS OF ROME

Fig. 17. Alabasterdisc with the Christgramfrom the Villa of

the Quintili. (After De Rossi 1873)

Fig. 18. Mapwith all sanctuariesin the areaAppia-Ardeatina.

37

martyr Tarsicius (fig. 19).63 Not far from the basilica

dedicated to Marcus, and close to the sub divo sanctuary of the martyrs Marcus and Marcellianus, Pope
Damasus ordered the building of a tomb for himself, his mother, and his sister at the end of the
fourth century.64 At the same time another complex
was dedicated to Soter probably on the east side of
the Via Appia,65 while in the fifth century Pope Leo
I founded a basilica apud corpus dedicated to Cornelius.66 The cult of the martyrs was directly related
to the development of collective open-air cemeteries in the period between the fifth and seventh centuries, when the suburban necropoleis remained
in use, although there is a notable decrease in the
evidence, possibly caused by the appearance of
burials in the city itself67 and to an evident decline
in the population of Rome after the sack of Alaric.68
The complexes were transformed into large areas
retrosanctos,for burials near martyrs' tombs, with the
creation of privileged spaces and the reuse of earlier sites and sepulchral structures.69 For instance,
Fasola interpreted the cemetery at Torretta as associated with the many tombs of saints in the Callixtus complex, reoccupying an earlier necropolis at
the beginning of the fifth century with poor burials
and a small catacomb, which reused existing drainage channels.70
The tombs of the martyrs, now decorated and
refurbished, also became important sanctuaries for
the living. They continued to attract pilgrims even
after their abandonment as funerary sites. The cult
had been partiallyinhabited because some partsof the villa
wereclearlyrestoredduringLateAntiquityand the EarlyMiddle Ages. Evidence of this can be discerned from the brick
stampsdatedto the reign of Theodoricfound in the collapsed
wallsof the smallbaths (Ricci1986;Paris2000, 41) or the several late wallsidentifiablein different partsof the complex,
whichwasprobablytransformedinto a farm,as shownby the
Sustusinscription.The same evidence of continuityof occupation seems to be confirmedby the burialarea,dated to the
fifth-sixth centuries,cut in the ground, at that time probably
a swamp,and found on the easternside of the "smallbaths"
(Ricci 1991, 467).
63Fasola 1980.
64SaintRoch1986;FiocchiNicolaietal. 1995-1996 (1999),
127-9; Spera 1999, 91.
65The cultwas
promoted by the BishopAmbrogius(Spera
1999, part. 77-8, 178-81).
66
Spera 1999, 108,415.
57In this
period, in fact, the phenomenon of the intramoeraas-burials
began: see Meneghini and SantangeliValenzani
1993, 1994.
68On
demographyof lateImperialRome,see esp.Lo Cascio
1997, 58-76.
69As
recentlyshown by the excavationof the ambulatoriabasilicaalong the ViaArdeatina,wherethe upper layersof the
burialareaswere systematicallyreused:Fiocchi Nicolai et al.
1995-1996 (1999), 188-95.
70Fasola1984, 1985;Spera 1999, 139-51, 398, 410.

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38

LUCREZIASPERA

[AJA107

Fig. 19. Necropolis of Callixtus:the WestTrichora. (Courtesyof ArchivioCommissione di Archeologia Sacra)

Despite changes in the organization of the landscape connected with the funerary complexes of
the Christian community, the course of the Via
Appia was not affected; it continued to serve travelers, offering them a view of Rome's ancient prosperity through the preservation of many of the
monumental classical buildings.74Similar transfor-

mations, it is intuitable, mark generally the history of all Roman suburbs from Late Antiquity to the
Middle Ages; but only a careful and complete archaeological analysis will reveal exactly the features of these landscape changes. The complex
network of sanctuaries for which evidence exists
in the pilgrims' guides of the seventh and eighth
centuries is the end point of the Christianization
of the suburban areas developed here.75The ring
of sites outside the city walls in the seventh century, before the transfer of the bodies of the martyrs
to the urban churches, indicates the new ideology
defined by the diffusion of the Christian faith and
reflected in the organization of the suburbs.
The most obvious consequence of this phenomenon is the transformation of private into public
and collective spaces that combined funerary and
cult functions in a new way. Classical writers mentioned horti,praedia, and vMae sometimes in connection with sanctuaries and mausolea. In the Republican and early Imperial period, a denser network of cult spaces was found farther out, such as
the group of sanctuaries between the fifth and the

71Nestori1990; Fiocchi Nicolai et al. 1995-1996 (1999),

134-5; Spera 1999, 85-7.
72
Supra,n. 66.
73
Spera 1999, 248.

Testogreco emendatosuimanoscritticon traduzioneitaliana,

a curadi Domenico Comparetti,vol. 1, Roma 1895, 110-1.
75See Reekmans (1968; 1989, n. 32); most
recentlySpera
1998.

areas were enlarged to receive more people. In

the fifth century a small tunnel in the Balbina cemetery was turned into a basilica, perhaps dedicated to the Greek martyrs (fig. 20). 71During the
same period, Pope Leo I (440-461) ordered the
building of a ground basilica, probably near the
stairs to the hypogeum, to preserve the underground tomb of Cornelius.72 Meanwhile the old
cemeteries were expanded by a series of new structures connected with the martyrs' cults and the
reception of visitors. In the fifth century, for example, Sixtus III founded the first suburban monastery on the Via Appia, connected to the Basilica
Apostolorum.73
CONCLUSION

74Proc. goth. 1, 14 = La guerra gotica di Procopiodi Cesarea.

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2003]

CHRISTIANIZATIONOF SPACE IN THE SUBURBS OF ROME

39

Fig. 20. Cemeteryof Balbina:the small basilica probablydedicated to the Greek martyrs.(Courtesyof Archivio
Commissionedi Archeologia Sacra)

sixth milestones, where they functioned as meeting places for country people for religious festivals
such as the purification of the land and the propitiation of the harvest.76The urban population by
contrast used the public spaces inside the city.77It
is only with the diffusion of Christianity and the
acquisition by the Church of large areas outside
the walls that the suburban area acquire a new and
important "public"role.
Although it is not possible to draw general
schemes, especially for Late Antiquity, similar
trends have been recorded not only in Rome but
in other regions of the Mediterranean, especially
in Italy, Africa Proconsularis, and Gaul.78Therefore Christianityhad an important role in the transformation of cities from the third to seventh centuries A.D., in both intramural and suburban areas. In studies that have focused on extramural
sectors, such as in Milan, Carthage, or in some cities of Gaul,79important elements of this transformation have been recorded, and these data are
comparable with the information from Rome. In
all of them, the creation of ecclesiastical properties related to the presence of common cemeter-

ies and of martyrs' sanctuaries- centers of development and visitation- are two of the most important elements related to the evolution of suburban areas in Late Antiquity.
This article represents a detailed approach to a
circumscribed suburban area of Rome, highlighting that a development of new studies on the suburbs could contribute to the comprehension of
the transformations of post-Classical cities and to
the ongoing debates about the continuity or discontinuity of urban areas. Evidence presented here
from the area of the Via Appia shows the slow "destructuring" of one landscape followed by the creation of a new, Christianized panorama, a phenomenon that had started already during the Roman
empire.

76Legal995.
77
Regardingconcepts of public space in antiquity,see ZaccariaRuggiu1995.
78A
general descriptionof these townsis found in Carandi-

ni et al. 1993.
79On these cities, see Rebecchi 1993;Fevrier1993;Ennabli 1997.

UNIVERSITA DEGLI STUDI DI ROMA

"TOR VERGATA"
FACOLTA DI LETTERE- DIPARTIMENTO
DI ANTICHITA
VIA A. CAVAGLIERI6
ROME, ITALY
LUCRESPE@TIN.IT

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40

LUCREZIASPERA

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