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u.ska f,day mDIaGh u;g biskq ,ef' isrlh ;=< wdfrdamKh .ekafjk l=vq f,day
;yvqj u;g wdlIKh lr .kS' f,day ;yvqjg tldldr f,i me;s we;s l=vq f,dayhg
w,ajd .ekSu i|yd f,day by< WIaK;ajhla iys; fmdarKqjla ;=<ska hjkq ,ef'
isrlh
123456123456
123456
123456
123456

f,day
mDIaGh

HV

wdf,amkh i|yd fhdod

.kakd l=vq
wfjda,ah;d iemhqu

+ HV

ia;s oHq;a Od;dj

jia;=jl ia;s oHq;a Njh tall tllska kexug wjYH jkakd jQ wdfrdamK
m%udKh ia;s oHq;a Od;dj f,i ykajhs'
ta wkqj jia;=jlg Q wdfrdamKhla ,nd ka g tys Njh V njg m;af k
f,i oelah yel'
tys Od;dj
wdfrdamKh l+f,daj,ska (Q) o Njh fjda,aj,ska (V) o ukskq ,nk g ia;s
oHq;a Od;df tallh fjda,g
a hg l+f,da (QV-1) fjhs' th *er (F) hk ;ks tallfhka
m%ldY lrhs'

Od;%l
wdfrdamK /ialr ;nd .ekSug Od;%l Nd; lrhs'
tlsfklg uqyqK,d mj;sk f,i tlsfklg mr;rhla
;enQ f,day ;yvq hq.,la Od;%lhla f,i fhdod .kS'
Od;%lhl tla ;yvqjla u;g wdfrdamKh ,nd ka
g wfkla ;yvqj fma%rKfhka wdfrdamKh f'

+Q

+ +

- +

+Q
+

+ +

- +

+ +

-Q
-

- +

+ +

- +

+ +

- +

+Q

by; rEmj,ska oelafjk wdldrhg wfkla ;yvqj N+.; lsfuka lIKh jk

wdfrdamK N+.; fjhs' tg ;yvq u; tlsfklg m%;sreoaO wdfrdamk /ia j mj;S' fuhska
Od;%lh wdfrdamKh we;ehs lshuq'

Od;%lh ia;s oHq;a Od;djs

wdfrdamKh .eka jQ Od;%lhl w.% w;r Nj wka;rh tall tllska by< kexug
wjYH wdfrdamK m%udKh Od;%lhl ia;s oHq;a Od;dj f,i ykajuq'
Od;%lhl Od;dj my; idOl u; r|d mj;s'
;yvq w;r mr;rh (d)
;yvq w;r mr;rh je jk g Od;dj Bg wkqrEm j wvq f'
;yvqjl ls%hdld j.M,h (A)
;yvqjl ls%hdld j. M,h je jk jg Bg wkqrEm j Od;dj je f'
udOHfha mdrf;dj ( )
udOHhl iajNdjh u; r|d mj;sk idOlhls' mdrfoH;dj je ug wkqrEm j
Od;dj je f' tu idOl weiqka iudka;r ;yvq Od;%lhl Od;dj (C) i|yd my;
m%ldYkh bm;a lrkq ,ef'

fndfyda bf,lafg%dksl mm:j, Od;%l fhdod .kS' tajd O Od;dj,ska hqla;

f' Od;dj *er tlla hkq Yd, w.hla fjhs' tneka nyq, j wmg olakg ,efnk
Od;%l PF isg F w;r mrdih ;=< mj;akd jkdlj,ska hqla; tajd fjhs'

Od;%l j.
jO wjYH;dj,g .e<fmk wdldrhg Od;%l ksudKh lrkq ,ef' tajdfha
Nd;h ksudKh yd iajNdjh iy tys mdr oHq;a jH wkqj tajd j. l< yels f'
Od;%l
p,H
Variable

iar
Fixed

p,H Od;%l hkq tajdfha Od;dj wjYH f,i fjkia lr .; yels f,i ksudKh
lrkq ,enQ tajd f' tlaflda ;yvq w;r mr;rh fjkia l< yels f,i" ke;ak
;yvqj, ls%hdld j.M,h fjkia l< yels f,i fjd nyq, j ksudKh lrhs'
rEmfha oelafjkafka wO jD;a; f,i ilid
.;a f,day ;yvq fhdod f.k ;ekQ p,H
Od;%lhls'

tla f,day ;yvq lg,hla wfkla f,day ;yvq lg,h w;r tlsfkl fkd .Efjk fia
;nd uqyqKg uqyqK,d mj;akd ls%hdld j.M,h fjkia lr .ekSfuka wjYH Od;djh
,nd .kshs' we;e p,H Od;%l fmr ieliQ Od;%l f,i ksujkq ,ef'
p,H Od;%lhl ixfla;h

fmr ieliQ p,H Od;%lhl ixfla;h

iar Od;%l hkq Od;dj fjkia l< fkd yels whqka ksud jQ Od;%l f'
iar Od;%lhl ixfla;h

iar Od;%l
oHq;a foH ^O%eh&

oHq;a foH fkd jk ^wO%eh&

oHq;a foH Od;%l

mdroHq;a jH f,i oHq;a foH fhdod f.k ;ekQ Od;%l f' l=vd whqka ;ekQ
Yd, Od;d iys; Od;%l ;ekSug" nyq, j mdroHq;a jH f,i f,day Tlaihsv ia:rhla
Nd; lrhs' f i|yd weksh Tlaihs fyda gexg, fmkafgdlaihs nyq, j fhdod
.kS' tla ;yvqjla oHq;a fPaoH .=K olajk ridhksl jHhls' tneka
Al2O3 ;gqj ^mdr oHq;a jH&
Al

Al

oHq;a foH Od;%lj, Ok w.%h inkaO l< hq;af;a Ok iemhqug h'

tu ksid fuu Od;%l O%eh;djhla olajk Od;%l f,i o yeka f' iemhq
w.% udre jqjfyd;a th ;=< fhdod we;s ridhk jH oHq;a fokh msgjk jdhqj
ksid mSvkh je mqmqrd hdug bv we;'

oHq;a foH fkd jk Od;%l

mdroHq;a jH i|yd firla" ma,diala" fmd,s;Ska" jdhq jeks udOH fhdod .;a Od;%l
fuu j.hg wh;a f'
oHq;a foH Od;%l fhdod f.k O%eh;djla fkd fmkajk f,i ;ekQ Od;%l
tl,ia l< yels h' fjd w.% yqjudre lr Nd;fhka ydks fkdf' ;j o m%;H j;
iemhqj,g fhdod .; yels h'
wO%eh oHq;a foH Od;%l ;ekSf O%eh Od;%l hq.,la rEmfha oelafjk
f,i inkaO lr .; yels h'

nyq, j oelsh yels Od;%l lsysmhla my; rEmj,ska oelaf'

10

Od;%l weuqKq l%u

Od;%l inkaO lsf uQ,sl l%u 2 la fjhs'
iudka;r.; inkaOh
fYa%Ks.; inkaOh f,i oelah yels h'

iudka;r.; inkaOh
Od;dj C1, C2, C3 ........jQ Od;%l tajdfha
w.% fjk fjk u tlg inkaO lsfuka
iudka;r.; Od;%l moaO;shla ilid .;
yels h' fuu moaO;sfha iul Od;dj (C)
my; m%ldYfhka oelaf'

C1
C2
C3

C = C1+ C2 + C3 + ........

fYaK
% .
s ; inkaOh

C1

C2
V

C3

Od;dj C1, C2, C3jQ Od;%l rEmfha wdldrhg

inkaO lsu fYaK
% .
s ; inkaOhhs' fujeks
moaO;shl iul Od;dj (C) my; m%ldYfhka
oela f'

11

2' ir, Odrd yeisru

fldaI iy negrs
tosfkod cS;fha oS wmg O wjYH;d i|yd ,sh ,nd .ekSug is f' fuys oS
wms l%u folla wkq.ukh lruq'
1'
2'

fldaI uska ,sh ,nd .ekSu'

,s ckl ^vhskfuda& u.ska ,sh ,nd .ekSu'

fuys oS wm i,ld n,kafka fldaIj,ska ,sh ,nd .kakd wdldrh .ek h' ,sh
,nd .ekSu i|yd O fldaI Nd; flfrhs'
fldaI m%Odk jYfhka j. follg fnfohs' tk" m%d:l fldaI yd oa;Shsl
fldaI hkqfjks' m%d:l fldaI hkq jrla Nd;fhka miq bj;a l< hq;= fldaI f'
oa;Shsl fldaI hkq kej; kej; wdfrdamKh lsfuka ,sh ,nd .; yels fldaI f' ta
wkqj m%d:l fldaI kej; wdfrdamKh l< fkd yels fldaI f'
wo nyq, j Nd; flfrk fldaI lsysmhla my; oelaf'
1'
2'
3'
4'
5'
6'

iskala ldnka h<s fldaI ^f,la,dka fldaI&

laIdh h<s fldaI
ksl,a leh fldaI
Bh w, fldaI
ul Tlaihs fldaI
is,aj Tlaihs fldaI

by; ish u fldaI ridhksl fldaI f' tfia jkafka tajd ;=< is jk ridhksl
m%;sls%hd fya;=fjka oHq;a .dul n,hla we;s lsuhs' ta oHq;a .dul n,h fya;=fjka Nj
wka;rhla ^fjda,ah;djla& we;s flfrhs'
ridhksl fldaIhla uq,ska u ksudKh lrk ,oafoa wef,laiekav fjda,agd isks'
Tyq l< mlaIKj, m%;sM,hla jYfhka ir, fldaIh ys h'
iskala l+r

ldnka l+r

;kql i,amshqla w,h

rEmh 4

12

ls%hdld;ajh w;ska ir, fldaIh j, h' tys j,;d fufia oelah yels h'

fkd lvjd tl os.g ,s Odrdjla ,nd .; fkd yels u' fuhg fya;=j jkafka
O%ejKh k ls%hdjhs'
iskala l+r l,la .; jk g ;kql i,amshqla w,fha osh hdu'
;ek ;ek /f.k hdf wmyiq j'

ldnka iskala h<s fldaIh

by; j,;d u yrjd f.k ;kd we;s fldaIhls f,la,dka h<s fldaIh' fuh
wo nyq, j Nd; flfrk fldaI j.hls' fuuska ,nd.; yels fjda,ah;dj 1'5v la
f' Nd;hg myiq ksid h<s fldaI ffhda" le,alshqf,ag" lS%vd NdKav wdosfha nyq,
j fhdod .efkhs'

+
+
+
1.5
v
UM4
AAA

(UM cmka
ixfla;h&

+
1.5
v

1.5
v

1.5
v

UM3
AA

UM2
C

UM1
D

f h<s fldaI j.fha 9V la ,nd .; yels PP3 k fldaIhla o we;' th ilid

we;af;a 1.5V fldaI 6la fYa%Ks.; j msysgqjd ;ks tallhla f,i ilia lsfuks'

9V

13

h<s fldaIhl ieleiau my; rEmfha oelaf'

ms;a;, jeiau

ldnka l+r
wefudaksh laf,darhs
mdmamh
oe,a fros u,a,
ldnka l=vq + ueka.kSia
vfhdla ihs l=vq
;=;a;kd. fldmqj
ldnka iskala fldaIh m%d:l fldaIhls' ickh fuka miq j kej; Nd;hg
.; fkd yels h'

Bh w, fldaIh
Bh w, fldaIh" welshqf,agrh hkqfjka o ykajhs' fldaIfha fjda,ah;dj
2v la muK f' ^fyd|ska wdfrdamKh l< g 2'2v ls&' f fldaIh uska Yd, Odrdjla
tl jr ,nd .; yels u fYaI jdishls' fuh kej; kej; wdfrdamKh l< yels oa;Shsl
fldaIhls' idudkHfhka f fldaI ;ks fldaIhla f,i Nd; fkd flfrhs' fndfyda g
fldaI 3 la fYa%Ks.; j tallhla f,i msysgqjd f.k 6v neghla f,i o" ke;s k fldaI
6 la fYa%Ks.; j tallhla f,i msysgqjd f.k 12v neghla f,i o Nd;hg .efka'
f fldaI rn fyda ma,diala fyda weiqreula ;=< msysgqjkq ,nhs' oHq;a foHh
jkafka ;kql i,amshqla w,hhs' wdfrdams; ;;ajfha we;s g w,fha idfmalaI >k;ajh
1'28 la f' fldaIh ickh f oS idfmalaI >k;ajh 1'15 ls' Ok ^+& bf,lafg%davh
f,i r;= f, ^Pb3O4& o iDK ^-& bf,lafg%davh f,i f, Tlaihs ^Pbo & o fhdod
.efkhs' f bf,lafg%dav oE,sil wdldrhg ^j. M,h je lsu i|yd& ;kd ta w;rg
mjdrl jH ;nd b;d lsgqfjka msysgqjd we;' Bh w, neghla wdfrdamKh lsu
i|yd neg wdfrdamlhla ^Battery Charger& Nd; lrhs' wdfrdamlfha Ok ^+) iemhqu iEu
g negrsfha Ok ^+) w.%hg inkaO l< hq;= h' wvq Odrdjla hgf;a je ld,hla negh
wdfrdamKh lsu negfha wdhq ld,h je lsug fya;=jla f'
yosis wdf,dalk myka i|yd fYaI Bh w, fldaIhla ;kkq ,ef' tajd uqd ;nd
we;' we;=<; w, djKhla fjkqjg w,fhka fmd`.jk ,o lvodiS fhdod we;'

14

ksl,a leh fldaIh

ksl,a leh fldaIh oa;Shl
s fldaIhls' fjda,
a h;dj 1'25v f' oHq;a foHh
f,i fmdgEish yhsfv%dlaihs djKh fhdod .efkhs'

laIdh uex.kSia fldaI

laIdh uex.kSia fldaIh m%d:l fldaIhls' fjda,ah;dj 1'6v f' fuh idudkH
AA, D wd m%udKhg ;kkq ,nk w;r fnd;a; fldaI f,i o ;kkq ,efnhs'

is,aj Tlaihs fldaI

is,aj Tlaihs fldaI b;d l=vdjg fnd;a;ul yevhg ;kd we;' w;a Tf,daiq
wdosfha Nd; flfrhs' oHq;a foHh laIdh djKhls' Ok (+) w.%h ulTlaihs
jk w;r RK (-) w.%h iskala f' fuh o m%d:l fldaIhls'

iQh fldaIh
iQh fldaI wo ckms%h fjka mj;sk fldaI fYaIhls' iQh Yla;sh" ,s Yla;sh
njg yeru fuys uQ,sl ls%hdjhs' f i|yd wO ikakdhl ^is,slka& fhdod .efkhs' P
j.fha yd N j.fha wO ikakdhl ;yvq folla tlg ;efuka ilia lr we;' iQh
fldaIhlska 0'5v la muK fjda,ah;djla ,nd .; yels h' fldaIfha Yd,;ajh wkqj ,nd
.; yels Odrdj fjkia f' idudkHfhka iQh fldaI mek,hla" f,i ielfihs' tk"
l=vd iQh fldaI rdYshla fYa%Ks.; j yd iudka;r.; j inkaO lrhs'

15

oHq;h ms<sn| uQ,sl kshu

kshuh
m%;sfrdaOlhla ;=<ska .,k Odrdj tys fo fl<jr Nj wka;rhg wkqf,dau j
iudkqmd;sl f hkak kshuhhs' ikakdhlhl fo fl<jr Nj wka;rh V o" th
;=<ska .,k Odrdj I o jk g
V I
I
tu ksid V = ksh;hla f' K
V
I

rEmh 1
fuys K hkq iudkqmd;sl ksh;h f'
f ksh;h ikakdhlfha oHq;a m%;sfrdaOhg iudk f'

f.a kshuh weiqfrka fYa%Ks.; yd iudka;r.; m%;sfrdaO moaO;shl

iul m%;sfrdaOh fi
u
fiu
fYa%Ks.; inkaOh
R1, R2, R3, .......k jQ fYa%Ks.; m%;sfrdaO moaO;shl iul m%;sfrdaOh R k
v1
R1

v2

v3

R2

R3

moaO;sfha fo fl<jr Nj
=
wka;rh ^V&

m%;f
s rdaO moaO;sfha fo
fl<jrg V Nj
wka;rhla fh g ta
;=<ska I Odrdjla .,hs
k

tla tla m%;sfrdaOlfha fo fl<jr

Nj wka;rj, tl;=j

Tf.a kshuh wkqj

tu ksid"

V =IR

V=V1 + V2 +V3
I R = I R1 + I R2 + I R3

V1 = I R1
V2 = I R2

R = R1 + R2 + R3 + ..........

16

V3 = I R3

by; m%ldYh wkqj fYa%Ks.; m%;sfrdaO moaO;shl iul m%;sfrdaOh m%;sfrdaO ish,af,a
u ftlHhg iudk f' tu ksid wvq w.hlska hq;a m%;sfrdaOl fhdod je w.hl m%;sfrdaO
w.hla ,nd .ekSug wjYHh k wod< m%;sfrdaOl fY%aKs.; j inkaO l< hq;= h'

iudka;r.; inkaOh
R1, R2, R3, ......m%;f
s rdaO moaO;shla iudka;r.; f,i inkaO fldg tys fo fl<jrg
yd Odrd .,kafka
Nj wka;rhla fh l< g tla tla m%;sfrdaOh ;=<ska ms<sfj<ska
k yd ta Odrdj, tl;=j fyj;a moaO;sfha .,d hk uq`: Odrdj I k

I
V

R1

R2

R3

I = V
R
I1 = V
R1

Tf.a kshuh wkqj

i1,i
32 2

I2 = V
R2
I3 = V
R3

by; m%ldYh wkqj iudka;r.; m%;sfrdaO moaO;shl iul m%;sfrdaOfha mriamr

w.h tla tla m%;sfrdaOfha mriamrj, ftlHhg iudk f' tu ksid by< w.hlska hq;a
m%;sfrdaOl lsysmhlska wvq m%;sfrdaO w.hla ,nd .ekSug wjYHh k wod< m%;sfrdaOl
iudka;r .; j inkaO l< hq;=hs'

m%;sfrdaO i|yd jk fla;

m%;sfrdaOj, w.h fla; weiqfrka m%ldY lrkq ,nk g fhdod .kakd O iu;
fla; l%u mj;S' ta w;=frka jK fla; l%uh nyq, f,i fhdod .kakd fla; l%uhls'
m%;sfrdaOlhl oelau i|yd jK 4 lska jK 5 lska iy jK 6 lska hq;a fla;
l%u iys; m%;sfrdaOl j;udkfha Nd; flf'

17

jK 4 fla; l%uh
f fla; l%ufha oS m%;sfrdaOl u;
tla fl<jrls k a wer tls f klg
wdikakfha jK ;Sre ;=kla o tajdg
wE;ska tla jK ;Srh o fhdod we;' m%:u
jK ;=k uska m%;sfrdaO w.h o y;r
jk jKh uska w.h fjkia h yels
m%;sY;h fyj;a iyk w.h o oelaf'

A B C D

my; m%ldYh mos m%;sfrdaOlhl w.h .Kkh lrkq ,f'

m<uq jk
jK ;Srh

fo jk
jK ;Srh

;=ka jk
jK ;Srh

y;r jk
jK ;Srh

Wod #
A
r;=
2

jKh

B
o
7

C
r;=
00

m<uq jk
jK ;Srh

fo jk
jK ;Srh

D
rka
+5% = 2700 +5%
= 2.7K +5%
C
;=ka jk
jK ;Srh

l`:

100

Uqre

101

r;=

102

;e,s

103

ly

104

fld<

105

ks,a

106

107

w`:

108

iq

109

rka
oS
wjK

10-1
10-2
-

18

D
y;r jk
jK ;Srh

+5%
+10%
+20%

jK 5 fla; l%uh
fuys oS m%:u jK y;r uska m%;f
s rdaOfha w.h o" mia jk jKh uska iyk w.h
o oelaf'
A B C D

m<uq jK
;Srhg
wh;a w.h

fo jk
jK ;Srhg
wh;a w.h

fld<
5

ks,a
6

;=ka jk
jK ;Srhg
wh;a w.h

y;r jk
jK ;Srhg
wh;a w.h

;e,s
r;==
3
00
= 56300 +5%
= 56.3 K +5%

m%;sfrdaOfha w.h = ABC x 10D

mia jk
jK ;Srhg
jK ;Srhg
E
rka
+5%

E%

f jK fla; l%ufha oS jvd;a ksjeros w.h mldY lsf yelshdj we;' ksjeros;dj
jeo.;a jk wjia:dj, oS fujeks m%;sfrdaOl Nd; flf'

jK 6 fla; l%uh
fuh jK 5 la iys; fla; l%uhg iudk jk w;r WIaK;ajh wkqj fjkia jk
m%udKh oelau i|yd ;j;a jK ;Srhla fhdod we;' fYaIfhka ixlSK WmlrK
;ekSf oS fuu m%;sfrdaO Nd; lrhs'

lfpd*a Odrd kshuh

,s mm:hla ixjD; jQ g kEu ikahla fj; .,d tk Odrdj, ftlHh bka
bj;g hk Odrdj, ftlHhg iudk f'
ikah fj; I1 " Odrdjla o" bka bj;g
I2 yd I3 Odrdjka o .,d hhs k"

I2
I1

I1 = I2 + I3

I3

19

oHq;a Yla;sh yd cjh

lsish udOHhla ;=<ska ,sh .,d hdf oS ;dmh WmoS' WodyrKhla f,i iQ;s%ld
mykla i,luq' iQ;s%ld mykg ,sh iemhQ g wdf,dalh o" ;dmh o Yla;sh jYfhka
W;aickh f' fufia W;aickh jk ;dmh ukskq ,nkafka cQ,a ^J & kue;s tallfhks'
ikakdhlh ;=<ska Yla;sh W;aickh jkqfha th ;=<ska Odrd .e,Sug lsish
ndOdjla mj;sk ;dla muKs' tk m%;sfrdaO w.hla mj;skafka k muKs'
Odrdj hkq wdfrdamK .e,Sula nj Tn okS' ta wkqj lsish wdfrdamKhla fjk;a
;eklg f.k hkq ,nkafka ikakdhlfha fo fl<jr we;s oHq;a mSvk fjki ke;sk
Nj fjki fya;= fldg f.k h'
Q wdfrdamKhla V Nj wka;rhla ;=< .uka lsf oS ksoyia jk Yla;sh"
wdfrdamKfha;a" Nj wka;rfha;a .=Ks;hg iudk nj ia;s oHq;h hgf;a Tn wOHhkh
lr we;'
ta wkqj Yla;sh = Q.V
tall ld,hl oS .,kakd jQ wdfrdamKh Odrdjg iudk neka

tneka V Nj wka;rhla hgf;a mj;akd m%;sfrdaOhla ;=<ska

Odrdjla .e,Sf oS ckkh jk Yla;s m%udKh

ld,hla ;=<

V, I yd t ys .=Ks;hg iudk f'

Yla;sh = VI.t f'
V = IR ksid
Yla;sh = I2 Rt f,i o
=
f,i o m%ldY l< yels h'
tall ld,hl oS Wmojk Yla;s m%udKh cjh^CIu;dj& f,i ye|skafjhs'
ta wkqj" cjh

Yla;sh
ld,h

20

cjh
P = VI
cjh uekSu i|yd fhdod .kakd tallh ;;amrhg cQ,a fyj;a fjd ^W&
jYfhka olajkq ,f'

ir, Odrdf ;dmk M,h

ir, Odrdj m%;sfrdaOlhla ;=<ska .,d hdf oS ;dmh W;aickh f' tfia u
we;e wjia:dj, oS wdf,dalh o uqla; lrk njg w;aoelS we;' fuhska fmkShkafka
uqla; lrk iuia; Yla;sfhka we;e g uq`:ukska u fyda bka fldgila fyda ;dmYla;sh
h yels nj h'
fndfyda WmlrK Nd;fha oS ksoyia jk cjh wjYH Yla;sh wdldrfhka u ,nd
.ekSu W.yg h' fufia msg jk wkjYH Yla;sh tu WmlrKh i|yd ydks jk Yla;shls'
f ksid Yla;s ydksh wju lr .ekSu i|yd ksudKlrefjda fndfyda g Wkka fj;s'

,dhl Nd;h
,dhlhla hkq lsish iSudld Odrd .e,Sula blau u fya;=fjka WKqiq j
njg m;ajk ikakdhl fldgila fhdod f.k mm:h ika lrug ilia lr we;s
Wmdx.hls'
,dhl ;ekSf oS ;Uj,g jvd jdxlh wvq ka jeks f,day Y% flf' f i|yd
f,day f;dard .ekSf oS i,lkq ,nk ;j;a .=Kdx. lsysmhls'

WKqiq u iu Tlaihsv fkd iEoSu

m%;sfrdaOh wvq u
jdxlh my< w.hla u

,dhl ;ekSf oS tajd laIKsl j fyda fika j jk f,i ksmojd we;s ksid
ldhhg .e<fmk ,dhl j.hla f;dard .ekSu jeo.;a f' ,dhlhl m%u; w.h
^Rating Value& m%ldY lr we;af;a" fN!;sl ;;a;ajh fjkia fkd" ta ;=<ska .,d hd yels
Wmu Odrdj u.sks' ^Wod (100mA, 2A, 10A&

21

ir, Odrdf ridhksl M,h

wd,sl" NdIal fyda ,jK djK ridhksl djK f,i ie,fla' fujeks
djKhla ;=<g ikakdhl hq.,hla .s,ajd ta ikakdhl hq., ,s iemhqulg inkaO l<
g djKh ;=<ska ,s Odrdjla .,d hhs' f ls%hdf oS djKh oHq;a foHh f,i
ykajk w;r ikakdhl hq., bf,lafg%dav f,i k flf' iemhqf Ok ^+& w.%h yd
inkaO ikakdhlh wefkdavh f,i;a RK ^-& w.%h yd inkaO ikakdhlh lef;davh
f,i;a ye|skafjhs'
oHq;a foHh ;=<ska Odrdj .e,Sf O
ridhksl lsh
% d is jk nj my; WodyrKj,ska
wjfndaO lr .; yels h'
wefkdavh

lef;davh
oHq;a
foHh
rEmh -6

c,Sh fidah laf,darhs" ldnka bf,lafg%dav fhdod

oHq;a fokh lsu
fuys djKh ;=< jQ Na+,Cl-, H+ yd OHwhk w;ka H+ whkh lef;davh uska
bf,lafg%dav ,nd f.k mrudKq njg m;a
bka wk;=re j H2 wKqjla jYfhka ksoyia
C
C
Nacl + H2O
rEmh - 7

f'
Cl - whkh wefkdavh fj;g
bf,lafg%dakhla ,nd Cl mrudKqjla njg
m;a j wk;=re j Cl2 wKqjla f,i ksoyia
jk w;r djKh ;=< Na+ yd oH- tla
fidah yhsfv%dlaihs (NaoH)we;s f'
ludka; lafIa;%fha NaoH ksIamdokhg f
oHq;a fok l%uh Nd; flf'

22

Cl2
e
Clel-

H2
H+ e
H+

NaoH + H2O

rEmh 8

fldm i,afma CuSo4 djKhla wefkdavh f,i ;U yd lef;davh f,i

ldnka bf,lafg%dav fhdod oHq;a fokh lsu

Cu

CuSo4 + H2O

fuys lef;davh uska bf,lafg%dak ,nd

.kakd Cu+2 whkh Cu f,i bf,lafg%davh
u; ;eka m ;a f' wefkda v fha we;s Cu
bf,lafg%dak folla bf,lafg%davh fj; ,nd
Cu+2f,i djKhg tl;= f' fuu.ska Cu
;U ;yvqf wdf,amhla f,i ;ekam;a jk
w;r djKfhka bj;a jk Cu whk i|yd
;U ;yvqfjka Cu whk ,nd fohs'

oHq;a fok ls%hdj,sh uQ,jH ksiaidrKh lr .ekSug fuka u oHq;a

f,daydf,amk lghq;= i|yd o fhdod .kS' by; l%h
s dj,sh oHq;a f,daydf,amkhg WodyrKhls'
oHq;a fokh uska oHq;a Yla;sh ridhksl Yla;sh jYfhka .nvd lrkq
,nk wjia:d o we;' ta i|yd WodyrKhla f,i oa;Shsl fldaI wdfrdamKh lsu yekah
yels h'

23

3' m%;Hdj;k Odrdj

m%;Hdj;k Odrd ckkh lrk wdldrh uYkh uska m%;Hdj;k Odrdf
iajNdjh myiqfjka jgyd .; yels h'
m%;Hdj; Odrdj ckkh flfrkafka pqnl lafIa;%hla ;=< ia:dmkh lrk ,o
i, o`.rhl N%uK ls%hdj fya;= fldg f.k h' f l orh wlaIhla jgd N%uKh fjhs'
orfha fo fl<jka m%;Hdj; Odrdj ckkh flf'
Q

RL

y+

y-

x-

RL

x+

90 0

2700

rEmh 1
pqnl O%ej fol w;r orh 3600 la fyj;a tla jghla N%uKh f oS is jk
ls%hdj m%ia;drhlska oelah yels h' fuys oS m%ia;drfha yevfhka ia;r flfrkafka
m%;Hdj; fjda,ah;df yeisuhs' ,efnk ;rx.h ihskdldr hhs lshkq ,ef'
A
B
C
D

orfha msysu 00

orfha msysu 900

PS iy QR
PS iy QR
n, fLdj,g
n, fLdj,g
iudka;r ksid
,N ksid Wmu
n, fLd fkdlefma' jYfhka n, fLd
0V
lefma'
+V

orfha msysu 1800

orfha msysu 2700

PS iy QR
PS iy QR ndyq
n, fLdj,g
900 wjia:df
iudka;r ksid
N%uKh jk osYdjg
n, fLd fkdlefma' reoaO osYdjg N%uKh
0V
fjka Wmu jYfhka
n, fLd lefma'
-V

24

xy ;U lu orh olaIsKdjD; f,i N%uKh f' x g idfmaCIj y j, fjda,ah;dj

fjkia jk
wdldrh'
y
x

rEmh 3

pqnl O%ej fol w;r msys pqnl n, fLd orh uska lemSf YS>%;dj N%uK
fldaKh wkqj fjkia f' n,fLd wju j lefmk g fjda,ah;dj 0 jk w;r l%ufhka
n,fLd lemSu je orh 900 msysf oS Ok f,i Wmu f' B< 900 ys N%uKh jk
g l%ufhka n,fLd lemS YS>%;dj wvq kej; fjda,ah;dj 0 g mefKa' B< 900 oS
fyj;a jg 3$4 la olajd N%uKh jk g Odrdj .,k osYdj udrefjka fjda,ah;dj RK
f,i Wmu f' b;s 900 fyj;a wjYH jg 1$4 ;=< oS keje; n, fLd lemSu wvq
fjda,ah;dj 00g mefKa' fuh fkd lvjd is fuka by; ;rx. yevh iys; wLKav j
m%;Hdj;k fjda,ah;djla we;s osYd udre fjka .,k Odrdjla we;s f' x WodiSk
ikakdhl jk w;r y ics ikakdhl f'
m%;Hdj; fjda,ah;df ,dlaIKsl w.h (

1'

Wmu w.h

25

by; ;rx. wdldrh kslaIKh lsf oS ir, Odrdf oS fuka m%;Hdj; Odrdf
fyda fjda,ah;df fyda ksYa; w.hla m%ldY l< fkd yels nj fmkS hkq we;'
tneka m%;Hdj;k Odrdf iy fjda,ah;djfha w.hhka lsysmhla w: olajkq
,efnhs' my; ;rx. igyfka oelafjk mos ihskdldr ;rx.h ;=< ,efnk Wmu
ia;drh fjda,ah;df Wmu w.h f,i w: oelafjhs'

rEmh 5
Vp - fjda,ah;df Wmu w.h
Vp-p fjda,ah;df Wpdka;r w.h

peak voltage
peak to peak voltage

Wmu folla w;r w.h Wdka;r w.h f,i oelafjhs'

Vp-p = 2Vp
idudkH w.h fyj;a uOHkH w.h
ihskdldr ;rx.hl idudkH w.h ie,lSf oS wO ;rx.hla i,ld idudkH w.h
.Kkh flfrhs' th m%;Hdj; fjda,ah;djfha ir, Odrd fjda,ah;d w.hg iudkh'
imQK ;rx.h i,ld idudkH w.h .; fyd;a th Y+kH f' tk iu;sl m%;Hdj;
fjda,ah;djhl ir, Odrd fjda,ah;dj Y+kH f' idudkH w.h Wmu w.hg olajk
wkqmd;h 0'636 fjhs' idudkH w.h yd Wmu w.h w;r inkaOh my; m%ldYkfhka
oelah yels h'
ihskdldr wO jl%hl idudkH w.h Wmu w.fhka 2 ^0'636& w.hls'

2'

Vav = 0.636 Vp
Vav hkq fjda,ah;df idudkH w.hhs' Odrdj i|yd o f m%ldYkh my; mos
fhosh yels h'
Iav = 0.636 Ip
3. j. uOHkH uQ, w.h (Root Mean Squre Value)
nrlg m%;Hdj; Odrd iemhqula inkaO l< g uqla; jk cj m%udKhg iudk
cj m%jdyhla msg jk ir, Odrd w.h by; fhdok ,o m%;Hdj; Odrdf j. uOHkH

26

uQ, w.hg iudk f' fuu w.h m%;Hdj; fjda,ah;df iM, w.h fyj;a cj w.h
f,i ye|skaf' fjda,ah;df Wmu w.h yd j. uOHkH uQ, w.h w;r inkaOh
my; m%ldYkfhka oelah yels h'
VP = 2 Vrms , 2
1.414
neka

VP = 1.414 Vrms
V
VrmsP =

Vrms
1 V
p
2

neka

Vrms = 0.707 VP
Odrdj i|yd o f m%ldYkh my; mos fhdod .; yels h'

cj uQ,slj, i|yka lr we;af;a fjda,ah;djfha j. uOHk uQ, w.h hs'

Wod# 230V, 33000V
4'
ixLHd;h (f)
;rx.hl ;;amrhla ;=< oS we;s jk jl% m%udKh ixLHd;h f,i w: oelafjhs'
ixLHd;h uekSu i|yd Nd; flfrk talh yia ^HZ& jk w;r yia tlla hkq
;;amrhg jl% tlls' O ldh i|yd fhdod .kq ,nk ;rx. j.SlrKfha oS ixLHd;h
mdol lr f.k ;rx. mrdij,g fjka flfrhs' ,xldf cj uQ,sl iemhqf ixLHd;h
50HZ f'

5'

ld,dj;h (T)

;rx.hl tla jl%hla ^tla ;rx. wdhduhla& we;s ug .; jk ld,h ld,dj;h

f,i yekafjhs' ld,dj;h T uska olajk w;r ld,dj;h yd ixLHd;h w;r inkaOh
my; m%ldYkfhka oelaf'

50 HZ jQ ,xldf cj uQ,sl iemhqf ld,dj;h fufia .Kkh l< yels h'

O wjYH;d i|yd ihskdldr fkd jk m%;Hj; ;rx. Nd; jk wjia:d we;'

27

tjeks ;rx. yev lsysmhla my; oelaf'

y;/ia ;rx.

;s%fldaKdldr ;rx.

lsh;a oe;s wdldr ;rx.

28

wlS%h Wmdx. Nd;fhka m%;Hdj; Odrdj yeisru

B

rEmh 1

^1& yd ^2& mm:j, R m%;sfrdaOlh B ,s myk yd iemhq fjda,ah;dj tlla

wfklg iudk h' ^1& mm:h i|yd ir, Odrd iemhqula ,nd we;s w;r ^2& m:h i|yd
m%;Hdj; Odrd iemhqula ,nd oS we;'
by; wdldrhg mm: tl,ia lr myfkaa ma;sh kslaIKh l<fyd;a myka fofla
u ma;sh iudk nj kslaIKh l< yels h' thska meye,s jkafka mm: fofla u Odrdj
.e,Sug ndOdj fia ls%hd lr we;af;a m%;sfrdaOl w.h muKla nj h' tk m%;Hdj; Odrd
yd ir, Odrd iemhq folg u m%;sfrdaOh tl fia ls%hd lrk nj h'
m%;Hdj; Odrd iemhqug Y=oaO m%;sfrdaOlhla muKla inkaO lr we;s g
fjda,ah;dj yd Odrdj my; oelafjk m iu l,df ^in phase& msysghs' ^tljr Wmu
f'&

rEmh 2

my; oelafjk ^1& mm:fhka fma%rlhla yryd ir, Odrdjla inkaOlr we;s
wdldrh;a " ^2& mm:fhka m%;Hdj; Odrdjla inkaO lr we;s wdldrh;a oelaf' fm%arlh
ilia lr we;s lj, m%;sfrdaOhla wvx.= f'

29

fuys ^1& mm:fha we;s myfka ma;shg jvd ^2& mm:fha we;s myfka ma;sh wvq nj
kslaIKh l< yels h' thska meye,s jkafka m%;Hdj; Odrdf oS fm%arlfha we;s
m%;sfrdaohg wu;r j fjk;a ndOdjla o we;s lrk njhs' tu ndOdj fma%rl m%;sndOkh
kka ykajhs' ^Inductive reactance&
th XL uska oelafjk w;r tu w.h iemhqf ixLHd;h ^f& yd fma%rlfha fma%r;dj
^L& u; r|d mj;S' fma%rl m%;sndOkh o ^ & j,ska ukskq ,nk w;r th my;
m%ldYkfhka oelah yels h'

Y=oaO fma%rlhla m%;Hdj;k Odrdjlg inkaO l< g my; oelafjk m Odrdj

fjda,ah;djg 900 la msgqmiska ^miq oej& ^Lag& msysghs' ^Y=oaO fm%arlhla hkq m%;sfrdaOh
rys; fm%arlh ls'&

ixLHd;h yd fma%rl m%;sndOkh w;r inkaOh my; m%ia;drfhka oelah yels h'
XL

30

m%ia;drh wkqj ixLHd;h je jk g fm%arl m%;sndOkh je f'

my; oelafjkafka Od;%lhla yryd m%;Hdj; Odrdjla yd ir, Odrdjla inkaO
lr we;s wjia:d folls'

fuys ^1& mm:fha n,anh fkd oe,afjk w;r ^2& mm:fha muKla n,anh oe,af'
thska fmkS hkafka ir, Odrdj Od;%lh ;=<ska .,kafka ke;s njhs' Od;%lh ksid
m%;Hdj; Odrdjg olajk ndOdj Od;%l m%;sndOkh ^Capacitive reactance&" f,i ykajk
w;r tu w.h tu Od;%lfha Od;dj ^c& yd ixLHd;h ^f& u; r|d mj;s' th my;
m%ldYkfhka ,nd .; yels h'

m%;Hdj;k Odrdjlg Od;%hla muKla inkaO l< g my; oelafjk wdldrhg

Odrdj fjda,ah;djg jvd 900 la bfhka ishs' tk fmroe j ^Lead& msysghs' ir,
Odrdj i|yd Od;%l m%;sNdokh wkka; f'

900

iemhqf ixLHd;h yd Od;%l m%;sndOkh w;r inkaOh my; m%ia;drfha oelaf'

rEmh 8

31

f wkqj ixLHd;h je jk g Od;%l m%;sndOkh wvq jk nj fmkS hhs'

m%dfhda.sl mm:hl Y=oaO fma%rl;djla mej;sh fkd yels h' wksjdhfhka u
mm:fha ikakdhlj, we;s m%;f
s rdaOh je f' tneka fm%r
a l mrsm:hl fmar
% l m%;n
s dOkh
iy m%;sfrdaOh hk idOl 2 lu ;sh yels h' tg ta m%;sndOk yd m%;sfrdaO ksid we;s jk
uq`: ndOdj indOkh ^Impednce& kka yekafjhs' th z j,ska oelafjhs' fm%arlhla tys
we;s Y=oaO fm%ar;djh;a" m%;sfrdaOh;a fY%aKs.; jQ mm:lhg iudkh'
XL

rEmh 9
Od;%l yd m%;sfrdaOl fY%aKs.; mm:hl iNdokh

Xc

Z
R

rEmh 10

Od;%l fma%rl yd m%;sfrdaOl iys; mm:hl indOkh

XL
( XL -XC )

2
R

rEmh 11
XC

32

m%;sfrdaOl" Odrs;%l yd fma%rl iys; mrsm:j, cj idOlh

il%Sh yd m%;sl%Shl cjh (Active and reactive power)
m%;sfrdaOlhl cj W;aickh we;s jk kuq;a fma%rlhl fyda Od;%lhl fyda cj
W;aickhla we;s fkdf' tfy;a tla tla Wml%uh ;=<ska ,sh .,dhdf oS fjda,ah;d
yd Odrd w.hla we;s ksid f rdYsj, .=Ks;fhka cj w.hla ,ef' tu ksid Odrdjka
.,k mm:hl cjh P = VI uska oelah yels h'
m%;sfrdaohla ;=<ska m%;Hdj; Odrdjla .,d hk g ;dm ydkshla we;s f' tu
ydksh kej; ,nd .; fkd yels neka il%Sh cjh f,i ye|ska f' Y+oaO fm%arlhla ;=<ska
m%;Hj; Odrdjla .,d hk g iy Od;%lhla fj;g m%;Hdj; fjda,ah;djla fh g
ckkh jk pqnl yd oHq;a lafIa;% i|yd iemhqfuka cjhla ,nd .kS' tfy;a fuu
lafIa;% ldka fkdf hehs Wml,amkh l< g Odrdjka iy fjda,ah;djhka Y+kH f
oS ,nd .;a cjh kej; iemhqug ,ef' fuu cjh m%;sl%Shl cjh f,i ye|ska f'
l=uk wl%Sh Wmdx. mm:fha ;snqk o thg ,nd .kakd fjda,ah;df yd Odrdf
.=Ks;h oDYH cjh ^S& f,i w: oelafjhs' tneka S = VI f,i oelah yels h'
oDYH cjh ^apparent power& i|yd fjda,a wemsh (VA) hk ixhqla; tallh
Nd; flfrhs'
ta ksid fm%arl iy m%;sfrdaOl fyda Od;%l iy m%;sfrdaOl wvx.= mrsm:hl oDYH
cjh yd ilS%h cjh w;r wka;rhla we;s fjhs' thg fya;=j by; i|yka ixhqla; mm:
j,g fjda,ah;dja fh g .,d hk Odrdj iul,df fkd msysuhs'
f wjia:d fofla u Odrdj ms<sfj<ska fmrgq yd miq jk ksid Wmdx. fol ;=<
we;sjk cjh tl;= l< fkdyel' Y=oaO fm%arlhla iy m%;sfrdaOlhla fY%aKs.; jQ wjia:djla
i,luq' tg tu Wmdx. fol fj; iemhq fjd,ah;djhla fh g tla tla Wmdx.h
yryd fjda,ah;djhka tlsfklg Rcq fldaKsl j msysghs'
L

VL

VL

VS

VS

VL

VR

VS

VR

VR

A, B, C ;%sfldaKh fjda,ah;d ffoYsl igyfkka bj;a l< g ol=Kq mi we;s

ffoYsl igyk ,ef' fuu rdYSka ;=k u mm:h ;=<ska .,d hk Odrdfjka .=K l< g
cj ;%sfldaKhla ,ef' th my; igyfkka olajd we;'
VS = iemhq fjda,ah;dj

VSIS

VLIS

VR IS

IS

= iemhq Odrdj

VSIS = oDYH cjh ^mm:h ,nd .kakd cjh& ^VA&

VRIS = i;H cjh ^il%Sh cjh - mm:fhka jeh jk cjh& ^W&
VLIS = m%;sl%Shl cjh ^mm:fhka ;djld,slj ,nd .kakd cjh& ^VAR&

33

oDYH cjh hkq fjda,a grhlska iy wegrhlska uefkk w.fha .=Ks;h hs'
tg ilS%h cjh P fokq ,nkafka ^Active or real power&
P = VSIS Cos
usks' m%;slS%hl cjh ^Reactive power& Q fokq ,nkafka
Q = VSIS Sin
usk's
fuhska fmkS hkafka fm%arl fh g il%Sh cjh ,nd .ekSug Bg jvd je cjhla
iemhqfuka ,nd.; hq;= njhs'
ishu w.hka i|yd Odrdf yd fjda,ah;df j. uOHkH uQ, w.h (r.m.s.
Values) fhdod .efka'
ilS%h cjfhys tallh fjd ^Watt& o" oDYH cjfha tall VA o" m%;slS%hl cjfhys
tall 'VAR' o f'
Yd, cjh w.hka m%ldY lsf ilS%h cjh KW yd MW uska o m%;sl%Shl cjh
KVAR yd MVAR uska oelafjhs'

cj idOlh
cj idOlh hkq oDYH cjfhka fldmuK m%udKhla il%Sh cjh f,i Nd;
lrkafka o hkakhs' tk ilS%h cjfha yd oDYH cjfha wkqmd;hhs' ihskdldr iemhqula
i|yd cj idOlh fokq ,nkafka Cos usks'
cj idOlh =

il%sh cjh
oDYH cjh

VRIS

= COS

VSIS

f fya;=j ksid fjda,ah;dj yd Odrdj w;r l,d fldaKfha ihska w.h cj

idOlh kka yekafjhs'
fma%rlhla i|yd jQ m%;slS%hl cjh + k Od;%lhla i|yd jQ m%;slS%hl cjh - f'
wkqrEm fjda,ah;djg Odrdj fmrgq u wkqj ^Lead & fyda mud u ^Lag& cj
idOlh fmrgq fyda mud fyda f'
tneka fma%rl ksid cj idOlh mud jk w;r Od;%l ^Odrs;dj& ksid cj idOlh
fmrgq f' ^bfha msyg
s hs& tneka fm%r
a lhka ksid mudjk cj idOlhla Od;%l fhfuka
fmrgq lr .; yels h'

34

tk cj idOlh oshqKq lr lr .; yels h'

cj idOlh oshqKq lr .ekSfuka oDYH cjhg wdikak ilS%h cjhla ,nd .; yels
h' th jdis odhl f' tu ksid cj idOlh oshqKq lr .ekSu i|yd Yd, cjhla Nd;
lrk ludka;Yd,d wdfha Od;%l leka ^Capasitor bank& fhdod .efka'
cj idOlh" 1 ^tl& jqjfyd;a ilS%h cjh oDYH cjhg iudk f' tfy;a m%dfhda.sl
f,i cj idOlh 1 njg m;a lsu wiSre f'
Wod ( mdfNda.slfhl= ,nd .kakd 500kw l nr cj idOlh 0'71 ls' Tyqf.a nr
cj idOlh 0'9 olajd hqKq lr .ekSug fhh hq;= Od;%lj, w.h .Kkh lruq'

tg

yd
f'

A
B
C

fhosh hq;= Od;dj, w.h 253'76 KVAR fjhs'

35

tl,d ^;ks l,d& yd f;l,d ^;s%l,d&

,s iemhq iy tajdfha Nd;
ksjdi" fjf<| wdh;k" mdi,a" ludka;Yd,d wd ia:dkj, we;s ,s WmlrK yd
bf,lafg%dksl WmlrK ls%hd;aul lrug cj uQ,sl ^m%Odk& ,sh n,h wjYH f' f
i|yd tl,d ^Single Phase& yd f;l,d ^Three Phase & ,sh Nd; flfrhs' tl,d ,s
n,h 230v fjda,ah;djla o" f;l,d ,s n,h 400v fjda,ah;djla o hqla; h'
idudkH l=vd mudKfha ksjdi" wdh;k wdfha lghq;= i|yd tl,d ,sh m%udKj;a
h' fuys ,sh wldh uska i yd WodiSk hk l follska ,s n,h imhd
fohs' idudkH ksfjil we;s ish u ,s WmlrK i|yd tl,d ,sh m%udKj;a f'
tl,d ,s n,fha we;s jdishla jkafka l folla muKla Nd; lr ksfji ;=<
mm:h ilia l< yels u h' tl,d ,s n,fha we;s wjdis my; oelaf'

je uy;lska hq;a l wjYH u'

tl,d ,s fudagj, m%udKh Yd, u'
tl,d fudagj, werUq orhla ;sh hq;= u'
tl,d ,sh RcqlrKfha Od;dj je Od;%l wjYH u'

f;l,d ,s n,h ,nd .ekSug l ;=kla fyda y;rla fyda wjYH f' fuh
wjdishls' kuq;a f;l,d ,s mm:j, wvq uy;lska hq;a l Nd; l< yels h' th
jdishls'
f;l,d ,s fudagj, lafIa;% or t;Sf oS werUq or wjYH fkdf' tfuka
u jjk orfha l uy;ska wvq lr .; yels h' f ksid tl,d ,s fudag iu
iei|Sf oS f;l,d ,s fudag cjfhka iudk jqj o m%udKfhka yd nka tl,d ,s
fudagj,g jvd l=vd h' f;l,d ,s fudagj, jHdj;h je f' lafIa;% orj,
iemhq w.% yqjudre lsfuka f;l,d fudagrhl N%uK Ydj myiqfjka udre l< yels f'
f;l,d ,sh RcqlrKfha oS th iqug lsu i|yd wvq Od;djla we;s Od;%l
m%udKj;a h'
ludka; Yd,dj, O WmlrK yd hka;% Nd; flf' fjd ls%hd;aul f oS
wk;=re we;s ug we;s tla fya;=jla k tajdfha we;e p,k fldgia p,kh jk nj fkd
fmkSu h' fuh N%flaI M,h k f' fufia fkd fmkk wjia:djla jkafka m%;soSml
mykaj, wdf,dalh hgf;a tajd ls%hd lsf h' fndfyda ludka; Yd,dj,

36

wdf,dallrKh i|yd m%;soSml myka Nd; lrhs' idudkH weig fkd fmfkk uq;a fuu
mykaj,ska wdf,dalh msgjkafka .eiaiSula we;sj h'
f;l,d ,sfha iemhq ;=kg fjk fjk u myka inkaO lr wdf,dalh ,ndfuka
N%flaI M,h u yrjd .; yels h' tfia jkafka f;l,d ,sfha tla tla l,dj 1200
l mudjlska miq we;s uhs' tla mykla ksfjk g wfkla myk oe,a mej;Su ksid
wdf,dalh taldld j ,ef'

37

4' kq WmlrK
,s mm:hl .,d hk Odrdj iy tu Odrdj .,d hdug fya;= jk fjda,ah;dj
uekSug m%Odk jYfhka kq WmlrK Nd; f' Bg wu;r j m%;sfrdaOh" ixLHd;h"
fjda,ah;dj wdoSh uekSug o kq WmlrK Nd; f' w.h lshf l%uh wkqj uekq
WmlrK m%Odk jYfhka fldgia follg fnfoa'
1' m%;siu
mudKhla u; .uka lrk oYlhla u`.ska w.h fmkajhs'
2' ixLHdxl
ixLHd;aul w.hla f,i fyda tjeks mshjr l%uhlska LED " LCD fyda tjeks wxls;
l%uhlska w.h olajhs'
m%;siu f,i kq ,nd .ekSug oYlhla fj; h n,hla ^N%uK jHdj;hla&
fhosh hq;= h' tu n,h" uekSug wjYH rdYsfha Yd,;ajh wkqj fjkia f' fhdokq ,nk
tu N%uK jHdj;hg m%;sreoaO j l%shdlrjkq ,nk md,k jHdj;hla u`.ska oYlh
lsish fldaKhlska W;al%uKh kj;S' tfia fkd jqk fyd;a oYlh fkd lvjd N%uKh
f' N%uK jHdj;h ,nd .ekSug m%Odk l%u folla wkq.ukh lrhs' tajd"
1' i, o`.r
2' i, hlv " k f

i, o`.r kq WmlrK
pqnl fCI;%hla ;=< msys ikakdhl o`.rhla ;=<ska ,s Odrdjla .,d hdug
ie,eia jQ g o`.rh lrleug wjYH n, hq.auhla fhfoa' ^*af,xf.a ju;a kshuh&' fuu
N%uK jHdj;h md,kh lsug wjYH md,k jHdj;h imhkq ,nkafka o`.rh ueoska
hk wCI oKavg inkaO kq follsks' fuys oS pqnl fCI;%h we;s lrkqfha iar pqnl
u`.sks' fujeks moaO;shla PMMC (Permenent Magnet Moving Coil) f,i oela f' my; a
rEmfhka o< igykla fmkajd we;' tys p iar pqnl jk w;r c hkq ikakdhl o`.rh
f' A bifla kq jk w;r' B f,day udOHh f'

38

o`.rh u;ska we;s lrk W;al%uK jHdj;h ta ;=<ska .,k Odrdjg;a" o`.rh N%uKh
jk wjldYfha pqnl Y%dj >k;ajhg;a wkqf,dau j iudkqmd;sl f'

W;al%uKh jHdj;h

Odrdj

Y%dj >k;ajh

^tldldr Y%dj >k;ajhla i|yd&

o`.rh ;=<ska .,k Odrdj
ys ksh;h
tfuka u md,k jHdj;h" fldaKsl W;al%uKhg wkqf,dauj iudkqmd;sl f'
md,k jHdj;h

fldaKsl W;al%uKh

kq ksh;h
fldaKsl W;al%uKh
W;al%uKh ia:djr jQ miq
md,k jHdj;h

W;al%uK jHdj;h

=
PMMC

f wkqj o`.rfha W;al%uKh o`.rh ;=<ska .,k Odrdjg wkqf,dau j iudkqmd;sl

f' tu ksid .,k Odrdj i|yd mudKh taldldr f,i fnod l%udxlkh l< yels f'
o`.rh T;d we;s yrfha f.dvkef.k iq<s Odrdj ksid we;s jk mukaokh wju
lsu i|yd O Wml%u fhdod we;' flfia fj;;a fujeks
j. iqiq jkafka
50A olajd jQ Wmu Odrdj Rcq f,i uekSu i|yd h' thg jvd je Odrdjka ueksf oS
Wm m: fhdod .kska jeuk;a Odrdj" Wmm:h yryd .,d hdug i,iajhs' iuia; Odrdj
g iudkqmd;sl jk f,i l%udxlkh is lrhs' fuu Wm m:h (s) i|yd ueka.kska ^;U"
uex.ksia iy ksl,a& jeks m%;sfrdaOfha WIaK;ajh ix.=Klh fkd i,ld yeh yels ;r
l=vd jQ Y% f,day Nd; lrhs'
PMMC

S
T

T
I

39

r m%;sfrdaOfha WIaK;ajh ksid PMMC ys is jk m%;sfrdaO fjkia u ksid we;s jk fodaI

bj;a lrkq ,ef'
ueka.kska fyda fjk;a wdldrhl m%;f
s rdaOhla PMMC g fY%K
a s .; lr fjd,ah;dj
uekSug ilia l< yels h' mudKh l%udxlkh lrkafka TT w.%j,g ,nd fok fjda,
a h;dj
uekSug h' ,nd fok fjda,
a h;djg ,efnk W;alu
% Kh iudkqmd;sl ksid fh mudKhla
Nd; l< yels h'
i, o`.r WmlrKhl jdis #
ixfoS;dj b;d by< w.hla .kS'
mudKh taldldr f'
ndysr pqnl fCI;%j,ska ,efnk n,mEu b;d wvq f'
wjdis #
idfmaCI j , wl h'
ir, Odrd fjda,ah;djla uekSug muKla Nd; l< yels h'

2' i, hlv kq WmlrK

i, hlv kq WmlrK j. folls'
wdlIK j.h ( fuys oS uD hlv ;yvqjla mkd,sldjla fj;g wdlIKh ug
i,iajkq ,ef'
lIK j.h ( uD hlvj,ska idok ,o l+re folla mkd,sldjla ;=< ;nd tajd ;=<
fm%arKh jk pqnl fCI;%h u`.ska lIKh ug i,iajkq ,ef'

wdlIK j.h

A - mkd,sldj
B - uD hlv ;yvqj
I - oYlh
D - W;al%uK jHdj;h
M - mukaokh bj;a lrk msiagkh

40

S - bifla kq
C - md,k jHdj;h

uekSug wjYH Odrdj mkd,sldj fj; fhduq l< g th ;=< ckkh jk pqnl
fCI;%h fya;=fjka uD hlv ;yvqj mkd,sldj fj; wdlIKh f' M j,ska oYlh
iqug f,i .uka lsu is jk w;r W;al%uK jHdj;h;a" md,k jHdj;h;a iudk jk
ia:dkfha k;r f'
W;al%uK jHdj;h

I - mkd,sldj ;=<ska .,k Odrdj

L - mkd,sldf fm%ar;dj
- W;al%uK fldaKh
md,k jHdj;h

=C

iu;=,s; wjia:df oS"

fuys Odrdj ^I& tys j. uOHkH uQ, w.hg iudk h' tu ksid m%;Hdj; Odrd
uekSug o fhdod .; yels h' W;al%uK fldaKh Odrdf j.hg iudkqmd;sl jk ksid
mudKh wfh iajNdjhla .kS' ;j o mkd,sldf pqnl fCIa;% ;Sj;
% dj tk W;alu
% K
jHdj;h tys wemsh-fmdg .Kk u; r|d mj;S' tu ksid O Odrdjka uekSug fmdg
.Kka T;d ilia l< hq;= f'

41

lIK j.h

A mkd,sldj ;=< T kue;s jl%dldr l%ufhka m<,ska je jQ uD hlv ;yvqjla

;nd we;' B hkq iqug mDIaGhla u; r|jd we;s wlaIhg inkaO lrk ,o ;j;a ;=kS
;yvqjls' fuu ;yvq fol u mkd,sldj Odrdj iemhQ g we;s jk pqnl fCI;%fhka
fm%arKh iudk O%ej iys; pqnl njg m;a f' tg tlsfklska lIKh jk neka
wCIh N%uKh oYlfha W;al%uKhla ,nd .; yels h' md,k jHdj;h bifla kq
j,ska ,nd .; yels h'
i, hlv WmlrKj, md,k jHdj;h .=re;ajdlIKfhka o ,nd .kS' tg
tjeks g wksjdhfhka isria j ia:dmkh l< hq;= f' ludka; Yd,dj, md,k mqjre
i|yd fuu j.fha i, hlv kq WmlrK Nd; f' i, hlv ,s wegrhlg
fY%aKs.; lr m%;sfrdaOhla inkaO lsfuka fjda,a grhla f,i Nd; l< yels h'
jdis #
idfmaCI j f,ka wvq h' ksudj ir, h '
r`M f,i ksmojd we;'
ir, iy m%;Hdj; Odrd kq i|yd Nd; l< yels h'
wjdis #
ndysr pqnl fCIa;% ksid mdGdxl fjkia h yels h'
ir, Odrd i|yd Nd; lrk g ukaodhk ydks we;s f'
mkd,sldf fm%ar;dj ksid m%;Hdj; kq ,nd .ekSf oS tys ixLHd;h ie,lsh hq;=
n,mEula lrhs'
;U lj,ska mkd,sldj T;d we;s ksid WIaK;ajh wkqj mdGdxlh fjkia h yels
h'
mudKh wfh f'

42

u,a grh
m%;Hdj; iy ir, Odrd fjda,ah;d iy
Odrdjka uekSug;a" m%;sfrdaOh uekSug;a tl u
PMMC Nd; lr nyqudkh fyj;a u,agrh
ilikq ,ef' ;j o tla tla rdYsfha O
mrdihka uekSug o PMMC Nd; l< yels f'
Odrdj uekSf oS O mrdihka i|yd O
w.fhka hql;
a mm: fhosh yels h' Odrdj uekSf
oS Wmm: i|yd fhdok m%;sfrdaOj, w.hka
fnfyka wvq f' 1 rEmfha i|yka mm:fha
rEmh 1
PMMC O Odrdjka uekSug fhdod we;s wdldrh
oela f'
fjda,ah;dj uekSf oS O mrdihka i|yd O w.hkaf.ka hq;= m%;sfrdaO
PMMC g fY%aKs.; l< hq;= f' f i|yd ijqk;a (Tapped) lrk ,o m%;sfrdaO fhosh yels
h' 2 rEmfha i|yka mm:fhka PMMC ys O fjda,ah;d uekSu i|yd fhdod .; yels
wdldrh oelaf'

rEmh 2
ir, Odrd fjda,ah;dj iy Odrdj uekSf oS C W;al%uKh i|yd Odrdj ,nd
fokafka ndysr mm:fhks' tu ksid Odrdf osYdj udre jqjfyd;a i, o`.rh reoaO osYdjg
p,kh bifla kq os. yef' bka miq ,nd .kakd mdGdxl ksjeros fkdf' tu ksid fuu
kq ,nd .ekSf oS O%eh;dj udre u je,ela ug ta i|yd taIKs (Probes) r;= iy l
jKj,ska fhdod we;' ;j o tajd inkaO lrk ia:dkfha + iy - f,i i|yka lr we;'
m%;sfrdaOh uekSf oS PMMC ys W;al%uKh i|yd ir, Odrd iemhqula inkaO l<
hq;= h' ta i|yd fY%aKs.; l< h,s fldaI folla fyda je .Kkla PMMC g fY%aKs.;
j fhdod we;'
V
R

43

B iy R f,i olajd we;af;a l iy r;= taIKs fol f' X hkq ueksh hq;= m%;sfrdaO
hhs' taIKs fol ndysr j iamY l< g m%;sfrdaOh Y+kH jk ksid tys oS Wmu Odrdjla
PMMC ;=<ska .,d hk neka Wmu W;al%uKhla ,ef' tuksid mudKfha ol=Kq
fl<jr Y+kH ,l=K i|yka lr we;' fY%aKs.; lrk ,o fldaIfha fjda,ah;dj u; .,d
hk Odrdj fjkia jk neka Y+kH ,CIHhg oYlh imd; fkdf' tg .,d hk
Odrdj md,kh lsug p,H m%;sfrdaOhla fY%aKs.; lr we;' (VR) th iSreudre lsfuka
m%;sfrdaO mudKh Y+kH lrd <.d lr .; yels f' iEu m%;sfrdaO mudKhl oS u fuu
Y+kH iSreudrej ilia l< hq;= f' fuu p,H m%;sfrdaOh iSreudre lsfuka oYlh Y+kH
lrd f.k taug fkd yels k tys woyi jkafka fldaI j, we;s njhs'
fuu mudKfhka ;j;a wu;r ldhhla bgq lr.; yels h' wO ikakdhl Wmdx.
mCId lsf oS ta i|yd wjYH fjda,ah;dj taIKs foflka ,nd .; yels f' tys oS by;
mm:h wkqj l taIKssfhka + fjda,ah;dj;a r;= taIKsfhka - fjda,ah;dj;a ,efnk
nj fmfka'
ta wkqj wO ikakdhlfha O%eh;dj fuka u tys ikakdhl;dj;a mCId l< yels
f' taIKs fol jD; j we;s g m%;sfrdaO wkka; neka i, o`.rh ;=<ska Odrdjla .,d
fkdhhs' tuksid oYlh W;al%uKhla fkdolajk neka mudKfha j fl<jf
^wkka;h& i,l=K i|yka lr we;'
m%;Hdj; Odrdjka iy fjda,ah;djka uekSf oS RcqlrKh lsfuka miq i,
o`.rh fj; fhduq lrkq ,ef' tg m%;Hdj; Odrdjg fyda fjda,ah;djg iudkqmd;sl
j ,efnk ir, Odrdj ksid W;al%uK jHdj;hla ,ef' tneka mudKh Bg wkqrEm j
l%udxlkh l< yels f'
u,a g j.SlrKh
u,a g
m%;siu
oHq;a hdka;%sl

ixLHdxl
bf,lafg%daksl

m%;siu u,a gj, w.h lshu i|yd PMMC fhdod we;' oHq;a hdka;%sl m%;siu
g iy bf,lafg%daksl m%;siu g w;r m%Odk fjkia l 3 ls'
1' ixfos;dj #- fjda,ah;dj uekSu i|yd mrdi f;darKh fhduq l< g grh ;=<ska
.,k Odrj wvq k by< ixfos;djla we;s grhla f,i ye|skaf' tk fjda,ah;dj
uekSug wjYHh mm:h ;=<ska b;d l=vd Odrdjla .,d hk g oS" tu Odrdj m%;sfrdaOhla

44

;=<k
s a .,d hk g m%;f
s rdaOh fomi fjda,
a h;dj ksjeros j ueksh yels g f' fjda,
a h;dj
uekSf oS grhla ;=<ska Odrdj .,d fkd hkafka k tk m%Odk m%;sfrdaOh wkka; k
th mmQK fjda,a grhla f,i ye|skaf' tfy;a PMMC i|yd b;d l=vd Odrdjla
wjYH f' ta wkqj m%odk m%;sfrdaOh b;d by< k tjeks g ksjeros kqula f.k fok
g f' fufia fY%aKs.; jk m%;sfrda w.h g uQKf;a i|yka lr we;' th fjda, 1
lg k fyda M f,i ye|ska f' mrdi f;darKh O mrdij,g fhduq lrk g
fY%aKs.; jk m%;sfrda w.h fu u`.ska fih yels h'
oHq;a hdka;%sl m%;siu gj, ixfos;dj 2 k/v isg 50 k/v olajd f'
idudkHfhka bf,lafg%daksl ;dCIKfha oS 20k/v ixfos;dj iys; grhla j;a Nd;
l< hq;= f' bf,lafg%daksl m%;siu gj, ixfos;dj 10 M/v jeks by< w.fhka hqla;
h'
2'

wHNka;r Nj iemhqu
oHq;a hdka;l
s% m%;i
s u grhlg wNHka;r Nj iemhqula wjYH fkdf' m%;f
s rdaOh
uekSf oS muKla wNHka;r iemhqula u`.ska ,sh imhd m%;sfrdaOh ;=<ska .,k Odrdj
PMMC ;=<ska .,d hdug i,iajd tu Odrdj wkqj m%;sfrdaOh ;SrKh lrkq ,nhs'
bf,lafg%dk
a l
s m%;i
s u gj, PMMC l%h
s d;aul lsu i|yd wNHka;r bf,lafg%dk
a l
s
mm:hla fhdod we;' fuu mm:h i|yd ,s n,h ,nd oSug wNHka;r iemhqula
w;HjYH f' tu iemhqu mm:hg inkaO lsu i|yd ON/OFF iaphla fjku u
ilr we;' oHq;a hdka;%sl grhl fujekakla fkdue;'
3'

mrdih
oHq;a hdka;l
s% grhl mrdih ol=fKa isg jug msyg
s hs' bf,lafg%dk
a l
s u,ag
j, tu mrdih jf isg ol=Kg lshjk mos wNHka;r mm:fhka fjkia lr we;'

lef;dav lsrK k<h

;rx.dldrhla ksCIKh lsug iy tys w.hka uekSug lef;dav lsrK k<h
Nd; l< yels h' ixLHd;h iy ia;drfha Wmu w.h fuys ueksh yels w.hhka f'
wegrhlska fyda fjda,a grhlska Rcqj uekSug fkd yels fuu w.hhka u`.ska O
f;dr;=re ,nd.; yels f'
la;hla ;=< bf,lafg%dav folla ;nd thg Nj wka;rhla iemhq g myiqfjka
bf,lafg%dak Odrdjla .uka lrhs' bf,lafg%dak msg lrk w.%h lef;davh f,i o ,nd
.kakd w.%h wefkdavh f,i o ye|ska f' fuu bf,lafg%dak .uka lrk ud.fha oHq;a
fCI;%hla msysgq fuka bf,lafg%dak .uka lrk ud.h fjkia l< yels h' ;ajrK cd,h
iy kdNs.; cd,h u`.ska bf,lafg%dak lonhla njg m;a l< yelsh' ;srig ;yvq folla

45

;nd tla ;yvqjlg idfmaCI j wks;a ;yvqj + fyda - fjda,ah;djla iemhSfuka tu ;yvq
fol w;r oHq;a fCI;%hla ksudKh l< yels f' fuu ;yvq foflka N+.; fkd jk
;yvqjg lsh;a oe;s ;rx.hla ,nd oSfuka jf isg ol=Kg fifuka fifuka bf,lafg%dak
.uka lr ug ie,eiah yels h' lsh;a oe;s ;rx.fha ixLHd;h wkqj lonh jf isg
ol=Kg .uka lrk jdr .Kk fjkia f' f w;r isria w;g ;nk ,o ;yvq foflka
tlla N+.; lr wfkla ;yvqjg fjk;a yeve;s ;rx.hl fjda,ah;djla ,nd oSfuka ;srig
.uka lrk bf,lafg%dak loNh isrig ,nd ka ;rx.hg wkqj by<g iy my<g .uka
lrhs' fuf,i ;rx.dldrh lef;dav lsrK k<fha uqyqKf;a igyka f'

Odrd iy Nj mKdul
wfjd,ah;d iy wOdrd idudkH PMMC lska fyda i, hlv grhlska uekSu
i|yd fuu mKdul Nd; f' ;j o r kq (TELEMETERING) i|yd o fjd
Wmfhda.s lr .; yels h'
Odrd mKdulh #by< Odrdjla uekSug fl<ska u PMMC fhosh fkd yel' ta i|yd Odrd mKdul
fhdod .kS' tys m%d:lh i|yd fndfyda g Nd; lrkafka wOdrd f.k hk lh hs'
oa;Shslh i|yd isyska lfhka je fmdg ixLHdjla T;d th lh jgd fhdojd we;'

46

wOdrd f.k hk ikakdhlh jgd ckkh jk p,H pqnl fCIa;%h u`.ska

oa;Sl h lemSfuka tys fm%a; oHq;a .dul n,hla ckkh f' th u`.ska
PMMC
l%shd;aul f' mudKh l%udxlkh lr we;af;a wOdrd ueksh yels jk mos h'

fjda,ah;d mKdulh #wfjda,ah;d uekSug fl<ska u fjda,a gr Nd; l< fkd yels f' f i|yd
fjda,
a h;d mKdul fhdod .kS' tys m%d:lh i|yd je fmdgj,a .Kkla isyk
s a lhlska
T;d .kq ,nhs' oa;Shslh i|yd wvq fmdg ixLHdjla fhdod .kS'

wfjda,ah;d /yeka ud.fha fjda,ah;djg idfmaCI j .,d hk Odrdj u`.ska

we;s lrk pqnl fCIa;%h oa;Shslh lemSfuka fm%a; fjda,ah;djla oa;Shslfha we;s
lrhs' fuu fjda,ah;dj ksid .,d hk Odrdj ,s wegrhlska lshh yels h' tfy;a th
l%udxlkh lr we;af;a ud.fha fjda,ah;djg h' wfjda,ah;d iys; ,s /yeka ka
;nd fjda,ah;d mKdul u`.ska ,nd .kakd l=vd fjda,ah;dj md,k ueos ;=< we;s
md,k mqjrej,g imhkq ,ef' tu`.ska wfjda,ah;d ksid we;s jk wk;=re j,lajd .;
yels h'
lsf,da fjd meh grh
iemhqulska ,nd .kakd tall m%udKh uekSu i|yd fuu grh Nd; f' fuu
grh ;=< Odrd o`.rhla iy fjda,ah;d o`.rhla fhdod we;' tjdfha inkaO;d my;
oelaf'

47

Odrd o`.rfha iemhqu yryd .uka lrk Odrdjg wkqrEm j pqnl fCIa;%hla
yg.kS' fjda,ah;d o`.rfha iemhq fjda,ah;djg wkqj pqnl fCIa;%hla yg.kS' f
fol u p,H pqnl fCIa;%hka f' fuu pqnl fCIa;%hka u`.ska ieye,a weksh
(Al) ;yvqj ;=< iq<s Odrd we;s f' fuu iq<s Odrd ksid we;s jk pqnl fCIa;%fhka ;eh
lIKh f' tys m%;sM,h jkafka ;yvqj j;kh jgd N%uKh uhs' tg .,d hk
Odrdj je jk g N%uK f.h je f' tg tys wCIhg inkaO lr we;s hdka;%Kh
u`.ska N%uK jdr .Kk igyka f' th lsf,dafjd mehj,ska l%udxlkh lr we;' fufia
ksh; oskhla ;=< jeh lrk tall .Kk igyka f'
u,a grhla f;dard .eksf oS ie,lsh hq;= lreKq
1' ixfos;dj #- h ldhhla i|yd u,a grhla f;dard .ekSf oS tys ixfos;dj b;d
jeo.;a f' ixlSK mm: rEm igykaj, kq ,ndf.k we;s fjda,a grh l=ula oehs
i|yka lr we;' tjeks mm:hla mCId lsf oS wod< ixfos;dj iys; grhla Nd;
l< hq;= h' idudkH ldhhka i|yd u,a grhla , oS .ekSf os o ixfos;dj
ie,ls,a,g .; hq;= h'
2' kq mrdih # - yels ;r kq mrdi je grhla jvd iqiq f' ksjeros kqula
,nd .ekSug k mrdih l=vd h hq;= h' tg mudKfha mr;rhka Yd, jk neka
lshu myiq f' mrdih l=vd jk g mrdi .Kk je f'
idudkHfhka u,agrhlska d.c-V , d.c-A , a.c-V iy m%;sfrdaOh uekSu i|yd
myiql we;'

48

5' ,s n, ckkh" ifma%IKh yd fnod yeu

,s n, ckkh Electrical Power Genaration
,s n, ckkh i|yd O n,Yla;Ska Nd; lrhs' fhdod .kakd n, Yla;sh wkqj
fhdod .kakd l%ufoh wkqj n,d.dr j.SlrKh l< yels h' m%Odk jYfhka ,s
n,d.dr my; j. follg fjka l< yels h'
1 c, ,s n,d.dr
2' ;dm ,s n,d.dr
;dm ,s n,d.dr Nd; lrk Yla;s m%fNaok wkqj kej; j.SlrKh l< yel'
1'
2'
3'
4'
5'

i,a ,s n,d.dr (Diesel Power Plant)

jdhq ,s n,d.dr (Gas Power Plant)
.,a w=re ,s n,d.dr (Coal Power Plant)
iajdNdl jdhq ,s n,d.dr
N+ ;dm ,s n,d.dr

fuys fjdhska m%Odk jYfhka .,a w=re ,s n,d.dr yd j bkaOk Nd; jk

,s n,d.dr yd c, ,s n,d.dr ms<sn| idlPd flf'
g wu;rj my; oelafjk wdldrj,g o ,sh ckkh lrhs'
1' iq<x ,s n,d.dr (Wind Power Plant)
2' uqyq ;rx.j, Yla;sh Nd;fhka (Tidle Power)
3' Wo r< Nd;fhka
fjd ms<sn| j 12 fYa%Ksfha idlPd lr we;'

c, ,s n,d.dr (Hydroelectric Power Stations)

Wia ia:dkhl we;s c,fha .nvd we;s Nj Yla;sh my<g .,d hdf oS pd,l
Yla;sh njg mj;kh u Wmfhda.S lrf.k wE; w;S;fha isg u c, frdaohla N%uKh
lrjd .ekSu u.ska O hka;% ls%hd lru is h'
19 jk ishji uq,a Nd.fha c, frdaoh je hqKq lr ;,nuk (Turbines) ksmojd
;,nukhg inkaO lr we;s ,s cklhla (Electric Generator) u.ska ,sh ksmojd
.ekSu is h'

49

;dm ,s n,d.drj,g idfmalaI j c, ,s n,d.drhkays we;s my; oelafjk jdis

odhl;ajhka c, ,s n,d.dr jHdma; ug fya;= h'
.,d hk c,h mqkckkh l< yels m%Njhla u'
.,a w=re" Lksc f;,a yd jdhq ,nd .ekSu i|yd fuka u lekS yd m%jdykh i|yd
ho oeug is fkd u'
,s n, ckkhg Nd; l< c,h mdkSh yd jdud. lghq;= i|yd fhdod .; yels
u'
;dm ,s n,d.drj,g idfmalaI j kv;a;=j myiq u yd ho wvq u'
;dm ,s n,d.drj,g jvd b;d by< ldhlaIu;djla mej;Su' ^80] la muK&
;dm ,s n,d.drj,g idfmalaI j b;d .= l,la mj;ajd f.k hd yels u'
c, ,s n,d.dr ;dm ,s n,d.dr fuka fkdj laIKsl j ls%hd wdrN lsu (Start)
yd kej;au (Shut Down) l< yels u'
,sh ksmo u i|yd jk hou b;d wvq u'
c, ,s n,d.dr i|yd wjYH c,dY bos ls ksid w;=re M, f,i jr ludka;h
hqKq u yd .xj;=r md,kh u'
c, ,s n,d.dr bos lsf wjdisodhl ;;a;ajhla jkafka bos ls i|yd Yd,
m%d.aOkhla jeh u yd bos ls i|yd .= ld,hla .;uhs'

c, ,s n,d.drhla bos lsug iqiq ia:dkhla f;dard .ekSf ie,ls,su;a

h hq;= lreKq

c,h imhd .ekSf myiqj

fyd| jIdm;khla iys; jIh mqrd u m%udKj;a ;r c, iemhqula iys; c, ud.
iys; m%foaYhla u' ^c, fmdaIs; m%foaY&
c,h .nvd lsug we;s yelshdj" m%udKj;a ;r c, Od;djla .nvd lr ;eug iqiq
c,dYhla bos lsug we;s yelshdj" wod< c, Od;dj i|yd m%foaYfha N+ oHd;aul
idOl .e,mSu'
c, ysi (Water Head)
c, ysi hkq c,dYfha f,af,a isg ,s n,d.drhg we;s Wi m%udKhhs' c, ysi
je jk ;rug Nj Yla;sh je f'
,s n,d.drh msysgq jk ia:dkfha isg cd;sl ,s n, cd,hg (National Power Grid)
we;s r
fuu r wju jQ ;rug wfjda,ah;d ifma%IK ud. i|yd jk hou
wju
lr .; yels h'
,s n,d.dr jev ug <d f myiqj

50

h ud. fyda uyd ud. wdikakfha msysfuka bos ls i|yd wjYH WmlrK yd
jH m%jdykhg myiq f'

c, ,s n,d.dr j.SlrKh

(Classification of Hydroelectric Power Stations)

wdldr lsysmhlg j.SlrKh lrhs'

1' c, ,s .=Kdx. u; mok jQ j.SlrKh (Classification of Hydrolic Features)

idm%odhsl c,,s n,d.dr (Conventional Hydroelectric Plant)

fuys c, myrla yria lr f,a,la bos lr /ia lrk ,o c,h my< ugulg
f.k tafuka ,sh ckkh lrkq ,nhs' fuh idudkHfhka Nd; lrkq ,nk
l%uhhs' YS% ,xldfj Nd; jkafka o fuu l%uhhs'

fmdm u.ska c,h .nvd l< yels ,s n,d.dr ^Pump Storage Plant)
fuys ,sh ckkh lr msg jk c,h ,s b,au wvq f,djka ys (off peak
hours) ,s fmdm u.ska kej; by<g fmdm lr kej; ,sh ckkh i|yd
Nd; lrhs'

c, ;rx. ,s n,d.dr (Tidle Power Plant)

uqyq c,fha we;s jk c, ;rx.j, Nj Yla;sh Nd;fhka ,sh ckkh lsu
fuu l%uhhs'

2'

c,h .nvd lsu u; mok jQ j.SlrKh (Classification of Storage

and pondage)

c,h .nvd lsrSu i|yd c,dYhla bos lsrSu

jIh mqrd taldld j c,h .,d hk c, myrla fkdue;s g c,dYhla bos lr c,
myf c,h wvq ld,hg o wjYH ;r c, Od;djla mj;ajd .kS' uyd mudK c,
,s n,d.drj, fuu l%uh Nd; f'

;djld,sl c,h r|jd .ekSu i|yd l=vd c,dYhla fyda gexlshla bos lsu
jIh mqrdu taldld j c,h .,d hk c, myrla we;s g wjYH mSvkh ,nd
.ekSug muKla ;djld,sl j c,h .nvd lr .ekSu i|yd l=vd c,dYhla fyda
gexlshla b lrkq ,nhs' fuu gexlsh f*daf gexlsh (Forebay tank) kka
ykajhs' l=vd mudK c, ,s n,d.drj, fuu l%uh Nd; lrhs'

51

3' Od;dj u; mok jQ j.SlrKh (Classification of Capacity) )

my; oelafjk wdldrhg Odrs;dj wkqj j.SlrKh lrhs'

b;d wvq Od;d n,d.dr 0.1MW olajd

Very Low Capacity Plants

wvq Od;d n,d.dr - 1MW olajd

Low Capacity Plants

uOHu Od;d n,d.dr - 10MW olajd

Medium Capacity Plants

wOd;d n,d.dr - 10MW g je

High Capacity Plants

4' c, ysi wkqj j.SlrKh (Classification of Water Head)

idudkHfhka my; oelafjk wdldrhg j.SlrKh l<;a fuu Wi m%udK fjkia h
yel'
c, ysi hkq c,dYfha f,af,a isg ,s n,d.drhg we;s Wfiys mr;rhhs'

wvq ysi iys; n,d.dr

Low Head Plants

<15m

uOHu ysi iys; n,d.dr

Medium Head Plants

15 - 70m

by< ysi iys; n,d.dr

High Head Plants

71 - 250m

b;d by< ysi iys; n,d.dr

Very High Head Plants
>250m

by< ysi iys; n,d.drj, fm,agka j.fha ;,nuk Nd; lrk w;r uOHu ysi
iys; n,d.drj, *e/kaii
s a (Francis) flma,dka (Kaplan) yd fm%dfm, (Propeler) j.fha
;,nuk Nd; lrhs' c, Od;dj wvq c,dY i|yd by< ysi iys; n,d.dr jvd;a iqiq
jk w;r b; Yd, c, Od;djla iys; c,dYhla we;s g uOHu ysi iys; n,d.dr
iqiq f'

52

uqyq ;rx. Nd;fhka yd .l c,fha .,d hdu (Run off river) Nd;fhka bos flfrk
n,d.drj,g wvq ysi iqiq f'

5'

bos lsf l%uh u; mok jQ j.SlrKh

(Classification of Constructional Method)
idudkHfhka my; oelafjk wdldrhg j.SlrKh l<;a fuu Wi m%udK fjkia h

yel'
1. .,d hk c, myrla u.ska ls%hd;aul n,d.dr ^Run - off - Riever Plant)
cklh
;, nukh
c, myr

.l .,d hk c, myr u.ska N%uKh ug ilr we;' m%dfhda.sl j t;r Nd;

fkd jk l%uhls' f uska ckkh l< yels ,s Od;dj b;d wju jk w;r
ls%hdld;ajh c, myf f.h u; r|d mj;S'
2' f,a,la neu uska c, myr yria lr c,dYhla bos lsf l%u folls'
1' c,dYfha f,a, mduq, ,s n,d.drh msysgqjk l%uh
;eks;,d m%foaYhl fuu l%uh Nd; lrhs' fuys c, ysi jkafka f,af,a
Wihs' Wod ( Wvj,j c,dYfha msysgqjd we;s n,d.drh

11' c,dYfha isg my<g c,h f.k f.dia my< m%foaYhl msysgqjd we;s n,d.drhl
,sh ksmou
Wod ( ,xldf m%Odk ,s n,d.dr iEu tlla u mdfya fuu .Khg wh;a h'

53

by; i|yka wdldrfha ,s n,d.drhl msie,eiau ^Layout& my; oelaf'

by; ms ie,eiaug wkqj c, ,s n,d.drhl ls%hdld;ajh fufia ia;r l< yel'

c,dYfha we;s c,h mSvk Wula uska c, ysila ,nd .; yels ia:dkhlg /f.k
hhs' c,dYfha f,af,a isg Rcqj u c, ysila mj;S k mSvk Wu wjYH fkdf'
tneka lafgdahd" rkafoKs., yd rkagef ,s n,d.drj, mSvk Wula fkdue;'
c,dYfha isg Rcq ju c, ysila ,nd .; fkd yels Wl=fj," fld;auf,a" by< fld;auf,a
jeks n,d.drj, mSvk Wula we;' mSvk Wuf.ka miq fldgq fodr (Penstock) kka
yekafjk k< ud.hla Tiafia c,h my;g f.k ths' fldgq fodr wdrN jk ia:dkfha
ick gexlshla bos lr we;' ick gexls fldgq fodr my< fl<jf o msysgqjd we;'
ick gexls uska c,fha le,Uqu (Water hammering) ksid fldgq fodr k< u; we;s jk
mSvkh wju lsu is lrk w;r tu ick gexls mSvkh ksoyia lrk lmdghla (Pressure
Relief Valve) f,i o ls%hd lrhs'
;j o Yd, ,s | jeul imQKfhka u ,s ckkh ls%hd;aul lsu
kj;ajkq ,nhs' fuys ,s cklh ls%hd;aul u kj;ajkqfha ;,nukh fj; iemfhk
c, iemhqu jid oefuks' fuys we;s jk wl mSvkh ksid fldgq fodrg ydks h yel'
fujeks wjia:djl we;s jk mSvkh ksoyia lr fldgq fodr wdrlaId lr .ekSug o ick
gexls Wmld f'
fldgq fodr Tiafia .,d tk c,h lmdg ^Valve& Tiafia ;,nukh fj;g fhduq
f' ;,nukh fj; fhfok c,fha mSvkh u; th N%uKh jk f.h tk ks;a;=jg
lerlefjk jdr .Kk (r.p.m.) ;SrKh f' r.p.m w.h u; ckkh jk ,sfha ixLHd;h
r|d mj;S' fuu ixLHd;h ksh; w.hl mj;ajd .; hq;= hs' (50Hz)
cklfha m%;sodkfhka ,nd .kakd nerh wvq je jk g ;,nukfha f.h
fjkia f' fuh j<lajd .ekSug ;,nukh u; fhfok c, mSvkh wvq je lsu i|yd
Vicate gate fhdod we;' fjd ifjda fudag (Servo motor) u.ska iajhxlS%h j wefrka
jefika ;,nukh N%uKh jk f.h taldld j ;nd .kshs'

54

Servo Motor j, fYaI;ajh jkafka b;d iqug j f.h md,kh l< yels u yd
laIKsl j keje;au" wdrN lsu yd N%uKh jk Ydj udre lsf yelshdjhs'
fuu iajhxlS%h md,kh ksid ,sh wvqfjka mfNdackh lrk g Vicate gate
u.ska c,dYfhka uqod yk c, m%jdyh wvq fuka c,dYfha c,h b;s lr .; yel'
c, ,s n,d.drj, Nd; jk ;,nuk my; oelafjk m j.SlrKh l< yel'
;,nuk j m%d:l pd,lhla (Hydrolic Prime Mover) f,i o ykajhs'
;,nuk
Turbine

m%;slS%hl j.h
Reaction Type

*%ekaisia
Fransis

wdf.S j.h
Impulse Type

wjr fm;s
Propelar

ia:sr fm;s iys; (Fixed)

fm,agka ,a
Pelton Wheel

fjkia l< yels fm;s iys; (Kaplan)

m%;sl%Shl j.fha ;,nuk ;sria wlaIfha (Vertical) N%uKh jk w;r ;,nukh isria
j msysgqjd we;' uOHu ysila iys; n,d.drj, nyq, j Nd; jkafka m%;sl%Shl ud.fha
;,nuk f' ,xldf we;s c, ,s n,d.dr fndfyduhla uOHu ysi iys; n,d.drf'
fjdhska je m%udKhl Nd; jkafka m%;sl%Shl j.fha ;,nukhla jk *%Ekaisia j.fha
;,nuk f'
wdf.S j.fha ;,nukhla jk fm,agka ,a ;,nukh by< ysi yd my< ysi iys;
c, ,s n,d.drj, Nd; f' ,xldf we;s l=vd mudKfha c, ,s n,d.dr fndfyduhl
fm,agka ,a j.fha ;,nuk Nd; f' fjd isria wlaIfha N%uKh jk w;r ;,nuk
;sria j msysgqjd we;'

55

fm,agka ,a

lma,dka ;, nukh

*%ekaisia ,a ;, nukh

;dm ,s n,d.dr
;dm ,s n,d.drhl lsish Wml%uhlska ;dmh Wmojd f.k ta ;dmh uska c,h
jdIam lr c, jdIam uska ;,nukhla (Turbine) lrljd ;,nukhg inkaO lrk ,o
,s cklhla uska ,sh ckkh lr .ekSu is lrhs'

56

fndfyda rgj, c, ,s W;amdokh n,Yla;sh i|yd houla fkdue;s neka ,dNodhS

jqj o fndfyda rgj, c, ,s n,d.dr bos lsug wjYH c, ysila (Water head) fkdue;s
ksid ;dm ,s n,d.dr f,dj mqrd nyq, j jHdma; j we;'
;dm ,s n,d.drhl m%Odk Wmdx. (Major Component) oelafjk le igykla
my; oelaf'

by; le igykg wkqj c,dYhl we;s c,h fmdmhla uska fmdm lr

fndhsf,arejla ;=<ska hjd r;a lrhs' fndhsf,arejg ;dmh ,nd u i|yd O bkaOk
Nd; lrhs' Nd; lrk bkaOkh wkqj ;dm ,s n,d.dr kej; j.SlrKh l< yel'
r;a jQ c,fhka ckkh jk c, jdIam wl ;dmkh (Super heating) uska ;j rg;a
r;alr f;;a c, jdIam h<s c, jdIam njg m;a lr mSvkhla hgf;a ;,nukhg fhduq
lrhs' f uska ;,nukh lrlefjk w;r tys wlaIhg inkaO lr we;s ,s cklh
o lrlefuka ,sh ckkh lrhs' ;,nukh N%uKh msg jk c, jdIam ix>kSldrlhla
(Condencer) ;=<ska hjd isis,a lr c,h njg m;a lr kej; fmdmhla uska c,dYhg uqod
y'
fuys ls%hdld;ajh r|d mj;skafka f;dard .;a c, jdIam pl%h (System cycle) u; h'
f ksid ;dm ,s n,d.dr jdIam ,s n,d.dr (Steam power station) kka o ykajhs'
;dm ,s n,d.drhla msysgq u i|yd iqiq mY%hla f;dard .ekSf my; i|yka
lreKq ms<sn| j ie,ls,su;a h hq;= h'
1'
2'

wjYH bos ls yd wkd.;fha flfrk je hqKq ls i|yd m%udKj;a bv

m%udKhla fjka lr .; yels u'
fndhsf,are i|yd yd ix>kSldrl (Condencer) isis,kh i|yd iqiq c,h myiqfjka
imhd .; yels u'

57

3'

fndhsf,are Wka i|yd wjYH bkaOk myiqfjka yd wvq houlska m%jdykh lr

.ekSf myiql iys; u'

4'

kd.l m%foaYhlska wE;aj msysu'

;dm ,s n,d.drj, Nd; jk ;,nuk my; oela f jk wdldrfha
tl u wlaIhg ;,nuk ;=kla i l< fYaI wdldrhlska ilid we;'

HP
IP
LP

- wmSvk ;,nukh
- uOHu mSvk ;,nukh
- wvq mSvk ;,nukh

fuu ;,nuk ixhqla;fha m%;sls%hd j.fha (Reaction type) yd wdf.S j.h

(Impulse type) hk j. fofla u ;,nuk we;' fuu ;,nuk ixhqla;h ksid c,
jdIamj, we;s Nj Yla;sh Wmu ldhlaIu;djlska hqla; j pd,l Yla;sh njg
mj;kh lsug yelshdj ,e we;'
;dm ,s n,d.dr Nd; lrk bkaOk j.h wkqj kej; my; oelafjk m
j.SlrKh l< yel'
1'
2'
3'
4.

.,a w=re n,d.dr (Coal Power Plant)

Lksc f;,a ^i,a" oe f;,a& n,d.dr
iajdNdl jdhq (Natural gas )
kHIal n,d.dr (Nuclear Power Plants)

.,a w=re n,d.dr

f,dalfha b lr we;s ;dm ,s n,d.drj,ska fndfyduhla .,a w=re bkaOkh

jYfhka Nd; lrhs'
.,A w=re n,d.dr msyg
s
q f .,a w=re myiqfjka m%jdykh lr .; yels ia:dkhl
n,d.drh ia:dmkh lsu jdis odhl h' .,a w=re ks we;s rgl k .,a w=re m;,aj,g

58

wdikakfha n,d.drh msysgqjkq ,nk w;r .,a w=re fkdue;s rgl k myiqfjka fjk;a
rglska m%jdykh lr .; yels jk fia jrdhla wdikakfha msysgqjhs'
WodyrKhla f,i ,xldf mq;a;,u fkdfrdfpdaf,a msysgqjd we;s .,a w=re
n,d.drh uqyq fjr< wdikakfha msysgqjd we;' fkdfrdfpdaf,a jrdhla fkdue;s neka
kej,ska f.k tk .,a w=re wE; uqyqfoa n;a;,aj, mgjd f.dvug f.k tkq ,nhs'
.,a w=re jir ;=klg muK wjYH m%udKh .nvd lr ;nkq ,nhs' .nvd lsf
m%foaYfha WIaK;ajh wl k c,h iu Y% lr .nvd l< hq;=hs' ke;fyd;a wl
WIaK;ajh ksid .nvd lr we;s .,a w=re oykh ug yelshdj we;' fkdfrdfpdaf,a
o .nvd lrkq ,nkafka c,h iu Y% lsfuks'
fndhsf,arejg ;dmh imhkq ,nkafka bkaOk oykfhks' lsish bkaOkhl tall
ialkaOhlska ,nd .; yels ksh; le, m%udKhla we;' fuh wvqu ydkshlska tk by<
laIu;djlska ,nd .; hq;= hs'
bkaOk caj,k wxlhg meKSu myiq lsu i|yd l=vd wxY= njg m;a lsu l<
hq;=hs' .,a w=re Nd;fha (Crusher) u.ska 25mm fldgiaj,g lvk w;r bka miq
(Ball mill) Nd;fhka l=vq (Powder) njg m;a lrhs'
l=vq njg m;a lrk ,o .,a w=re odylhla ;=<g hjkq ,nhs' odylfha m%Odk ldh
jkafka jd;h yd bkaOk wjYH wkqmd;hg Y% lr mQK oykhla we;s lsuhs'
jdhq ;dmlh (Air Heater) uska n, .ekajQ jdhq m%jdyhla (Drafting Air) oyk l=rhg
,nd oykh ldhlaIu lrjhs' f wdldrhg fndhsf,arejg ,nd fok ;dmh uska c,h
jdIam njg m;a lrhs'
fndhsf,arejg imhk c,h b;d msis ;;ajfhka ;sh hq;= hs' tu c,fha >k
wmjH fyda Lksc ,jK wvx.= jqjfyd;a ;,nukfha ;,j,g (blade) ydks is h yel'
tu ksid f i|yd Lksc ,jK bj;a lrk ,o (Deminaralized) wdiD; c,h (Distil
Water) Nd; lrhs'
;,nuk N%uKh lrfuka miq msg jk c, jdIam ix>kSldrlhka (Condencer)
;=<ska hjd isis,a lrhs' fuu ix>kSldrlh isis,a lsu i|yd ix>kSldrlfha msg;ska we;s
ngj,g mska we;s ;j;a ng moaO;shla yryd c,dYhlska ,nd .kakd c,h .,d hdug
i,iajhs' ^,xldf fkdfrdfpdaf,a f i|yd uqyq c,h Nd; lrhs'&

59

ix>kSldrlfhka ;dmh Wrd f.k WKqiq jk fuu c,h isis,k l=klg hjd isis,a lr
kej; c,dYhg ^uqyqog& uqod yhs' fuys c,h ,nd .;a c,dYfha fyda uqyqfoa c,fha
WIaK;ajhg iudk f,i uqod yk c,fha WIaK;ajhg wvq lr uqod yeh hq;= hs'
oeka ix>kSldrlh ;=<ska .uka lrk c, jdIam >kSNjkh c,h njg m;a f'
fuu c,h fmdmhla uska (Boiler feed pump / BFP) fndhsf,arejg fmdm lrhs'
.,a w=re oykfhka msg jk jdhqf wvx.= i,am yd >k ldnka yd i,am wxY=
mirhg uqod yeu ydkslr h' tu ksid ta i|yd fYaI Wml%u fhdod we;'
oykfhka msg jk msgdr jdhqj msg jk ksfha Electrostatic pacipitator/ESP hla
i lr we;' fuys we;s ia;s oaHq;a wdfrdamKh fya;=fjka msgdr jdhqf we;s ishq i,am
iy ldnka wxY= ;a;sh fj;g weof.k ksh my<g f.k ths' my<g tk fuu wmjH
(Bottam Ash) kka ykajk w;r fjd isfuka;s ksIamdokh i|yd Nd; lrhs'
by<g hk jdhqf we;s wmjH (Fly Ash) kka ykajk w;r tu jdhqj o uqyq
c,h ;=<ska hjd fiaulg ,la lrhs' tys o ;jrg;a i,am bj;a f' bkamiq 150m la
muK by<ska wjldYhg msgdr jdhqj uqod yhs' uqodyk msgdr jdhqfj 0'4] la muK
i,am b;s f'

2'

Lksc f;,a n,d.dr

f i|yd i,a yd oef;,a m%Odk jYfhka Nd; lrhs' f;,a Nd; lsf .,a
w=re Nd;hg jvd jdishla jkafka jhla ksid Nd;h yd .nvd lsu myiq u h'
;j o f;,aj, tall ialkaOhl wvx.= le,rs m%udKh o .,a w=rej, fuka 1 1$2
.=Khla muK f'
kuq;a .,a w=rej,g jvd Lksc f;,a , by< neka Lksc f;,a Nd;fhka ,s
ckkfha je houla oeug is f'
Lksc f;,a oykfha o j,k wxlhg meKSf myiqj i|yd l=vd wxY= njg m;a
lsu is lrkq ,nhs' fuh Atom Ignition kka ykajhs' fuys o wfkla ls%hdj,Ska by;
.,a w=re n,d.drj, ls%hdld;ajhg iudk f'

60

3'

kHIal ,s n,d.dr

kHIal ,s n,d.drj, wvq wuqjH m%udKhla Nd; lr je cjhla ,nd .;

yels h' kHIal ,s n,d.drj, le igykla my; oelaf'

fuu n,d.drj, bkaOk f,i Nd; jkafka lsrKYS,S uQ, jHhla jk hqfksh
h' hqfksh m%;sls%hdldrlhla ;=< m%;sls%hd lsug i,iajhs' fuu m%;sls%hdf kshqfg%dak
msg lrka Yd, ;dmhla msg lrhs' fufia msg jk kshqfg%dak Yd, f.hlska .uka
lrhs' fufia wl f.hlska .uka lrk kshqfg%dakhla B< m%;sls%hdj i|yd hqfksh
mrudKqjla iu fydka .eu n,dfmdfrd;a;= h fkd yel' tneka f i|yd
kldrlhla Nd; lrhs' kldrlhla hkq wvq mrudKql ialkaOhkaf.ka hq;a H, He,C
hkdfhka ilid .kakd ,oaols' idudkHfhka ksrka ner c,h iu Nd; lrhs'

isis,k ldrlh
by; m%;sls%hdj wLKav j is jk w;r wl ;dmhla ckkh f' fuu ;dmh
m%;sls%hdldrl ;=<ska hjk ,o jhla fyda jdhqjla ^Wod ( c,h CO2 & uska ,nd f.k msgg
f.k ;a fndhsf,arejg ;dmh ,nd fohs' fuh isis,k ldrlh (coolent) kka ykajhs'
f uska msg;g ;dmh ,nd .ekSu fuka u l=rh ;=< WIaK;ajh my; fy,Su o lrhs'

md,k o`vq (Control & Rods)

fuh uska kshf
q g%dk
a i%djh md,kh lrhs' isi,
s k ldrlhg Wrd .; yels m%udKhg
muKla ;dmh ksmofjk whqre m%;sls%hd is lsu i|yd kshqfg%dak i%djh md,kh l<hq;= h'
tk kshqfg%dak i%dj >k;ajh md,kh l< hq;= h' idudkHfhka f i|yd fndafrdaka
ldnhs (Boron Carbite) u, fkd nef|k jdfka fyda leh iu Nd; lrhs'

61

by; rEm igyfka oelafjk m%;sls%hdldrlhl isis,k ldrlh f,i jdhqj Nd;
lrhs' fuys wl mSvkhla hgf;a bkaOk o`vq ^lsrKYS,S uQ,jH& yryd CO2 jdhqj
fmdm lrkq ,nhs' fuu r;a jQ jdhqj uska fndhsf,aref we;s c,h yqud,h njg m;a
lr ;,nuk ls%hd lrjhs'
jdhqj fjkqjg isis,k ldrlh f,i c,h fhdod .kakd m%;sls%hd ldrl o we;'
fuys c,h mSvkhla hgf;a fndhsf,arejg fmdm lrkq ,ef' tys yqud,h ksmo f'
g wu;r j yqud,h ksmoug .kakd c,h uska u isis,k ls%hdj,sh is lr .; yels
wkaoug ilid we;'

m%;Hdj;k Odrd ,s ckl (A.C. Electric Genarator)

by; ia;r lrk ,o kEu l%uhlska ;,nukhla N%uKh lrfuka ;,nukfha
wlaIhg inkaO lrk ,o ,s cklhla N%uKh lrfuka ,sh ckkh l< yels h'
pqnl lafIa;%hla ;=< tu pqnl lafIa;%h lefmk fia ikakdhl orhla p,kh
lrfuka ikakdhl orh fo fl<jr oHq;a .dul n,hla ckkh l< yels nj 12
fYa%Ksfha bf.k f.k we;'
l=vd mudKfha ,s cklj, pqnl lafIa;%h ksh; j ;nd tu pqnl lafIa;%h

62

lefmk f,i ikakdhl o`.rh N%uKh lrjkq ,ef' kuq;a ,s n,d.drj, Nd; jk
Yd, m%udKfha cklj, ikakdhl or folla fomiska ksi, j ;nd pqnlh N%uKh
lrkq ,nhs' fjdfha pqnlh i|yd o`.rhla Nd; lrkq ,nk w;r tajdg ndysr ,shla
imhd oHq;a pqnl njg m;a lrhs'
f i|yd neg moaO;shlska (Battary Bank) ndyska ,nd fok ir, Odrdj fyda
RcqlrKh lrk ,o m%;Hj; Odrdj ldnka we;s,s yd uq uska pqnl o.r fj; ,nd
fohs'
tl,d cklhl pqnl orj, tla N%uKhl tla o`.rhl tla jrla ne.ska
fjda,ah;djh Wmu f' ikakdhl o`. inkaO lr we;s wdldrh wkqj 3600 la jk
N%uKhl fjda,ah;dj tla Ok Wmuhlg;a RK Wmuhlg;a m;a f'
,s n,d.drj, we;s f;l,d cklj, o`.r fcdavq ;=kla 1200 l mr;rhlska hq;=j
ia:dhqlfha msysgqjd we;' fuys tla N%uKhl tla tla o`.rfhka ckkh jk oHq;a
.dul n,hka ;=k fjk fjk u ndysr mm:j,g ,nd .kS'
fuu fjda,ah;d ;=k Wmu w.hg m;ajkafka 1200 l ld, fjkila iys; j h'
tk tla tla fjda,ah;d w.hka 1200 lg jrla Wmu fj'
ia:dhqlfha 1200l mr;rhlska hq;= j o`.r msysgqjd we;s wdldrh yd l,d fjkila
iys; l,d ;=fka fjda,ah;d msysgk wdldrh my; rEm igykaj, olajd we;' l,d ;=k
L1, L2 yd L3 j,ska olajd we;'

by; rEm igyfka oelafjk m ia:dhqlfha msysgqjd we;s l,d ;=k i|yd jQ o`.r
;=fkka w.% 6la msg;g mefKa' fuu w.% 6 ikakdhl ;=fka f;l,d iemhqula fyda
WodiSkh iys; ikakdhl y;f f;l,d iemhqula f,i msg;g .ekSug my; oelafjk

63

inkaOk l%u fol Nd; lrhs'

1'

;re inkaOh

,sh ksmojk ia:dkfha isg ,sh Nd;h i|yd fnod yk g fuu l%uh
Nd; flf' fuys l,d ;=kg u fmd w.%h N+.; lr tu ia:dkfhka WodiSk inkaOh
,nd .kS' f;l,d moaO;sfhys by; tla o`.rhl fo fl<jr fjda,
a h;dj l,d fjda,
a h;dj
f,i ykajk w;r th VP j,ska olajhs' o`.r folla w;r fjda,ah;dj ux fjda,ah;dj
f,i ykajk w;r th VL j,ska olajhs'
l,d fjda,ah;dj hkq tl,d fjda,ah;dj jk w;r ux fjda,ah;djh hkq l,d
folla w;r fjda,ah;djhs' fuh f;l,d fjda,ah;djh f,i o ykajkq ,ef' ;re
inkaOfha l,d fjda,ah;dj yd ux fjda,ah;dj w;r inkaOh my; oelafjk m
f'

fuys ux Odrdj

l,d Odrdjg

iudk f'

64

2'

oe,a inkaOh

fuys WodiSk inkaOh ,nd .; fkd yel' ,sh ckkh lrk ia:dkfha u
Nd;hg .kq fkd ,nk g fuu inkaOh Nd; lrhs' ,sh ifma%IKh i|yd
WodiSk inkaOh wjYH fkdf' ,xldf ,s n,d.drj, we;s cklj, Nd;
lrkafka fuu l%uhhs'
fuu l%ufha ux fjda,ah;dj l,d fjda,ah;djhg iudk f'

ux Odrdj yd l,d Odrdj w;r inkaOh my; oelafjk m f'

,s n,d.drj, ckkj, o`.r by; oela jQ oe,a wdldrhg inkaO lr m%;sodkh

,nd .kS' ,xldf ,s n,d.drj, ckk fjda,ah;djka 11 kV yd 12.5 kV f'
f wdldrhg ckkh lrk ,sh cd;sl ,s n, cd,hg inkaO lsf cd;sl
,sn, cd,h;a iu. iu uqyQ;kh l< hq;= h' fuys my; i|yka rdYska iuuqyQ;kh
l< hq;= hs's
1' l,d wkq ms<sfj<'
2' fjda,ah;dj'
3' ixLHd;h'
n,d.drfha cklj, m%;sodkh cd;sl ,sn, cd,hg inkaO lrk wjia:dfj
cd,fha mj;sk by; rdYSkaf.a w.hhka iu ckkh lrkq ,nk ,sfha by; rdYSkaf.a
w.hhka iudk lsu iuuqyQ;fha lrkq ,nhs' fuys iuuqyQf;alaIh (Sycnoronize
Scope) u.ska cklfha m%;sodkfha by; rdYSkaf.a w.hhka yd cd;sl ,s n, cd,fha
mj;sk w.fhys iuuqyQ; u kslaIKh lrhs'

65

,s n, ifma%IKh yd fnod yeu

,sn, ifma%IKfha u;= jk m%Odk .egjla jkafka ikakdhlj, m%;sfrdaOh
ksid we;s jk cj ydkshhs' ikakdhlhl m%;sfrdaOh ksid we;s jk cj ydksh hkq
ikakdhlh ;=<ska Odrdjla .,k g tu ikakdhlfha m%;sfrdaOh ksid W;aickh jk
cjhhs' th ikakdhlh ;=<k
s a .,k Odrdf j.fha yd ikakdhlfha m%;f
s rdaOfha .=K;
s hg
iudk f'
tk" W;aick cjh P = I2 R f' by; m%ldYkhg wkqj Odrdj yd m%;sfrdaOh je
jk g is jk cj ydksh je jk neka m%;sfrdaOh wvq lsu fyda Odrd wvq lsu fyda
uska cj ydksh wju lr .; yels f' m%;sfrdaOh wvq lsug k Nd; flfrk
ikakdhlj, yria lv j.M,h je l< hq;= h' th m%dfhda.sl j wmyiq yd ho wl
ldhhls' tneka Odrdj wju lr .ekSug Wml%u fhdokq ,efnhs'
oHq;a cjh fjda,ah;df yd Odrdf .=Ks;hg iudk f' tk" P = VI f'
tneka tl u cjhla wvq fjda,ah;djlska ifma%IKh l< g je fjda,ah;djlska
ifma%IKh lrk wjia:djg jvd je Odrdjla .,hs' tneka fjda,ah;dj je lr w
fjda,ah;djla njg m;a lr ifma%IKh lrkq ,efnhs'
WodyrKhla f,i 100KW l cjhla 250 V fjda,ah;djlska ifma%IKh lrk
wjia:djla i,ld n,uq' fuys .,k Odrdj my; oelafjk m .Kkh l< yels f'
P = VI
I = P/V
= 100 x 103
250
I = 400 A
tu cjhu 100 kV fjda,ah;djla hgf;a ifm%aIKh lrkq ,nk wjia:djl .,k
Odrdj .Kkh lruq'

f wkqj tl u cjh je fjda,ah;djlska ifma%IKh lrk g .,k Odrdj wvq

jk nj meye,s h' Odrdj wvq jk g cj ydksh o wvq f'

66

;j o ,s n,h je rlg ifma%IKh lsf ikakdhlhl . je jk g

m%;sfrdaOh je u ksid fjda,ah;d neiaula we;s f' wvq fjda,ah;djlska ifma%IKfha
f fjda,ah;d neiau iemhq fjda,ah;dfjka ie,lsh hq;= fldgila f' tfy;a w
fjda,ah;djla Nd; lrk g we;s jk fjda,ah;d neiau iemhq fjda,ah;dj wkqj
fkd i,ld yeh yels h'
wvq Odrdjla yd je fjda,ah;djla Nd; jk ksid iufma%IKfha wvq yria lv
m%udKhla iys; ikakdhl Nd; lsug yels f'
,xldf ,s n,d.drj, ckk fjda,ah;djka 11KV yd 12.5KV f' ifma%IKfha
f fjda,ah;dj wlr mKduk Nd;fhka wfjda,ah;djka njg m;a flfrhs'
,xldf 220KV yd 132KV jYfhka ifma%IK fjda,ah;dj folla Nd; flfrhs'
le<Ks . wdYs%; j we;s c, ,s n,d.drj, 132KVNd; flfrk w;r uyje,s .
wdYs%; j we;s c, ,s n,d.dr yd Bg miq j bos jQ iy bos jk iEu n,d.drhl u 220KV
fjda,ah;dj Nd; flfrhs'
fuys fjda,ah;dj je lr .ekSug mKdul Nd; flfrk neka mKdulj,
ls%hdld;ajh yd j. ms<sn| j uid n,uq'
mKdul tl,d (Single Phase) yd f;l,d (3 Phase) jYfhka o wjlr yd wlr
(Step up) f,i o uQ,sl jYfhka j.SlrKh l< yels h'

67

mKdulhl wdia;D; hlv yr u; l or folla T;d we;' tla orhla m%d:l

orh f,i yekafjk w;r ta orhg ,sh imhk w;r wfkla orh jk oa;Shsl
orfhka ,sh ,nd .efka'
wjlr mKdulfha m%d:l orhg je fjda,ah;djla iemfhk w;r oa;Shsl
orfhka wvq fjda,ah;djla ,nd .efka' wlr mKdulhl m%d:l orhg wvq
fjda,ah;djla iemfhk w;r oa;Shsl orfhka je fjda,ah;djla ,nd .efka'
mKdulhl m%d:l orhg m%;Hdj;k Odrd ,shla iemhQ g orh jgd p,kh
jk pqnl lafIa;%hla ^O%eh;dj udre jk& we;s f' f pqnl lafIa;%fha yeisug
udOHfha ^yrfha& m%n,;dj u; r|d mj;S' tneka f i|yd uD hlv yrhla Nd;
flfrhs'
fuu oa;Shsl orh jgd msysgk f p,kh jk pqnl lafIa;%h ksid ta p,khg
iudk ixLHd;hlska hq;a m%;Hdj;l Odrdjla oa;Shsl orfha fma%rKH f'
m%d:l orfha yd oa;Shsl orfha fmdg w;r wkqmd;h wkqj fjda,ah;dj ;SrKh
f'
;ksl,d wjlr yd wlr mKdulj, ixfla; my; oelafjk m f'

m%d:l
orh

oa;Shsl
orh

m%d:l
orh

68

oa;Shsl
orh

mKdulhl fmdgj,a w;r wkqmd;h yd fjda,ah;d wkqmd;h w;r inkaOh my;

m%ldYkfhka oelah yels h'
Vp Vs Np Ns -

m%d:l fjda,ah;dj
oa;Shsl fjda,ah;dj
m%d:lfha fmdgj,a .Kk
oa;Slfh fmdgj,a .Kk

WodyrKhla f,i m%d:l fjda,ah;dj 240 V jQ mKdukhl m%d:lfha fmdgj,a

2000 la T;d we;a k tys oa;Shslfha 12V l fjda,ah;djla ,nd .ekSu i|yd wjYH jk
fmdgj,a .Kk by; m%ldYkh Nd;fhka fidhuq'

mKdulhla mmQK hehs ie,l=jfyd;a m%d:lfha cjh imQKfhka u oa;Shl

s hg
yqjudre h hq;= hs' tk" cj ydkshla is fkd h hq;= h' tk" mKdulhla mmQK
hehs ie,l+ g
m%d:lfha cjh
VP x IP
=

oa;Shslfha cjh
VS x IS

69

tk" mKdulhla mmQK ieis ie,l+ g by; m%ldYh Nd;fhka m%d:lfha

yd oa;Shslfha fjda,ah;d yd Odrd w;r inkaOh ,nd .; yels h'
by; m%ldYhg wkqj wjlr mKdulhla i,ld nejfyd;a m%d:lfha fjda,ah;d
je ksid wvq Odrdjl=;a oa;Shslfha fjda,ah;d wvq ksid je Odrdjl=;a msysghs'
m%d:lfha fjda,ah;dj je ksid je fmdgj,a .Kkl=;a Odrdj wvq ksid yrialv
j.M, wvq lhl=;a Nd; flfrhs' fuys fhdod .kakd lh .ska je yd yria
lka wvq ksid je m%;sfrdaOhla olajhs'
tfuka u oa;Shslfha wvq fjda,ah;dj ksid wvq fmdgj,a .Kkl=;a je Odrdj
ksid yria lfvka je lhl=;a Nd; flfrhs' fuys fhdod .kakd lh .ska
wvq fyda yria lka je ksid wvq m%;sfrdaOhla olajhs'
wjlr mKdulhl m%d:l yd oa;Shsl or w;r we;s by; ;;a;ajh ksid
u,agrfha mrdih Nd; lr m%;sfrdaOh uekSfuka m%d:l yd oa;Shsl orh fjka
lr ykd .; yels h'
m%dfhda.sl j by; oelajQ wdldrfha mmQK mKdul yuq fkdf' m%d:lfha isg
oa;Slhg cjh mKdukfha cj ydkshla is f' we;s jk cj ydks my; m
j.SlrKh l< yels h'

1' hlv ydksh (Iron Loss)

yrh fya;=fjka we;s jk hlv ydks f .khg wh;a f' hlv ydks wdldr folls'

iq<s Odrd ydksh

yrh ;=<ska pqnl i%djh .,d hk g yrh ;=< oHq;a pqnl fma%rKh
fya;=fjka Odrd we;s f' yrh >khla f,i ilia we;s g yria lvfha tla
fl,jrl isg wks;a fl<jrg Odrdj .,d hhs' f Odrd iq<s Odrd f,i yekafjhs'
ta ksid m%d:lfha cjfhys fldgila f ,s Odrd i|yd jeh f' yrfha
yrialv j.M,h je jk g iq<s Odrdf Yd,;ajh o je f' ta ksid yrh
wdia;rKh lrk ,o ;=kS ;yvq .Kklska ilia lr we;' ta u`.ska iq<s Odrd yg
.ekSu wju lr .; yels h'

ukaodhk ydksh
yrfha we;s pqnl wKq wl%uj;a j msysghs' m%;Hdj;k Odrdf Ok
wOfha yrfha we;s pqnl wKq tla;rd ms<sfj<lg ilia f'

70

B <g fjda,ah;df Y+kH jk g laIKsl j uq,ska msys wdldrhg ^wyUq

f,i pqnl wvq msysug& m;a fkdf'
Bg miq RK wO jl%hg udre jk g pqnl wKq m%;sreoaO Ydjg
yerug kej; uq,a msysgq ug f.k taug wu;r cjhla iemhqfuka ,nd .;
hq;= h' ta ksid cj ydkshla is f' f cj ydksh ukaod.; ydksh kka
yekaf'

2'

;U ydksh
l or T;d we;s ;Uj, we;s m%;sfrdaOh ksid is jk cj ydkshhs'

f;l,d mKdul
f;l,d mKdulhl l,d ;=k i|yd t;= ;=kla we;'
lrk wdldr folls'

1'

f t;= ;=k inkaO

oe,a inkaOh (Delta Connection)

A2

2'

;re inkaOh ^ Star Connection&

B1

A1
C1

B2

C2

by; orj, A1,B1,C1 uska t;=f wdrNh o A2, B2, C2 u.ska t;=f wjidkh
o olajd we;' t;=j, wdrNl yd wjika fmdg by; wdldrj,g inkaO lsfuka
wod< inkaO;d wdldr fol f.dvkesh yels h'
m%d:lfha yd oa;Shl
s fha we;s t;= inkaO jk wdldrh wkqj f;l,d mKdulh
my; oelafjk m j.SlrKh l< yels h'
1'

;re" ;re

3'

;re" oe,a

2'

oe,a" oe,a

4'

oe,a" ;re

71

6' ,s hka;% yd WmlrK

fudagj, ls%hdld;ajh yd md,k Wml%u

tl,d yd f;l,d fudagj, mrd;sl w.h
fudagj, mrd;sl w.hka iuyrla my; oelaf'

1'
2'
3'
4'
5'

tl,d o f;l,d o hk j.
fjda,ah;dj
ixLHd;h
laIu;dj ^cjh&
t;= msysgk wdldrh

6' fudagrh ks;a;=jg lrlefjk jg .Kk

7' ia:dhql tlg inkaO jk wdldrh

tl,d

f;l,d

1
230V
50Hz
...H.P/W/kW
.-

400V
50Hz
...H.P/..W/kW
C1 A1 B1

.......rpm
-

A2 B2 C2
.....r.p.m.
Y/ / Y

tl,d o" f;l,d o hk mrd;sfhka fudagrhg iemhsh hq;af;a tl,d iemhqula o

f;l,d iemhqula o hkak oek .; yels h'
fjda,ah;dj hk mrd;sh uska fudagrhg ydkshla fkd ksh; ls%hdld;ajh
,nd .ekSug wjYH fjda,ah;dj iemhSug yels h' ixLHd;h oelau uska fudagrh
ksh; ls%hdld;ajh ,nd .ekSug wjYH iemhqf ixLHd;h oek .; yels h' fuh yia
j,ska ukskq ,efnhs' ,xldf cj uQ,sl iemhqug inkaO lrk fudagrhla k tys
ixLHd;h 50Hz h hq;= hs'
fudagrh ks;a;=jlg lr lefjk jg .Kk r.p.m. (Revolution per minute) uska
oelafjhs' f wkqj wjYH;djg .e<fmk r.p.m. iys; fudagrhla f;dard .; yels h'
t;= inkaOh oelau uska fudagrhg msg; oS inkAOl fmfha (Junction
Box) wjYH mos t;= inkaOh ilid .; yels h' fuh wod< jkafka f;l,d fudagj,g
muKs' thg fya;=j oe,a$;re j.fha fudag wdrNl Nd;fha oS ^Delta/ Star Motor
Startor& fudagr wdrNlhg fudagrfha t;= w.% inkaO lsu i|yd t;= w.% msysgk
wdldrh oek isu wjYH neks'

72

l%shdld uQ,Ou yd fudagj, Nd;hka

1' tl,d m%;Hdj;l Odrd fudag
b;d nyq, jYfhka Nd; flfrk m%;Hj;l Odrd fudag" fma%rK j.hg ^Induction type& wh;a f'
tl,d fma%rK fudagrhl uQ,sl fldgia my; rEmfha olajd we;'
flakadmid iaph

ia:dhqlh

N%ulh

t<jq lmamsh

fnhdu

isis,k mxldj

inkaOl fmh
cj iemhqu

fuys we;s ia:dhqlh ^Stator& ;=< t;= r|jd we;' ia:dhqlfha we;s t;= ixLHdj
fudagrfha O%ej ixLHdjg iudk h' fuys oS t;= ixLHdj f,i ie,eflkafka wdrN fyda
t<jq t;=f we;s t;= ixLHdjhs' wdrNl yd t<jq t;=j, t;= ixLHd tlsfkl
iudk h'
fma%rK fudagrhl we;s jk pqnl lafIa;%fha N%uK f.h tys O%ej ixLHdj u;
yd ixLHd;h u; r|d mj;S' f f.h fudagrhl iuuqyQ;k f.h kka ye|skaf' th
my; oelafjk ilrKfhka ,nd .; yels h'
N = f.h ks;a;=jg jg j,ska
P = O%ej ixLHdj
f = ixLHd;h
f wkqj O%ej ixLHdj 2 la jQ fudagrhl Bg wkqrEm f.h my; oelaf'
N

120 X 50
2

= 3000

73

ks;a;=jg jg

O%ej
ixLHdj
2
4
6
8
10

iuuQyQ;k f.h
^pqnl lafIa;%fha f.h&
3000
1500
1000
750
600

fma%rK fudagrhl N%ulfha f.h ^fudagrh lrlef f.h& ia:dhqlfha pqnl

lafIa;%fha iuuqyQ;k f.hg jvd wvq f' fuu f. w;r fjki fm%arK fudagrhl
,siaiqu ^slip& kka ykajhs'
fm%arK fudagj, N%ulfha t;= fhdod ke;'
ta fjkqjg weksh m fhdod my; rEmfha i|yka
f,i ilia lr we;' tu ie,eiau f,ak l+vqjla f,i
fmfkk ksid f,ak l+vQ N%ul ^Squirrel cage rotor &
f,i o ye|skaf'
fmar
% K fudagrhla hkq N%ulhg ,s iemhqula inkaO lr fkdue;s yd ia:dhqlfha
md,k Odrdfjka oHq;a pqnl fma%rKh fya;=fjka N%uKfha Odrdjla we;s lrk j.fha
fudag f'
tl,d fudagrhl tl u ia:dhql t;=ula we;s ksid or ;=<ska .,k Odrdj l,d
wka;rhla fkdue;s neka lerleu wdrN u i|yd wdrNl n,hla ^wdrNl jHdj;h&
(Starting Torque) iajhxj ,nd .; fkdyels h' wdrNl jHdj;h ,nd .ekSu i|yd
fYaIs; l%uhla Nd; l< hq;= hs' ta i|yd Nd; flfrk l%uh wkqj my; mos
j.SlrKh lr we;'

1'
2'
3'
4'

tl,d fudag my; oelafjk mos j.SlrKh lr we;'

me<s l,d j.h (Split Phase Motors)
Od;%l fudag (Capacitor Motors)
idj fudag (Universal Motors)
wdj; O%ej fudag (Shaded Pole Motors)
1. me<s l,d fudagrh (Spilt Phase Motor)
Supply - iemehqu
1'

t<jq t;=u ^m%Odk t;=u&

Running winding (Main winding)
2' werUq t;=u
Starter winding

74

t<jq t;=u Rcq j u iemhqug inkaO lr we;' t<jq t;=f m%;sfrdaOh wju
jk w;r fma%rl;dj by< f' wdrNl t;=f m%;sfrdaOh by< jk w;r fma%rl;dj wju
f'
ia:dhqlh ;=< t<jq t;=ug 900 l fjkila isk fia wdrNl t;=u msysgqjd we;'
fudagrhg ,sh iemhQ g wdrNfha t;= fofla we;s jk l,d wka;rh ksid wdrNl
jHdj;h ,e fudagrfha N%uKh wdrN f' fudagrfha N%uKh wdrN ksh;
f.hg meKs g wdrNl t;=u ;jrg;a wjYH fkd jk neka yd wdrNl t;=u r;a
thg ydks is u je<elaug;a fudagrh ls%hd;aul f wkjYH je Odrdjla ,nd
.ekSu je<elaug;a flakadmid iah u.ska wdrNl t;=u ika flfrhs'
flakadmid iah hkq fudagrh N%uKh f we;s jk flakadmid n,h
fya;=fjka jD; jk fia ieliQ iahls' fudagrfha N%uKh keje;a jQ g kej;
flakadmid iah uq,a msysgqug m;a f'

2' Od;%l fudag (Capacitor Motors)

1' Od;%l werUq fma%rK fudagrh (Capacitor Start Indouction Motors)

Od;%l fudag j. lSmhls' tajd k
Od;%l werUq fudagrh
iar Od;%l fudag
idj fudagrh

C - Od;%lh
fuh by; ia;r lrk ,o me<s l,d ^Split phase& fudagrhg fndfyda fihska iudk
h' fjkilg we;af;a flkadmid iah yryd wdrNl t;=ug fYa%Ks.; j Od;%lhla
inkaO lr ;suhs' fudagrhg ,s iemhqu inkaO l< g wdrNfha Od;%lh yd
flakadmid iah yryd wdrNl t;=ug Odrdj .,k w;r fudagrh iuuqyQ;k
f.hg t<e g flakadmid iah uska wdrNl t;=u ika flf' f j.fha
me<s l,d fudagrhlg jvd je wdrNl jHj;hla ,nd .; yels h' c, fmdmj,
^Water Pumps& f j.fha fudag Nd; flfrhs'

75

2' Od;%l werUqu yd Od;%l t<jq fudagrh (Capaciton Start and Capaciton runing
motor)

by; ia;r lrk ,o Od;%l werUq fudagrfha we;s fldgiaj,g wu;r j rEm
igyfka oelafjk wdlrhg wdrNl t;=ug fYa%Ks.; j we;s flakadmid iahg yd
t<jq t;=ug iudka;r.; j ;j;a Od;%lhla inkaO lr we;' wdrNfha flaka dmid
iah ixjD; j we;s ksid ta ;=<ska Odrdj .uka lr Bg fYa%Ks.; j we;s Od;%lh yryd
werUq t;=ug iemhqu inkaO f' fuys oS fyd| wdrNl jHj;hla fudagrhg ,ef'
bka miq fudagrfha f.h je ksh; f.hg ^iuuqyQ;k f.hg& meKSu;a iu. u
flakadmid iahlska Bg fYa%Ks.; j we;s Od;%l wdrNl fudagrh fuka werUq t;=u
mm:fhka bj;a jkafka ke;' Bg fya;=j wdrNl t;=ug fYa%Ks.; j ;j;a Od;%lhla
inkaO lr ;suhs' tuska fudagrh Odjkh jk wjia:df oS o oa l,d ;;a;ajhla we;s
flfrhs' tneka by; i|yka l< fudagrj,g jvd fyd| wdrNl ;;a;ajhla fuka u
Odjk ;;a;ajhla o f fudagrhg we;' tfuka u f j.fha fudagj,g ksh; f.hla
mj;ajd .; yels h'

idudkHfhka fmar
% K fudagrhl we;s m%Odk;u wjdishla jkafka fudagrhg fhfok
Ndrh fjkia jk g f.h ksh; j ;nd .ekSug fkd yels uhs' fuu l%uh fhdod
.ekSfuka fudagj, fuu wjdisodhl ;;a;ajh bj;a fldg we;'

ta ksid weUre hka;%

^Grinders& hka;% ^Drilling mechines& OukS lr fyj;a f,dajr ^Blowers&" YS;lrK yd

jdhq ilrKj, Nd; flfrk fudagr ^Refrigeration and Air Conditioning motors& i|yd
f j.fha fudagr Nd; flfrhs' f j.fha fudagrhl fldgia k lrk ,o rEm
igykla my; oelaf'

76

Od;%l werUq yd t<jq fudagrhl fldgia k lrk ,o rEm

igykla my; oelaf'

;ks l ,d fuda g rh

Odrs ; % l t,jq fuda g rh

ia : dhq l h
Od;%lh
iis , k mxldj yd
wd
rla I l wdjrKh
wdrla

wxl ;yvq j

inka O l fmh

fnhdu
wlaIh

w.% mq j rej iys ;

w.% fmh
h;=re u. iy BId h;=r

kexjq wdOdrlh

fmrgq ks j drlh

Od;% l t,jq yd werUq fuda g rh

wrUq Od;% l h
t,jq Od;% l h
mxld wdjrKh
mxldj
wdka ; uq dj
fnhdu
fla k a dmid ia ph
wNHka ; r j<,a ,

ndys r j<,a ,

ia j dhq l h
inka O l fmh
l+ v q j<,a ,

77

ia:sr Odrs;%l fudag ^Permanent Capacitor motor&

f j.fha fudagj, flakadmid iaphla fkdue;' werUq t;=u Od;%lhla

iu fYa%Ks.;j inkaO lr we;' f Od;%l fudagrh t<jq wjia:df oS o Odjk
;;ajfhka ^Running Condition& iar j inkaO we;' fuys wdrNl jHj;h b;d wvq
h' iS,s ,s mxld yd fi ,s mxldj, Nd; flf'

idj fudagia (Universal Motors)

f j.fha fudagj, fYaI;ajh jkqfha ir, Odrd fyda m%;Hdj;k Odrd fyda
iemhqulska ls%hdlr ug we;s yelshdjhs' fjdfha Ndrh fjkia f fudagrfha f.h
ia:djr j ;nd .; yels h'
fuys N%ulfha o t;=ula we;' ia:dhql t;=u rEmfha oelafjk m N%ul t;=u yd
fYa%Ks.; j inkaO lr we;'

S = ia:dhql t;=
(Stationary Windings)

f j.fha fudag" l=vd w;a hka;%" ^Small hand drills& uyk ueis ^Sweing
Machines&" f,kav ^Blender& laiap ^uqiql=re& ^Mixer& jeks uq`M;eka f.hs WmlrKj,
^Kitchen appliances& fhdod f.k we;'

78

4' wdj; O%ej fudag (Shaded pole Motors)

f j.fha fudagj, ia:dhqlfha t;=ug wu;r j rEm igyfka mos yrfha uy;
lj,ska jg folla muK T;d we;' m%Odk t;=ug iemhqu inkaO l< g fjkia jk
pqnl fCI;%hla yrfha we;s jk ksid tu pqnl fCIa;%fhka yrfha fhdod we;s o`.r
lemSfuka ,s Odrjla ckkh f' fuu Odrdj ksid we;s jk pqnl fCIa;%fha l,dj
m%Odk t;=u ksid we;s jk l,djg fjkia jk ksid wdrNl jHdj;h ,nd.; yels h'
fuu fudag b;d wvq cjhla wjYH ldhhka i|yd fhdod .kS' ^ Wod# l=vd mxld" m.;
lrk hka;% &

yrhg fhdod we;s t;=u

yrh

m%Odk t;=u

79

tl,d fm%arK fudagrhl N%uK Ydj udre lsu

iemhqf WodiSk yd icS w.% udre lsrSfuka f fudagj, N%uK osYdj udre
fkdf' tl,d fma%rK fudagrhl N%uK Ydj udre lsug tyss werUq t;=f fo
fl<jr udre lsfuka l< yels h' Wod ( my; olajd we;s werUq t;=f t;=u wdrN
l< ia:dkh S1 f,i;a t;=u wjika l< fl<jr S2 f,i;a olajd we;'

my; A rEmfha oelafjk wdldrhg t;=u inkaO l< g fudagrh tla Ydjlg;a
B rEmfha oelafjk wdldrhg t;=u inkaO l< g Bg m%;sreoaO Ydjg;a fudagrh
N%uKh f'

f;l,d fudagrh
f;l,d fudag j. lsym
s hla we;' f iEu fudag j.hl u fudagrh lsh
% d;aul
ug n,mdk m%Odk wjYH;dj f;l,d iemhqulska N%uKh jk pqnl lafIa;%hla we;s
lr .ekSuhs' l,d ;=k i|yd ia:dhqlfha T;d we;s or lg, uska fufia N%uKh jk
pqnl lafIa;%hka we;s flfrhs'
f;l,d fudagrhl tl,d fudagrhl fuka wdrNl jHdj;h ,nd .ekSf
.egjla we;s fkdf' thg fya;= jkafka iEu l,d folla w;r u 1200 l l,d
wka;rhla mej;Suhs' f l,d wka;rh uska wdrNl jHdj;h ,nd foa' f;l,d
fudagrhl N%uKh jk osYdj udre lsu o iemhqf kEu l,d folla udre lsfuka l<
yels h'

80

f;l,d fma%rK fudagrh (Threephase Induction Motors)

je jYfhka olakg ,efnkafka f fudag j.hhs' mKdulhl m%d:l yd
oa;Shsl t;=j, is jk fma%rl ls%hdjg iudk ls%hdjla f j.fha fudagj, olakg
,ef' f fudagrh fma%rK fudagrh hkqfjka k lrhs'
mKdulhl k m%d:l orhg imhk fjda,ah;dj ksid yg .kakd pqnl
lafIa;%h uska oa;Shsl orfha fma%rK n,fhka oHq;a .dul n,hla we;s f'
f j.fha fudagrj, ia:dhql orj,g imhkq ,nk fjda,ah;dj ksid we;s
jk pqnl lafIa;%h uska N%ulfha we;s ikakdhl fldgiaj, oHq;a .dul n,hla
fma%rKh f' f oHq;a .dul n,h ksid N%ulfha o pqnl lafIa;%hla we;s f' fuys
N%ulh o ;ks l,d fma%rK fudagj, fuka f,aka l+vq j.fha ^Squirrel Cage& N%ulhls'
f;l,d iemhqu ia:dhql t;=ug inkaO l< g ia:dhqlfha pqNl lafIa;%h
N%uKh f' f N%uKh jk fjki pqnl lafIa;%fha iuuqyq;k f.h kka yekaf'
f lrlefjk pqnl lafIa;%h ksid fma%rKh uska N%ulfha o pqnl lafIa;%hla we;s f'
N%ulfha yd ia:dhqlfha pqnl lafIa;% tlsfkl lsh
% dlr N%ulfha N%uK n,hla ^jHdj;hla&
we;s f' ta n,h ksid N%ulh .g u N%uKh f' N%ulh N%uKh jk f.h orj, we;s
jk pqnl lafIa;%fha iuuqyQ;k f.hg jvd wvq h' fu f. w;r wka;rh fma%rK
fudagj, ,siaiqu f,i ye|ska f'

f;l,d iuuqyQ; fudagrh ^3 Phase Synchronomy motor&

f j.fha o uQ,sl jYfhka ia:dhqlfha f;l,d t;=ula we;' f t;=u o f;l,d
fma%rK fudagrhl ia:dhql t;=ug iudk h' fuys N%ulfha o t;=ula we;s w;r tys udOHh
wdia;rKh lrk ,o hlv ^Laminated Iron& j,ska ksujd we;' N%ulfha we;s or t;=j,
w.% we;s,s uq ^Slip ring& folla uska fudagrfha inkaOl fmh ^Terminal Box& u;g
f.k ;sf'
ia:dhql t;=ug f;l,d iemhqula inkaO l< g ia:dhqlh jgd iuuqy
Q ;l f.fhka
pqnl lafIa;%h N%uKh f' msg;ska imhk ir, Odrd iemhqula uska N%ulfha we;s
orfha O%ej 2 la fyda lsysmhla msysgk wdldrhg pqnl lafIa;%hla we;s f'
fuys ia:dhqlfha N%uKh jk pqnl lafIa;%hg iudk f.hlska N%ulfha pqnl
lafIa;%hka o N%uKh f' tk" iuuqyQ;k f.fhka u N%ulfha pqnl lafIa;%h o
N%uKh f' tg N%ulh ia:dhqlfha pqnl lafIa;%fha Ydjg u N%uKh f'

81

f;l,d fudagrhl ia:dhql t;= inkaO jk wdldr

f;l,d fudagrhl l,d fol i|yd ia:dhql t;= ;=kla we;' f t;= ;=k
inkaO lrk wdldr folls'

;drld inkaOh ^ineu&

A1, B1, C1, t;=j, wdrNl fl<jr

A2, B2, C2, t;=j, wjika fl<jr

oe,a inkaOh ^ienu&

iuyr fudagj, by; wdldr foflka tllg t;= inkaO lr w.% ;=kla muKla
inkaOl fmh fj;g ^Terminal Box& inkaO lr we;' iemhqu inkaO lsf "
fudagrfha olajd we;s wdldrhg l,d wkql%uh ^Phase Sequence& msysgk m iemhqu
inkaO l< hq;= hs' ke;fyd;a fudagrh N%uKh h hq;= osYdj udre f'
iuyr f;l,d fudagj, t;= ;=fkys w.% yh u msg;g ^inkaOl fmhg&
f.k we;' tajdfha msg;ska my; oelafjk wdldrhg wjYH inkaOh fhdod .; yels h'

82

inkaOl fmfha t;= inkaO lrk wdldrh my; rEmfha oela f'
A1

B2

B1

C2

L1

A1

A2

L1

C1
A1

B1

C1

B2

C2

A2

A2

L2

B1

B2

L1

L3

A1

C1

A2

C2

L2

L3

L1

;re inkaOh

L2

B1

B2

m%Odk jYfhka fudag wdrNl j. folls'

1' Direct on line starter (D.O.L. Starter)
2' ;re oe,a wdrNl
(STAR DELTA STARTER)

83

C1

C2

L2

oe,a inkaOh

fudag inkaO wdrNl yd f. md,l

L3

L3

1 ' D.O.L. Starton

fuu j.h tl,d yd f;l,d fudag foj.hg u Nd; lrhs'
tl,d fudagrhla i|yd Nd; lrk D.O.L. wdrNlhl rEm igykla my; olajd
we;'

fudag f. md,l
fudagj, f. md,kh i|yd jO Wml%u fhdod .efka' f w;=ka .dyia: j
nyq, j Nd; flfrk is,sx ,s mxld fudagrfha yd fi ,s mxld fudagrfha f.
md,kh i|yd fhdod f.k we;s Wml%u ms<sn| j idlPd lruq'
is,s ,s mxldf fhdod f.k we;s f. md,k Wml%uh
is ,sx ,s mxld i|yd Nd; flfrkafka iar Od;%l j.fha fudagrhls'
fuys fudagrhg ndyska ilrk ,o ,s mxld hdulhla ^fan regulator& uska fjda,
a h;dj
fjkia lr f. md,kh is flfrhs'
f i|yd my; rEm igyfka olajd we;s wdldrfha iajhx mKdulhla ^Auto
transformer& Nd; flfrhs'
1
1- t<jq t;=u
2

2- werUq t;=u

84

kQ;kfha ,s mxldj, f. md,kh i|yd bf,lafg%dksl Wmdx. fhdod ilia

lrk ,o bf,lafg%dksl mm: iys; f. md,l o Nd; flfrhs'
bf,lafg%dksl mm:hla iys; mxld hdulhl mm: igyk my; olajd we;'

fi ,s mxld fudagrhl f. md,lh

fi ,s mxld fudagrhl ia:dhql t;=f werUq t;=u yd t<jq t;=ug wu;r
j f. md,kh i|yd hdul t;=ula o ^regulating/Winding& we;' my; mm: igyfka
oelafjk m hdul t;=u f. md,lh f,i fhdod f.k we;'

85

7' .Dy ,s mm:

,s n,h ckkh lrk wdldr" ifma%IKh yd fnod yeu ms<sn| j f jk g
wms bf.k f.k we;af;uq' ,sh fufyhjd wfma wjYH;d bgq lr .ekSu i|yd wm
ksjig" ldhd,hg fyda mdi,g l%udkql+, j ilia lrk ,o ,s mm:hla wjYH f'
fujeks ,s mm:hla .Dy ,s mm:hla k f' .Dy ,s mm:hla inkaO Wmdx.
wdrlaIK l%u" md,k l%u" ie,iq lsu" Nd;fha wdrlaIdj yd kv;a;=j ms<sn| j wm
oekqj;a h hq;= h'

,s mm:hl Nd; flfrk Wmdx.

ia j.
,s WmlrKhlg ,sh ,nd u" ika lsu i|yd fhdod .efka' ,s mm:j,
;a;sh u;= msg i lrk ia j.h fyda ;a;shg .s,ajk ia j.h fyda fhdod
.efkhs' wo fndfyda g fhdod .kq ,nkafka ;a;shg .s,ajk ^Sunk Type & iap j.hhs'
fhdod .kakd wjia:dj wkqj ia j. l< yels h'

;ks O%ej ;ksux ^S.P.S.T. - Single Pole - Single Throw&

tla mykla oe,aug fyda ksug
fhdod .efka' fjf<|fmdf<a f
ia ;ks ldKavfha ^Single Gang&
isg ldKav my ^Five Gang& olajd we;'

;ks O%ej foux ^S.P.D.T. - Single Pole Double Throw&

tla mykla fyda lsysmhla fyda ia:dk
follska md,kh lsug fhdod .efka'

oa O%ej ;ksux ^D.P.S.T. - Double Pole Single Throw &

m%Odk iafhys ^Main Switch&
fhdod we;'

86

 w;r ueos jyrej ^Inter mediate switch&

tla mykla fyda lsysmhla fyda ia:dk
follg jvd je .kKlska md,kh
lsug fhdod .efka'

tnq fnd;a; ^Push Button&- j. folls

idudkH jD; j.h N/O

idudkH ixjD; j.h N/C

idudkH jD; j.h .Dy oq,s mm:j, ,S iSkq ^Electric Bell& i|yd fhdod
.efka' fuu ia ;a;sfha i lsu i|yd .s,ajk fm ^Sunk Box & fhdod .; hq;= f'
tajd ma,dialaj,ska ksujd we;'

myka j.
wdf,dalh ,nd .ekSu i|yd ,s mm:j, jO myka j. Nd; flfrhs' tajd
ls%hdld;ajh" ksIamdok l%uh" ldhlaIu;dj wd lreKq wkqj tlla wfklg fjkia f'
iQ;s%ld myka
wog;a nyq, j Nd; flfrhs' re n,anhla ;=< gxiagka iQ;s%ldjla we;=<;a
lsfuka ksmojd we;'

myka Odrlhg ^Holder& i lrk fldgi l+re iys; j fyda fmdg iys; j fyda
ksIamdokh flfrhs' gxiagka iQ;%sldj ;=<ska ,sh Odrdj .,d hdf tys WIaK;ajh by<
f.dia ;dm ma; wdf,dalh msg flfrhs' ;dm ydksh wl neka ldhlaIu;dj wvq h'
O cjj,ska ^25w , 60w, 75w & ksmojd we;'

87

m%;sml myk ^Fluoresent Lamp&&

ish/ia ng myka kka o ykajk w;r wvq ,s cjhlska je wdf,dalhla ,nd
.ekSug fhdod .efkhs' fuys we;s ng myk idudkH wdldrhg oe,ah fkd yels ksid
fYaI Wmdx. iys; mm:hlska iuka; f'

A - wkqndOl orh (Choke)

B - *af,drika ngh (Flourcent Tube)
C - wdrlh (Starter)

wkqndOl orh
hlv ;yvqj, mjD; ;U l t;Sfuka ;kd we;' myfka cjhg .e<fmk f,i
th 20w fyda 40w fyda f,i ksudKh flfrhs'

ng myk
gxiagka iQ;s%ld follska hq;a re nghls' iQ;s%ld fol ngfha fo fl<jr msysgqjd
we;' ngh we;=<; ;a;sfha fmdiamr Y%s; ridhksl l=vq fYaIfhla wdf,am lr we;' f
l=vqj,g tla tla ridhksl ixfhda. tla lsfuka jO jK wdf,dalh ,nd .; yels h'
ngh ;=< wvq mSvkhla we;s w;r wd.ka jdhqj yd rih iaj,amhla wvx.= lr we;'

wdrNlh
re nghla ma,diala fldmqjla ;=< nyd ,Sfuka ;kd we;' re ngh ;=< wvq
mSvkhla iys; ksIalS%h jdhqjla ^yS,sh" wd.ka& we;s lr tlsfklg wdikak jk fia
bf,lafg%dav folla we;' ma,diala fldmqj ;=, u bf,lafg%dav folg iudka;r fh
Od;%lhla we;'

wdrNlh ls%hd lrk fudfydf;a wkjYH .=jka ,s ;rx. we;s u je<elaug

Od;%lh fhdod we;'
m%;sml ng myk ls%hd lrk wdldrh uid n,uq' m<uq j mm:hg ,sh iemhQ
g iamY w.% w;r l=vd ysoi ;=<ska bf,lafg%dak fudapkh u ksid wdrNlh ;=<

88

we;s jdhqj WKqiq oaf,day iamY ndOdjlska f;dr j ,sh .,d hhs' tg
wdrNlh ;=< we;s jdhqj isis,a oa f,day mh wfkla bf,lafg%davfhka fjka f' f
wjia:df oS mm:fha .,k Odrdj CIKsl j | jef' tneka wkqndOlh ;=< wl
fjda,ah;djla fma%rKh f' f fjda,ah;dj 600v muK f' f wl fjda,ah;dj
ksid ngfha fo fl<jr we;s iQ;s%ld w;r bf,lafg%dak .uka lrjhs' fuys oS we;s jk
mdrcnq, lsrK ngh ;=< ;a;sfha we;s *af,darika l=vqj, jeoSfuka wdf,dalh ksl=;a
flfrhs' f bf,lafg%dak .uk myiq lsug ngh ;=<g riosh iaj,ahla we;=<;a lr we;'
myk oe,au wdrN jQ g wl fjda,ah;djla wjYH fkdf' f wjia:df wkqndOlh
yryd 150v muK fjda,ah;djla we;' f wjia:df wvq ,shlska je wdf,dalhla
,ef' f myk jvd;a ,dNodhS f' tfy;a wkqndOl orh uska Yla;s ydkshla is f'
f ksid wmg ,efnkqfha ,eh hq;= cjhg jvd wvq cjhls' thg fya;=j fma%rlhla fhdod
we;s ksid cj idOlh^Power factor& my< neiSuhs' fuh u yrjd .ekSug i /yek yd
WodiSk /yek inkaO jk wdldrhg Od;%lhla inkaO lrkq ,ef' Od;%lhla fhoSfuka
cj idOlh oshqKq lr.; yelsh'
myka Odrl (Lamp Holders)
fjd t,a,k Odrl ^Pendent Holder& ndjr Odrl ^Batton Holder& yd wdk; ndjr
Odrl ^Angle Batton Holder& hkqfjka j. ;=kls' wjYH;dj wkqj by; myka Odrl
j.hla Nd; l< yels h'

wdk; ^Angle Batton& ndjr j.h

t,a,k (Pendent) j.h

ndjr (Batton) j.h

is,s myka i|yd iqiq f'

,S fyda fldkalS% jeks ;Srej Odrl ;a;s jeks isria Odrlhlg i

lrhs'

we,a,Sug iqiq h'

flfjks msgqjdk (Out let Socket)

,s WmlrKhlg ,sh ,nd .ekSug fhdod .efkhs' flfjks msgqjdkl .s,a

fm usaka ;a;shg i flfrhs' ,nd .; hq;= Odrdj wkqj 5A, 13A yd 15A hkqfjka
j. lr we;' i yd WodiSk lj,g wu;r j N+.; /yek^Earth cable& o inkaO l<
hq;= f' flfjks msgqjdklska ,sh ,nd .ekSug iqiq fmakq wdOdrlhla ^mdoula& ^Plug
Base& Nd; l< hq;= f' 15A flfjks msgqjdk Nd; lrkq ,nkafka kdk ldur
89

yd uq;ekaaf.h i|yd h' je Odrdjla ,nd .kakd ,s WjdrK fjdg inkaO flf'
,s mm:hl /yeka weoSu i|yd PVC (Conduit Tubes) ng" flaiska yd miqre fhdod
.efkhs' P.V.C ng O IalNj,ska we;' w,a 3$4" 1" 1 1$2 jYfhks' tla tla
IalNfhka hq;a nghla ;=<;a heh yels Wmu /yeka ^Cable& m%udKhla we;' nghla
;=<g we;=`: l< hq;= ikakdhl l m%udKhg jvd je m%udKhla we;=`: fkd l< hq;= h'
thg fya;=j jkafka ikakdhl ;=<ska Odrdjla .e,Sf oS ;dmh ckkh uhs' ngh ;=<
wjldYhla ;enQ g Wmosk ;dmh wjldYhg .,d hhs' ta ksid ikakdhlj,g is h yels
ydksh bj;a fjhs' ng ;a;sh ;=< .s,au fyda ;a;sh u;=mska msysgqu fyda l< yels h'
PVC ng Nd; lsf oS wjYH;dj wkqj kdhsks ke (Conduit Bend) inkaO;d kdhsks
flfjks ^Conduit Socket& ika fm (Juntion Box) wdosh fhdod .; hq;= f'
/yeka weoSu i|+yd ;a;s u;= msg i lrk flaisx ^Casing& k me;,s ng j.hla
o we;' fjd Nd;h myiq h' fjd O m<,ska ^w,a 1" 1 1$2" 2'''& ksujd we;'
ikakdhl l oej fldgia u; ^mrd," nd,al wdoS& i lsf oS ta i|yd l
miqre ^Wiring Clips& Nd; flfrhs' fjd weksh f,dayfhka ;kd we;'

rEmh 11
kafglaia weK uska fjd oej fldgia u; i flfrhs' ta i|yd w,a 5$8
kafglaia weK f i|yd iqiq h' wosk ikakdhl l m%udK wkqj l weoS miqre
fjkia m%udKj,ska ksmojd we;'
,s
,s
,s
,s

/yeka
/yeka
/yeka
/yeka

2
3
4
5

la
la
la
la

i|yd
i|yd
i|yd
i|yd

os.
os.
os.
os.

w,a
w,a
w,a
w,a

1 1$4 ls'
1 1$2 ls'
1 3$4 ls'
2 ls'

idudkH /yeka weoS miqre folla w;r mr;rh 150mm muK h hq;= h' fuu
mr;rh fhdod we;s /yeka m%udKh u; fjkia f'

rEmh 12

90

,s /yeka j. ^Cablea&
,s mm: weoSf oS O ,s /yeka j. Nd; lrhs' wjYH;dj wkqj yd l
;=<ska .,k Odrdj wkqj ,s /yeka j. lr we;' ,s /yekaj, ;U fyda weksh
fyda f,dayfhka ;kd we;s w;r msg; ,s mjdrlj,ska wjdrKh lr we;' my; oelafjk
m ,s /yekl wdjrK 2 la we;'

rEmh 13
N+.; /yek i|yd hdka;%sl wdjrKh muKla fhdod we;'
my; oelafjk j.=fjka ,s /yeka j." tajdfha yrialv j.j, Nd;hka
ia;r f'
fu%la m%udKh ikakdhl yria
,s
wdikakj
Nd; /yeka
mm
lfha j. M,h Od;dj kqu w,a
mm2
A
1$1'13
1
12A
1$0'044 mykaj,g ,s /yeka
weoSu 5A flfjks mm:

7$0'67

2'5

17A

7$0'029

13A/15A flfjks mm:

i|yd .ekakq /yek
i|yd 7$0'67 hdka;%sl
wdjrKh muKla we;s
/yeka Nd; f'

7$1'04

37A

7$0'044

m%Odk iemhq /yeka i|yd

7$1'35

20

51A

7$0'52

je Odrdjla ,nd .kakd

iemhq i|yd

91

,s /yeka w.% Wmdx.hlg i lsf tys w.%h lhg ydks fkd jk wldrhg
ilia l< hq;= h' ;ks /yekla fhdok g my; oelafjk wdldrhg ilia l< hq;= h'

rEmh 14
/yeka lsysmhla tla ia:dkhlg i lrk g 1.5 cm la muK mjrKh bj;a lr
keulska fyda weUulska f;drj i l< hq;= h' mjrKh bj;a lsf o ,s ldl
msyshla ^Electrician Knife& Nd; lr my; oelafjk wdldrhg mjrKh bj;a l< hq;=h'
w`vqj Nd;fhka mjrKh bj;a lsu fkd l< hq;= h'
ke;fyd;a mjrKh bj;a lsu i|yd fYaIfhka ilia lr
we;s jh ia%m ^Wire Stripper& keue;as fYaI wdjqoh Nd;
l< hq;=hs'
ikakdhl l i|yd iu; jK Nd; flfrhs'
jKh
ikakdhl lh
merKs
kj
i
r;=
Uqre
WodiSk
l`:
ks,a
N+.;
fld<$ly
fld<
idudkH merKs ikakdhl lj, wod< jKh osia jkqfha hdka;s%l wdjrK bj;a
l< miq h' ^N+.; l yer& tfy;a kQ;kfha fjf<| fmdf<a we;s lj, hdka;s%l
wdjrKh wod< jKfhkaa ;kd we;' f ksid l rdYshla fhfok wjia:djl ykd
.ekSf myiqjla we;'

md,k Wml%u ^Control Devices&

md,k Wml%u ,s mm:hl we;=<;a h hq;= wksjdh wx.hls' wfma wjYH;dj
wkqj mm:h md,kh ^ika$ika& lsu fyda mm: fodaIhla fya;=fjka iajhxlS%h j
md,kh ^ika& u fyda is h hq;= h' f i|yd Wml%u lsysmhla Nd; flfrhs'
f
Wml%u md,k Wml%u yd wdrlaIK Wml%u hkqfjka j. flfrhs'

m%Odk iah ^Main Switch +&

ksjfia we;s iuia; ,s mm:h md,kh lsug m%Odk iah fhdod .efkhs'
idudkH myka iahl i lh muKla ika$ika lsu l< yels kuq m%Odk
iah uska i yd WodiSk l fol ika$ika lsu is f' merKs ksIamdokhg
jvd fjkia wdldrfha m%Odk ia j.hla wo Nd; flf' th ;ksl+rej ^Isolator&
kka ye|skaf'

92

wdrlaIK Wml%u ^^Protection Devices&&

wdrlaIK Wml%u hgf;a wOdrd wdrlaIK Wml%u yd ysldka Odrd wdrlaIK Wml%u
Nd; flfrhs'

wOdrd wdrlaIK Wml%u ^^Over Load Protection Devices&&

f hgf;a fiajd ,dhlh" Wmmm: ,dhl fyda iss;s mm: |+sk wh;a f'

fiajd ,dhlh ^^Servise Fuse&&

fiajd ,dhlh .Dy ,s mm:hl wdrN ia:dkfha tk" fiajd iemhq /yek
ksfjig i lrk ia:dkfha msysgqjd we;' th 30A l Wmu ,s Od;djlg hg;a f'
fuys whs;sh ,sn, wldh i;= jk ksid mdfNda.slhdg fuys fjkialula l< fkd
yels h'
Wmmm: ,dhl
.Dy ,s mm:fha fn fmfha Wmmm: ,dhlh fhdod we;' tla tla
Wmmrsm:fha Wmmrsm: ,dhlhlska wdrN f' th i lhg inkaO h' th 5A"
10A, 15A wdoS Odrdj,g .e<efmk fia ilia lr we;' mska ue Odrlhl iqiq ,dhl
l we;=<;a lsf Wmmm: ,dhlh ;kd we;' w Odrdjla .e,Sfuka ,dhl lh
^Fuse& oe .sh g ksh; m%;sfha w;a ,dhl lhla i l< hq;= h'
iss;s mm: |sk ^M.C.B. Miniture Circuit Brakr&
l,ska olajd we;s Wmmm: ,dhl fjkqjg kQ;kfha fhdod .kq ,nk WmlrKh
iss;s mm: |skhhs' Wmmm:hla ;=<ska wl Odrdjla .e,Su is jqj fyd;a f WmlrKH
iajhxlS%h j ls%hd;aul mm:h is| ,hs' mm: fodaIh u yrjd kej; WmlrKh
ixjD; l< yels h' tneka jka jr ,dhl l fhoSu jeks wjysr;d we;s fkdf'
fuh 6A" 10A, 13A" 16A wdoS Odrdj,g .e<efmk fia ;kd we;'

ysldka Odrd wdrlaIK Wml%u

iuia; .Dy ,s mm:fha h fodaIhla u; Odrd ldka ula ^N+.; ula& is jQ
g mm:h iajhxlS%h j is| ,Su fu uska is f' tneka mqoa., yd foafmd< wdrlaIdj
ie,fihs' .Dy ,s mm:hl f Wml%u Nd; lsu wksjdh fjhs'
f wdrlaIl Wml%u fohdldr h' tk" Odrd ls%hdld mm: |k yd fjda,ah;d
ls%hdld mm: |k hkqfjka j. folls' Odrd l%shdld j.h fYaI Odrd mm: kh
kka o ykajhs'

93

fYaIOdrd mm: |sk ^R.C.C.B/ Residual Current Circuit Braker &

oekg nyq, j Nd; flfrk fYaIOdrd mm: |skh ls%hdld;ajh w;ska jvd
Yajdiodhl h' 30mA g je Odrd ldkajla jQ laIKsl j f WmlrKh ls%hd;aul
mm:h is|,hs' th mqoa.,hl=g ,s ier jeoSula fyda N+.; ula fyda h yels h' f
WmlrKh Rcq j u N+.; lhg inkaO fkdf' N+.; lh wjeis jkqfha flfjks
i|yd muKs' tfuka u tla N+.; lsula m%udKj;a h' ksfjil ,s mm:fha fhfokqfha
30mA la ldka Odrdjlg ls%hd;aul jk mm: |skhla h'

ABCDRTR-

fodaI wkdjrK orh

mekakq orh
m%Odk or
hlv yrh ^uqdj&
mlaIl m%;sfrdaOh
mlaIl fnd;a;u
Ndrh

by; rEm igyfka olajd we;af;a WmlrKhl ie,eiauhs' fuys ls%hdld;ajh

uid n,uq' hlv yrh u; C k ij iu or folla tlsfklg reoaO osYdjlg T;d
we;' ta or folg i yd WodiSk l inkaO h' idudkH wjia:djl i lh
;=<ska .,k Odrdj orh yryd f.dia .Dy mm:h yryd .uka lr keje; WodiSk lh
;=<ska .uka lr o`.rh yryd .uka lrhs' or fol reoaO osYdj,g T;d we;s ksid i
j Odrdj yd WodiSk Odrdf pqnl n,mE tlsfkl WodiSk flf'
tfy;a i lfhka fyda WodiSk lfhka fyda N+.;h olajd fodaI iys;
mm:hla we;s jqj fyd;a by; iunr;dj .s,syS hhs' iunr fkdjQ Odrdj ksid fYaI
pqnl;ajhla yrh ;=<ska ksmeofjhs' ta ksid fodaI wkdjrl orh ;=<ska Odrdjla .uka
lr mekakq orh uska mekakq hdka;%Kh ls%hd;aul flfrhs' tg mm:h ika f'
WmlrKh ksjeros j ls%hd;au foehs mlaId lr ne,Su i|yd mslaiq fnd;a;ula we;' th
tnQ g WmlrKh ksjeros k ls%hd;aul f'

94

N+.; lsrSu
,s mm:hl N+.; inkaO lsu b;du jeo.;a f' by;ska olajd we;s R.C.C.B.
fyda E,L,C.B. fyda mm: |sk iajhxlS%h f,i ls%hd;aul ug bjy,a f' ksis f,i N+.;
fkdjQ ,s mm:hla ksid flfkl=g ,s ier jeoSu ksid wk;=re is h yels h' N+.;
lsu i|yd fhdod .kqfha w,a 2 - 2 1$2 l muK IalNh iys; w 5 - 6la muK os.
.e,ajkhsia hlv nghls' fuh f;;uk iys; fmdf<djla hgg .s,ah hq;= h' ngh ;=<
mia fkd ;sh hq;= w;r h<s foaY.=Khla mj;sk ld, j, jka jr ngh ;=< c,h
oefuka ngh yd fmdf<dj w;r fyd| inkaOhla mj;ajd .; yels h' N+.; /yek ;oska
N+.; nghg inkaO l< hq;= h' f i|yd iqiq ueis ls,sm ^Earth Clip& fjf<|fmdf<a
we;'

,s ier jeu
wmg ,s ier jeoSu fohdldrhlg is h yels h' tk" Rcq ,s ier jeoSu yd
wksh ,s ier jeosu hkqfjks' i ikakdhlhla fyda thg inkaO WmlrKhla fyda
iamY u Rcq ,s ier jeoSug fya;= f' WmlrKhl lsish fodaIhla ksid ,s ier
jeoSu wksh ,s ier jeoSula f' ^WmlrKhg iudka;rj mqoa.,hd inkaO u& wm
;=<ska Odrdjla .e,Sug k wm Yrfha ia:dk folla w;r Nj wka;rhla we;s h hq;= h'
wm fmdf<dj u; mh iamY jk fia isg Yrfha h fldgila uska i lhla iamY
jq g ta ia:dkfha 230 V l muK Nj wka;rhla we;s f' fmdf<df fjda,ah;dj Y+kH
f' ta ksid wm foayh yryd ,s Odrdjla .,d hhs' .,k Odrdj wkqj wmg jk ydksh
O h yels h' my; oelafjk rEm igyfkka th meyeos,s f'

1mA - 2mA
5mA - 102mA
10mA - 15mA
20mA - 30mA
50mA - by<

hka;ka oefka' ydks lr fkdue;'

is f' fokdld oekSula we;s f'
uiams`vq fmrf<a' fi,h fkdyels h'
Yajikh wvq f'
by< yDofha fldaIsl .eySu yd urKhg m;a u'

95

,s mm:hla ie,iq lsu

wmg wjYH ,s mm:hla ia:dmkh lsug m%:u th ie,iq l< hq;= f' w;ska
ksfjila idok g ta i|yd ie,eiaula we|Su w;HjYH h' tuska ksjfia bosls lghq;=
mshjfrka mshjr f.dv kesh yels h' tfuka u ta ie,eiqu iu ksjfia ,s mm:fha
ie,eiaula o ms<sfh< l< hq;= h' ;ukaf.a wjYH;dj wkqj th ie,iq l< yels w;r th
wka; cd;sl ,s ;dlaIKsl fr.=,disj,g (I.E.T.Regulation) wkql+, h hq;= h'
,s mrsm: ie,iq lr we|Sf oS ta i|yd iu; ixfla; Nd; flfrhs' ,s
mm:hla wdldr ;=klska ie,iq l< yels h' tk"

msie,iq - Layout
Odrd ud. ie,iq - Current Path
/yeka weoSf ie,iq - Wiring
hkqfjks'

msie,iq
ksjfia ie,eiau tys ldur" id,h" uq`:;ekaf.h wdoS lreKq ie,ls,a,g .kska
wod< ia:dkj, wjYH myka" flfjks" iSkq" mxld jeks oE igyka l< hq;= h' ksh;
ixfla; fhdod f.k ie,iqu ili l< yels h' msie,iq wef Nd;d lrk ixfla;
j, o fjkila we;' wod< ixfla; 12 fY%aKsfha oS Tn wOHhkh lr we;'

msie,iq mm:h

rEmh 18

96

Odrd ud. mm:h

rEmh 19

l weoSf mm:h

rEmh 20

97

fYaI mm:
foux iap mm: ^Two way circuit&&
tla ,s mykla ia:dk follska md,kh lrk wjia:dj, Nd; f' Nd; jk
wjia:d f,i fouy,a f.dvke.s,a,l msh .eg fm< uOHfha we;s myk my< ud,fha isg
yd by< ud,fha isg md,kh lrk wjia:d;a" . fldfvdajl we;s mykla fldfvdaf
fofl<jr isg md,kh jeks wjia:d;a oelah yel'
L1
S2

L1

S1
S1

S2

ms ie,eiau
L1

N
L

S2

S1

/yeka wef ie,eiau

j,hdldr mm: ^Ring Circuit&&

f.dvke.s,a,l tlsfklg wdikakfha flfjks Yd, ixLHdjla i lsug is jQ g
l,ska ia;r l< Wmmm: fhdod.; fyd;a Wmmm: Yd, m%udKhla ia:dmkh lsug
is f' fuu wmyiq;dj u.yrjd .ekSu i|yd j,hdldr mm: Nd; lrhs'

98

j,hdldr mm:hla my; oelafjk wdldrhg ilia lr .kshs'

j,hdldr mm: ieliSf

- 13A y;/ia l+re iys; flfjks muKla Nd; l< hq;= h'
- 32A is`.s;s mm: khla fhh hq;= h'
32A is`.s;s mm: khla fhdok neka tla flfjkshlska tys Wmu Odrjg jvd
je Odrdjla ^13A g je& ,nd .;fyd;a flfjkshg iemfhk iemhqu ika wdrCIdj
fkd ie,fia' kuq;a 13A y;/ia l+re flfjks fyda fmakqf wksjdhfhka ,dhlhla
fhdod we;s neka 13A y;/ia l+re iys; flfjks m%udKhla j,hdldr mm: j,
Nd;hg IET fr.=,disj,ska wkque;sh ,nd we;'
- 100 m2 l m%foaYhla ;=< kEu flfjks ixLHdjla fhh yel'
f ioyd - 7$0'67 ,s /yeka Nd; l< hq;=hs'

99

8' bf,lafg%dksl Wmdx.

wO ikakdhl Wml%u
oHq;a Odrdjla .,d hdug yels jk wdldrhg ksoyia bf,lafg%dak iys; uQ, jH
oHq;a ikakdhl ^Conductor& f,i ye|skaf' fuu uQ, jH ;ekS we;s mrudKqj, wjika
Yla;s ugf myiqfjka ksoyia h yels bf,lafg%dak msysghs' iq`: oHq;a mSvkhla uska
fuu bf,lafg%dak tla osYdjl isg reoaO osYdjg .uka lrug ie,eiah yels h' oHq;a
ikakdhl;dj je u jHh r;%ka jk w;r oS" ;U" weksh hlv riosh wdosh nyq,
j Nd; jk ikakdhl jH f'
iuyr jH ;=<ska ,sh .uka lrug wjYH jk ksoyia bf,lafg%dak fkdue;'
fjd oHq;a mjdrl ^Insulator& k f' fndfyda mjdrl jH ixfhda. f' ,S" rn"
ma,diala" re" mska ue wdosh mjdrl jHj,g WodyrK h' f jHj, oHq;a
ikakdhl;dj fnfyka wvq h'

wO ikakdhl
is,slka ^Si& yd mfksh ^Ge& hk uQ, jHh fol idudkH WIaK;ajfha oS b;d
iq`M ikakdhl;djla olajhs' tneka fuu uQ, jHh wO ikakdhl ^Semi Conductors&
f,i ye|skaf' fuu uQ, jH mrudKqj, wjidk Yla;s ugf bf,lafg%dak y;rla
msysghs' tneka idudkH ;;a;aj hgf;a ksoyia bf,lafg%dk fkdue;' f uQ, jH
mrudKq iy ixhqc;d nkaOk iEoSfuka tlsfklg inkaO oE,sil wdldrhg mj;S'
is,slka lene,a,l mrudKq msysu my; rEmfhka meyeos,s f'

iy ixhqc nkaOk ksid fuu wOikakdhl isis,a wjia:df oS ksoyia bf,lafg%dak

fkd msysghs' tfy;a f wO ikakdhl lene,a,la r;a lsfuka WIaK;ajh by< kexjQ g
iyixhqc nkaOk |S ksoyia bf,lafg%dak we;s flfrhs' bf,lafg%dakh bj;aj;a u t;ek
Ok wdfrdams; l=yrhla ^Hole& iEfoa' f ksoyia bf,lafg%dak yd yqjudre fuka oHq;a

100

Odrdjla .,d hdug ie,eia h yels h' tg wO ikakdhl jH ikakdhl ;;a;ajhg m;a
f' f ;;a;ajh ksi. wO ikakdhl k f' ksi. wO ikakdhl .=Kh ,nd .ekSug
ndyska Yla;sh ,nd osh hq;= f' ksi. wO ikakdhlj, uqla; bf,lafg%dak yd l=yr
ixLHdj tlsfklg iudk f'

ndyH wO ikakdhl
ksi. wO ikakdhl ;;a;ajh m%dfhda.sl jYfhka m%fhdackj;a fkd f' ta ksid
fjk;a l%u uska wO ikakdhlj, ikakdhl;dj je lsu is flfrhs' fuys oS msis
^ixY=oaO& wO ikakdhl uQ, jHj,g neyeka fjk;a uQ,jH tl;= lrkq ,ef' f jH
wmjH ^Impurities& f,i ykajk w;r tl;= ls ud;%Kh ^Dope& k f'
ndysr jH tla lsfuka wO ikakdhl jHj, ikakdhl;dj by< kexfuka
ndyH wO ikakdhl ,ef'
ixY=oO
a wO ikakdhl jHhlg ndyska fjk;a uQ, jH ud;%Kh lsfuka w;s
s la;
bf,lafg%dak ^Excess Electron& fyda l=yr ^Hole& iys; wO ikakdhl fyda ,nd .; yels h'
f wkqj j. foll wO ikakdhl ;kd .; yels nj fmfka' - wdfrdams; w;sla;
bf,lafg%dak iys; wO ikakdhl fk. j.fha ^n j.fha& wO ikakdhl kkq;a" +
wdfrdams; l=yr iys; wO ikakdhl fmdis j.fha ^p j.fha& wO ikakdhl kkq;a
ye|skaf'

n j.fha wO ikakdhl
is,slka fyda cfkshj,g wdj;s;d j.=f v jk ldKavfha we;s wdiksla ^As&
fyda wekaguksK ^Sb& jeks uQ,jHhla ud;%Kh lsfuka n j.fha wO ikakdhl m%dfhda.l
s
jYfhka ;kd .kq ,ef' is,slka lene,a,lg wdiksla ud;%Kh lsf oS my; oelafjk
wdldrhg w;sla; bf,lafg%dak we;s f' fuys oS wdiksla wmjHh m%;s.%dyl jH f,i
k flfrhs'

ksoyia bf,lafg%dak

101

wdiksla mrudKqf wjidk Yla;s ugf bf,lafg%dak myls' thska y;rla hdno mrudKq
y;rla iu. ixhqc;d nkaOk idohs' tg tla bf,lafg%dakhla b;s f' th ksoyia
fyj;a w;sla; bf,lafg%dakh f'&
is,slka lene,a,la fufia ud;%Kh lsfuka ta ;=< Yd, ixLHdjla w;sla;
bf,lafg%dak msysgqjd .; yels h' fufia msysgk RK wdfrdams; bf,lafg%dak ksid f wO
ikakdhl n j.fha ^n Type& wO ikakdhl f,i ye|skaf'

p j.fha wO ikakdhl
is,l
s kaj,g fyda mfkshj,g fyda wdj;s;d j.=f 111 ldKavfha we;s fndafrdaka
^B& fyda .e,s,sh ^Ga & fyda ud;%Kh lsfuka p j.fha wO ikakdhl ;kd .kq ,ef'
fuys oS is,slkaj,g ud;%Kh lrk wmjH ix.%dyl jH f,i k flfrhs'

l=yrh

fndafrdaka mrudKqf wjika Yla;s ugf bf,lafg%dak ;=kls' ta bf,lafg%dak

;=k hdno is,slka mrudKq y;rla iu iy ixhqc nkaOk ;ekSf oS tla ia:dkhla
bf,lafg%dak yshlska hqla; f' ta ia:dkh l=yrh k jk w;r th Ok^+& wdfrdams; f'
f wdldrhg + wdfrdams; l=yr iys; wO ikakdhl lene,a, p j.fha ^p - TYPE& wO
ikakdhl k f'
n j.fha wO ikakdhl ;=<ska ,sh .,d hkq ,nkafka ksoyia bf,lafg%dak
uska jk w;r p j.fha wO ikakdhl ;=<ska ,sh .,d hkq ,nkafka l=yr usks'
fmdf tajd zjdylZ ^Carrier & kka ye|skafjhs'
n j.fha wO ikakdhlj, nyq;r jdylh w;sla; bf,lafg%dk
a jk w;r w,am;r
jdyl jYfhka l=yr lsysmhla o ;sh yels h' tfia u P j.fha wO ikakdhlj, nyq;r
jdylh l=yr jk w;r w,am;r jdylh f,i bf,lafg%dak iaj,amhla o ;sh yels h'

102

by; wdldrhg ud;%Kh is lsu uska ;kd .kq ,nk ndyH wO ikakdhl n
j.h yd p j.h hkqfjka fjk fjk u .;a g m%dfhda.sl j m%fhdackj;a fkdf' ta
ksid p yd n j.fha wO ikakdhl tlg inkaO lr p- n ika ;kd we;'

p- n ikah (p- n Junction)

fuys oS p j.fha yd n j.fha wO ikakdhl lene,s folla b;d l=vd mr;rhla
isk fia tlg inkaO lrkq ,ef' fuh p- n ikah f,i ye|skafjhs'

ikah ;ekQ .i ikah fomi wdikakfha we;s bf,lafg%dak l=yr ;=<g .,d
hhs' fufia ikah fomi bf,lafg%dak .,d f.dia l=yr msu fya;=fjka ikah fomi
wdfrdamK yshla we;s ;j rg;a yqjudrej is fkdf' Nfldgiska Pfldgig
bf,lafg%dak ,efnk ksid ikah fomi Nj ndOlhla ^Voltage Barrier& f.dv kefa'
tk ixh yryd m%;sfrdaOh by< hhs' f ikah fomi oeka Nj wka;rhla yg f.k
we;s w;r ta l,dmh Nj ndOl ia;rh" ySkia;rh" ydhs; l,dmh hk kj,ska ye|skaf'

by; wdldrhg ,efnk ikahg ndysr j Njhla fhdod keUqre lsfuka b;d
m%fhdackj;a ls%hdjla is lr .; yels h' f keUqre lsu wdldr folls'

p - n ikah fmr keUqrej (Foward Bias)

fuys oS p - n ikahl p w.%hg fldaIhl + O%ejh iy" n w.%hg fldaIfha - O%ejh
inkaO jk mos ndyska fjda,ah;djla imhkq ,ef'

103

S1

S1 iah jikq ,enQ g fldaIfha + O%ejfha we;s n,mEu uska p ys we;s +

wdfrdams; l=yr lIKh ikah foig ^ydhs; m%foaYhg& .uka lrhs' tfia u fldaIfha
- O%ejfha n,mEu fya;=fjka n ys RK wdfrdams; bf,lafg%dak o ikah foig .uka lrhs'

f ksid ikah foig reoaO wdfrdamK talrdYS fuka ikafha Nj ndOlh |

jef' ke;sk m%;sfrdaOh my< niS' tfia;a ke;s k yhs; l,dmh Y+kH fjhs' f
fya;=fjka n ys we;s bf,lafg%dak" ikah yryd p foig .uka lrhs' tk p isg ng oHq;a
Odrdjla .,d hhs' ndysr fjda,ah;dj we;s ;dla l,a f ls%hdj is f' f wjia:dj p
- n ikah fmr keUqre lsu k f'
cfksh fh wO ikakdhl Nd; lr p - n ikah ;kd we;a k fmr keUqre
u i|yd ndyska iemhsh hq;= wju fjda,ah;dj 0.15V - 0.2V muK fjhs' is,slka fh
wO ikakdhl Nd; lr p - n ikah ;kd we;a k fmr keUqre u i|yd ndyska iemhsh
hq;= wju fjd,ah;dj 0.6V - 0.7V muK fjhs' f w.hka p - n ikafha fmr keUqre |
jegq fjda,ah;dj f,i ye|skaf'

p - n ikafha miq keUqrej ^Reverse Bias&

ikahl p w.%hg fldaIhl - O%ejh;a n w.%hg fldaIfha + O%ejh;a inkaO jk
mos ndysr j fjda,ah;djla imhkq ,ef'

104

S1
fug fldaIfha - O%ejfha n,mEu fya;=fjka P ys wdfrdams; l=yr wdlIKh

ikafhka bj;g .uka lrhs' tfia u fldaIfha + O%ejfha n,Eu fya;=fjka nys - wdfrdams;
bf,flafg%dak o ikafha bj;g .uka lrhs' f fya;=fjka ikafha Nj ndOlh by<
hhs' ke;sk m%;sfrdaO w.h by< hhs' tfia ke;sk ydhs; m%foaYh Yd, fjhs' f ksid
ikah yryd bf,lafg%dak .uka lsula fkdue;' ta fya;=fjka oHq;a Odrdjla .uka
lsula o fkdue;'' f wjia:dj p - n ikahl miq keUqre wjia:dj k f'

tfy;a miq keUqre wjia:df p ys we;s w,am;r jdyl" tk" - wdfrdam;

s bf,lafg%dk
a
n olajd .uka lsfuka b;d l=vd oHq;a Odrdjla n isg p olajd .,d hhs' fuh ldka Odrdj
f,i ye|Skaf'
p - n ikahl miq ke=Uqref oS ndysr iemhq fjda,ah;dj l%ufhka je l< g
tla wjia:djl oS ydhs; l,dmh | je Yd, Odrdjla n isg pg .,d hhs' f wjia:df
oS p - n ikah kdY hhs' f wkqj p- n ikahl miq keUqre wjia:df oS bis,sh yels
Wmu fjda,ah;djla we;' th miq l=`: fjda,ah;dj ^Peak Inverse Vetage& f,i ye|skf
a '

vfhdavh ^Diode&
by;ska ia;r flreKq p- n ikah Wmfhda.S lr f.k ;kd we;s bf,lafg%dksl
Wmdx.hls vfhdavh' cfksh fuka u is,slka o Nd; lr O wdldrfha vfhdav O
m%fhdack i|yd ksudKh lr we;'

105

p - n ikah Wmfhda.S lr f.k ;kd we;s vfhdavhl bos yd miq keUqre wjia:d
m%ia;drhla uska oelah yels h' fuu m%ia;drfha VPIVw.h VB iu. ii|k g b;d Yd,
h'

VB

= bos keUqre fjda,ah;dj

(Ge = 0.2V - 0.3V)
(Si = 0.6V - 0.7V)
PIV = miq l=`: fjda,ah;dj

fmd vfhdavhl nysr wdldrh yd ixfla;h my; oelaf' tys tla w.%hla wefkdavh
^A& ^P wOikakdhlh& jk w;r wfkla w.%h lef;davh ^K & ^n wOikakdhlh& f'

O wjYH;d i|yd O j.fha vfhdav ksIamdokh lr we;' bka lsysmhla my;

oelaf'

106

vfhdav j.

ndysr fmkqu

ixfla;h

m%fhdack

Rcq ldrl

m%;Hj;k Odrd
RcqlrKh

,laIH iamY
^wkdjrl&

.=jka,s
ixLHd;
uqPkh

fik

fjda,ah;d
hdukh

wdf,dal
fudapl

ix{d myka"
wdf,dallrKh

iDcqldrl vfhdav lsysmhl ndysr fmkqu my; oelaf'

fjdfha K w.%h ykd .ekSu i|yd jK jghla we| we;' LED tll k K w.%h
os.ska wvqf' iuyr tajdfha K w.%h A w.%hg fjkia wdldrhlg ;kd we;'
idudkH vfhdavhl ls%hdld;ajh u,agrh wdOdrfhka fidhd ne,sh yels h'
fuys oS u,agrh mrdihg fhduq lr Y+kHh ilid my; wdldrhg mlaId l< yels
h'
fuys wvq m%;f
s rdaOhla fmkajhs k vfhdavh
fodaI rys; h'

l`M

r;=

tIKsh

tIKsh

m%;sfrdaOh Y=kH f k" vfhdavh fodaI

iys; h' ^ikah inkaO we;'& m%;sfrdaO
b;d by< k ^ikah |S we;'& vfhdavh
fodaI iys; h'

107

fuys m%;sfrdaO b;d by< w.hla fmkajhs

k vfhdavh fodaI rys; h'
m%;sfrdaOh Y+kH olajhs k vfhdavh fodaI
iys; h' ^ikah inkaO we;'&
r;= tIKsh

l`: tIKsh

Rcqldrl vfhdavh (Rectifier Diodes)

Rcqldrl vfhdav m%;Hj;k Odrd RcqlrKh i|yd fhdod .efkhs' fjd fndfyda
g is,slka wO ikakdhlj,ska ;kd we;' ^is,slka je ;dmhg Tfrd;a;= fohs'& f
vfhdavj, PIV by< w.hla .kS' ldka Odrdj 0.01mA ;r fkd .sKsh yels w.hls' bos
keUqref oS je Odrdjla .,d hhs' f vfhdav ,g .ekSf oS yd mm:j, fhdod .ekSf
oS vfhdavfha bos keUqref oS .,d hd yels Wmu Odrdj" PIV w.h hk ms;r .ek i,ld
ne,sh hq;= f'
Rcqldrl vfhdav lsysmhl ms;r my; j.=fjka oelaf'
vfhdav wxlh
IN 4001
IN 4002
IN 4003
IN 4004
IN 4005
IN 4006
IN 4007
IN 5401
IN 5402
IN 5404
IN 5406
IN 5408

Wmu miq keUqre fjda,ah;dj (PIV)

50
100
200
400
600
800
1000
100
200
400
600
1000

RcqlrKh (Rectification)
Rcqldrl vfhdav fhdod f.k m%;Hdj; Odrd wmg wjYH mos ir, Odrdj njg
m;a lr .ekSu RcqlrKhhs'

108

RcqlrK ls%hdj,sfha m%:ufhka u m%Odk iemhq fjda,ah;dj jk 230V wjYH

m%udKh olajd wvq lr .ekSug ^3V, 4.5V, 6V, 7.5V, 9V, 12V& wjlr mKdulhka Nd;
l< hq;= f' wjlr mKdulh f;dard .ekSf oS oa;Shslfha m%;sodk fjda,ah;dj yd
thska ,nd .; yels Wmu Odrdj (200mA, 300mA, 5mA, 1A...) .ek ie,ls,su;a h hq;=
h'
RcqlrK mm: wdldr folls' tk" wO ;rx. Rcqldrl mm: yd mQK ;rx.
Rcqldrl mm: h' mQK ;rx. Rcqldrl mm: ueo ijqk;a wjlr mKdul ^Centre
Tapped Step Down Transfomer& fh mm: yd Rcqldrl fia;=j ^Rectifier Bridge& fh
mm: hkqfjka j. folls'

wO ;rx. Rcqldrl mm:h (Half Wave Rectifier Circuit)

T1
D1
RL

=
=
=

Odrdj .,k osYdj

I.

P yd Q w;r ;rx. yevh

II.

R yd S w;r ;rx. yevh

wjlrh mrsKdulh
Rcqldrl vfhdavh
nr
D1

RL

f mm:fha oS nr yryd fjda,ah;djh rEmfha oelafjk wdldrhg ,ef' fuys

idudkH w.h ir, Odrdjls' f ir, Odrdj jvd;a iqug lsug oHq;a foH^Electrolitic&
Od;%lhla fhdod .; yels h'
f Od;%lh iEu g u mm:fha fjda,a;djg jvd je fjda,ah;d w.hlska hq;a
tlla h hq;= w;r 220F, 470F, 1000F, 2200F wdoS jYfhka wjYH;djg jvd;a
.e<fmk tlla fhosh hq;= h'
fufia fhdod .kakd Od;%lh iqugk Od;%lh ^Smoothing Capacitor& k f'

109

V
0

mm:hg iqugk Od;%lh fhdod we;s wdldrh;a bka miq j m%;sodk fjda,ah;df
;rx. yevh;a by;ska oelaf'
flfia fj;;a bf,lafg%dksl WmlrKhla ls%hd;aul lrug wO ;rx. Rcqldrl
mm:hla t;r iqiq fkdf' Bg fya;=j iqugkfhka miqj;a ;;a;ajfhka Wiia ir,
Odrdjla fkd ,euhs'
ir, Odrd fjda,ah;d ;rx. u; /<s;s msysgk ksid ;j rg;a Rcq lsug wjYH
f' fuh /<s;s fjda,ah;dj ^Ripple Voltage& f,i ye|ska f'

mQK ;rx. Rcqldrl mm:h (Full Wave Rectifier Circuit)

uOH ijqk;a mKdulh iys;

T1
T1
D1, D2

=
=

uOH ijqk;a wjlr mKdulh

Rcqldrl vfhdav

Odrdj .,k osYdj

I.

D1

RL

II

D2

RL

110

uOH ijqk;a w.%hg idfmaCI j

P j, ;drx. yevh '

uOH ijqk;a w.%hg idfmaCI j

Q j, ;rx. yevh '

by; ;rx. igykaj,g wkqj uOH ijqk;a w.%hg idfmaCIj P j, Q j, ;rx.

yev w;r 1800 l l,d fjkila mj;sk nj oelsh yels h'

R yd S w;r ;rx. yevh

iqug Od;%lhla fhdod f mm:fha m%;sodk fjda,ah;dj iqugkh lrk wdldrh

yd wk;=re j ,efnk m%;sodk yevh my; oelaf'

fuys oS jvd;a iqugkh jQ ir, Odrdjla ,ef' f mm:h wO ;rx. Rcqldrl

mm:hg jvd bf,lafg%dksl WmlrK ls%hd;aul lsug iqiq h' tfy;a ;j rg;a /<s;s
iajNdjh mj;s'

mQK ;rx. fia;+ Rcqldrl mm:h (Full Wave Bridge Rectifier Cir
cuit)

111

Odrdj .,k osYdj

I. A
D1

II. E

D2

RL

D3

RL

E
D4

+V

Q g idfmaCI j P j, ;rx. yevh

t2

t1
-V
+V

P g idfmaCI j Q j, ;rx. yevh

t1

t2
-V
+V

R yd S w;r ;rx. yevh

D1 D3

D2 D4

t1

t2

D1 D3

D2 D4

-V

2Va.ciqugkh lrk wdldrh;a wk;=re

fuys oS o Od;%lhla fhoSfuka /<s;s Vdc
ir,=Odrdj
j fjda,ah;d yevh;a my; oelaf'

f mm:h o wO ;rx. Rcqldrl mm:hg jvd bf,lafg%dksl WmlrKhla

ls%hdlrug iqiq f'

wO ;rx. RcqlrKfha oS oa;Shslfha m%;Hj;k fjda,ah;dj Vac k m%;sodkfha

ir, Odrd fjda,ah;dj Vdc k ta w;r inkaOh
Vd.c. = 0.45 Vac f'
Od;%lhla fhdod iqugkh l< g ^nrla rys; j&
f'
2 = 1.414 f,i .efka'
^Od;%lh m%;Hdj; fjda,ah;djfha Wmu w.hg wdfrdamkh jk neka&

112

mQK ;rx. RcqlrKfha oS oa;Shslfha m%;Hdj;k fjda,ah;dj Va.c k yd m%;sodk

ir, Odrd fjda,ah;dj Vd.c k ta w;r inkaOh
Vd.c = 0.9 Va.c f'
Od;%lhka fhdod iqugkh l< g ^nrla rys; j&
Vd.c =

2 V a.c f'

by; wdldrfha Rcqldrl mm:hla iys; ;ekq tallhla cj iemhq tallhla

f,i ye|skafjhs' fjd wjYH;djg wkql+, j fjf<| fmdf<ka o ,g .; yels h'
vfhdavhla yryd m%;Hdj;k fjda,
a h;djla we;s g tys fo fl<jr fjda,
a h;df
;rx. yevh foda,fkaCIhlska ^CRO& ksCIKh l<fyd;a my; wdldrfhka oelah yels
h'
CRO
+V
t2

0.6

t1

-V

vfhdavfha w.% udre i l<fyd;a by; ;rx.h m%;sj;kh ,ef'

fik vfhdavh (Zenar Diode)

fik vfhdavh bos keUqref oS idudkH vfhdavhla f,i ls%hd lrhs' tfy;a miq
keUqref oS iemhq fjda,ah;dj lsish iSudjla blau jQ g p - n ikah ;djld,sl j
|S ta yryd Odrdj .,hs' fuu | jeu fik | jeu ^Zener breakdown&kka ykajhs'
tg ika fjda,ah;dj ksYa; w.hlg iSud f' f w.h fik fjda,ah;dj (Zenar
Voltage) k f'
fik vfhdav miq keUqre lr fjda,ah;d hdul ^Voltage Regulator& i|yd fhdod
.efka' fufia fik vfhdavhla fjd,ah;d hdulhla f,i Rcqldrl mm:hl fhdod
we;s wdldrh my; oelaf'
D1

IL

R
Is

D2

Iz
Vz

RL

113

VS = iemhq fjda,ah;dj
VR = R yryd fjda,ah;dj = ISR
VZ = fik fjda,ah;dj = V0

VS = VR +
IS =IL + IZ

VZ

VS = IS R + V0

VS=( IL + IZ) R + V0

2 - 1 g wdfoaYfhka

fik vfhdavh l miqkeUqre Odrdj iSud iys; neka th mm:hl fhdok iEu
wjia:djl u fYa%Ks.; j m%;sfrdaOhla o fhdokq ,efnhs'
fik vfhdavhla miq keUqref oS th ;=<ska wdrlaIs; jQ wl Odrdjla .,d .sh o
;dm W;aickhla fkd u fik vfhdavj, fYaI ,laIKhls'
fik vfhdavhla i|yd V - I ,dlaIKsl jl%h my; wdldr f'

^3& ilrKh wkqj'

VS=ILR+R(Imax - Imin) +VO
Imax > IZ > Imin

fik fjd,ah;dj 2V - 200V olajd muK jQ fik vfhdav wo ksIamdokh

flf'
fik vfhdavh yryd m%;Hdj;k fjd,ah;djla imhd we;s g tys fo fl<jr
;rx. yevh my; wdldr f'

0.6

114

fik vfhdav folla my; wdldrhg inkaO l< g tajdfha fo fl<jr ;rx.
yevh my; oelaf'

wdf,dal fudajl vfhdav (Light Emitting Diode - L.E.D.)

idudkH vfhdavhl bos keUqref oS ksoyia bf,lafg%dak ikah yryd f.dia l=yr
iu. ixfhdackh f' fuys oS h lsis Yla;s m%udKhla ;dmh f,i uqod yef' tuska
vfhdavh ;rula r;a f' tfy;a ud;%Kh lsu i|yd O ixfhda. jH fhdod .ekSfuka
;dmh fjkqjg wdf,dalh uqla; l< yels vfhdav ;kd ;sf' fjd wdf,dal fudapl
vfhdav L.E.D. k f'
.e,sh wdikhs (GAAS) .e,sh fmdia*hs (GAP) we;=`: fjk;a wO ikakdhl
ixfhda. f i|yd fhdod .efka' fhdod .kakd ixfhda.h yd ma,diala wdjrKh wkqj r;="
;e,s" ly" fld<" ks,a" iq jk jK yd wfOdarla; lsrKh ksl=;a lrk L.E.D ;kd we;'
oHq;a Odrdjg laIKsl j m%;spdr oelau" wvq Odrdjlska ls%hdld u yd wvq
fjda,ah;dj iemhSu wdoS lreKq ksid wo O lghq;= i|yd L.E.D Nd;h ckms%h fjka
mj;S' wdf,dal kdu mqjre" oYl myka (Indicator) i|yd O jK L.E.D Nd; flfrk
w;r ,s mkao" yd ksjdi wdf,dallrKhg mjd wo L.E.D Nd; lrhs' f i|yd iqiq
jk wdldrhlg ^je cjhla we;s yd je fjda,ah;djla ,nd osh yels& L.E.D j. ;kd
we;'

115

idudkH L.E.D tlla i|yd 10mA muK Odrdjla jeh jk w;r 1.5V - 2.5V w;r
fjda,ah;djla ,nd osh hq;= f'
LED oe,afjk g WIaK;ajh je fuka l%ufhka Odrd .e,Su je f'
fufia mm:hl LED tlla fhoSf oS th yryd je Odrdjla .,d hdu je<elaug
m%;sfrdaOlhla fYa%Ks.; j inkaO lrkq ,ef'
iemhq fjda,ah;dj VS o" m%;sfrdaOh R o" D yryd Njh VD o" D ;=<ska .,k
Odrdj IS o k
f'
VS
IS
R

VR

VD

f m%ldYkh Nd;fhka mm:fha fjda,ah;dj wkqj L.E.D yryd fhosh hq;=

m%;sfrdaOfha w.h fidhd .; yels h'
L.E.D tlla yryd fjda,ah;dj 2V hehs o t;=<ska .,k Odrdj 10mA hehs o"
iemhq fjda,ah;dj 12V hehs o .;a g L.E.D tl yryd fYa%Ks.; j fhosh hq;=
m%;sfrdaOfha w.h flf;la oehs n,uq'
f i|yd VS = VR + VD m%ldYkh Nd; l< yels h' ta wkqj"
12 = VR + 2
10 = VR
VR = I s R
10 =

10
R
1000

R = 1000
fhosh hq;= m%;sfrdaOh

1000 = 1 f'

116

wdf,dal fudajl vfhdav ms<sn| o;a;

r;=

;e,s

ly

fld<

wfOda
rla;

oSm;
a u
s ;a
r;=

2V

2V

2.1V

2.2V

2V

2V

Wmu 5V

5V

5V

5V

5V

5V

30mA

30mA

30mA

30mA

30mA

wju
iemhsh yels
fjda,ah;dj

wjYH Odrd m%udKh

30mA

msg lrk imQK cjh

120mW 105mW 105mW 105mW

105mW 100mW

;rx. wdhduh

665mm

635mm

635mm

600mm

565mm

660mm

by; wdf,dal fudajl vfhdavj,g wu;r j wo fjf<|fmdf<a ks,a" iq hk

j.j,ska o O tajd ,nd .; yels h' iuyr LED i|yd iemhq fjda,ah;dj 4'5V muK
jk tajd o we;' ksfjia wdf,dal lsu i|yd wvq Odrdjlska je cjhla ,nd .; yels
fYaI j. o oelsh yels h'

g%dkaisiagrh - Transistor
.=jka ,s hka;% yd rEmjdyskS hka;% usaka m%;s.%yKh lrkq ,nk oHq;a pqnl
;rx. ^ffhda ;rx.& wmg weiSug fyda oelSug fyda yels jkafka tajd h wdldrhlska
jOkh l<fyd;a muKs' j, oHq;a ix{djla fyda Odrdjla fyda jOkh lsug wO
ikakdhl ika g%dkaisiagrh fhosh yels h' g%dkaisiagrhlg oHq;a Odrdjla fuka u
fjda,ah;djla o jOkh l< yels h'
1948 jIfha oS wfuldkq cd;sl fjda,ag n%Efka" ,sh fIdla,s yd fcdaka nka
hk oHd{hska ;sfokd iska g%dkaisiagrh ykajd fok ,oS' fu;eka mgka g%dkaisiagrh
ksid bf,lafg%dksl ;dlaIKfofha Yd, mhdihla is h' f ksid fmr Nd;
lrk ,o ,s hka;% yd rEmjdyskS hka;% i|yd fho jQ la; ng (Vacum Tubes) fyj;a
lmdg (Valves) Nd;fhka bj;a h' m%udKfhka l=vd u" wvq fjda,ah;djlska ls%hdld
u" oHq;a cjh wvq u" wvq ;dm W;aickh" os.=l,la Nd; lsug yelsu" yd ksIamdok
hou wvqu wdoS lreKq g%dkaisiagrh jv jvd;a ckms%h ug fya;= h' tmuKla fkdj
g%dkaii
s g
a rh b;d l=vdjg mjd ksmoh yels u ksid ffhda hka;"% rEmjdyskS yd m.Kl
o l%u l%ufhka b;d l=vd m%udKfhka ksmoug yels h'

117

wO ikakdhl g%dkaisiagrh ;=< oHq;a Odrdjla .e,Sf oS ksoyia bf,lafg%dak yd

l=yr hk jdyl foj.h u inkaO f' f ksid fjd oa - O%eh g%dkaisiag (Bi Polar
Transistor) kka o ykajhs'
ksIamdokh wkqj g%dkaisiag j. folls' tk p j.fha wO ikakdhl fldgia
folla w;rg n j.fha wO ikakdhl fldgila ;efuka ksmojk p n p g%dkaisiagrh o"
n j.fha wO ikakdhl fldgia folla w;rg p j.fha wO ikakdhl fldgila
;efuka p n p g%dkaisiagrh o f'

wO ikakdhl
len,s msysgqjk
wdldrh

ixfla;

iul vfhdav
mm:

g%dkaisiagrhl w.% ;=kls' tajd mdou (Base) ix.%dylh (Collector) yd fudaplh

(Emitter) k f' iul mm:h by; i|yka f,i vfhdav foll l%shdjla f,i oelah
yels kuq;a vfhdav folla fhdod g%dkaisiagrh ksmoh fkd yels h' thg fya;=j wO
ikakdhl fldgia ;=fkys ud;%Kh fjkia uhs'

118

n p n g%dkaisiagrhl fudaplfha je idkaKhlska hq;a nyq;r jdylh jk ksoyia

bf,lafg%dak mj;S' ix.%dylfha jdylh jk ksoyia bf,lafg%dak wvq idkaKhla o"
mdofuys jdylh jk l=yr wvq idkaKhlska o mj;S'
pnp g%dkaisiagrfha fudaplfha je idkaKhlska hq;a nyq;r jdylh jk l=yr
mj;S' ix.%dylfha jdylh jk l=yr wvq idkaKhlska yd mdofuys jdylh jk bf,lafg%dk
a
wvq idkaKhlska mj;S'
pnp g%dkaisiagrfha fudaplfha B ysi uska E isg B g oHq;a Odrdj .,d hk nj;a
^ksjeros keUqre wjia:dj& npn g%dkaisiagrfha fudaplfha B ysi uska B isg E g oHq;a
Odrdj .,d hk nj;a ^ksjeros keUqre wjia:df oS& fmkakq flfrhs'

g%dkaisiagrhl ls%hdj
th fuys oS g%dkaisiagrhl B-E ikah fmr keUqre jk mos o B- C ikah miq
keUqrejl mos o keUqre lsfuka th ils%h ;;a;ajhg m;a l< yels h' f wkqj
g%dkaisiagrh ls%hd lrug fjda,ah;d iemhq folla wjYH f'
npn g%dkaisiagrhla i|yd ndysr j fjda,ah;djla imhk wdldrh uid n,uq'

nyq;r jdylj,
osYdj

B1

B2

119

B-E ikah bos keUqref mj;sk ksid ^fudaplh m%foaYfha we;s nyq;r jdyl jk
bf,lafg%dak B ^mdou& foig fudapkh f' f bf,lafg%dak Odrdjg wkqrEm j E isg B
foig oHq;a Odrdjla .,d hhs' th IE k f' B-C ikafha p fmfofiys ^mdou& we;s
nyq;r jdylh jk l=yr i|yd miq keUqre wjia:df mj;S' tfy;a f ikafha p
fmfofiys ^mdou& we;s iq`:;r jdylh i|yd fmr keUqrejla mj;S' fmr keUqref mj;sk
B-E ikah yryd fudapkh jk bf,lafg%dakj,g p fmfoi ^mdou& b;d ;=kS fyhska BC ikafha ydhs; m%foaYhg myiqfjka ickh h yels h' fufia ickh u i|yd
E g idfmaCIj C ys Yd, fjda,ah;djla ;su;a ta wkqj oHq;a fCIa;%h m%n, u;a Wmld
f' fufia mefKk bf,lafg%dak fmr keUqref mj;sk ksid ta ikah yryd laIKsl
j n m%foaYh ^ix.%dylh& foig .uka lrhs' fuhg wkqrEm j ikah yryd C isg B foig
Yd, Odrdjla .,d hhs' f i|yd fudaplhg idfmalaI j ix.%dylfha mj;sk by<
fjda,ah;dj Wmld f' (B1 iy B2 fldaI fY%aKs .; j we; &' f Odrdj ix.%dyl Odrdj
(IC) k f'
fudapl Odrdj (IE), ix.%dyl Odrdjg (Ic) jvd u|la je f' IB Odrdj l=vd jk
w;r g%dkaisiagrh ;=<g .,d tk yd thska msg;g .,d hk Odrd ;=k ie,l+ g
IE = IC + IB f' IB Odrdfjka B - E ixh fmr keUqre jk m%udKh oela f' ta wkqj
nyq;r jdyl E isg B g .uka lrk m%udKh;a" B - C ix yryd IC Odrdj f,i msgjk
m%udKh;a IB u.ska ksfhdackh lrhs' tu ksid IB u.ska IC md,kh lrkafka hhs lshkq
,ef' tneka oa O%ej g%dkaisiagrh Odrd md,k Wml%uhls'
idudkHfhka g%dkaisiagrhl IB Odrdj uhsfl%da wemsh (A) lsysmhla jk w;r Ic
yd IB Odrd ,s wemsh .Kkdjla (mA) h yels h' f wkqj IB g idfmalaI j IC Yd,
w.hla .kS'
g%dkaisiagrhl IB Odrdj .e,Sug B - E k ikah fmr keUqre h hq;= nj Tng
jegfykq we;' tg B - E yryd 0.6V l wju fjda,ah;djla ^is,slka g%dkaisiag i|yd&
;sh hq;= nj fmfka'
pnp g%dkaisiagrhl ls%hdj my; wdldrhg ia;r l< yels h' tys Odrd .,k osYd
keUqre lr we;s wdldrh my; oela f'
nyq;r jdylj, osYdj

idudkHfhka pnp g%dkaii

s g
a rhg jvd f.j;a j npn g%dkaii
s g
a rh lsh
% d lrhs' fya;j
=
npn g%dkaisiagrfha nyq;r jdyl jk bf,lafg%dakj, iM,;dj wl fyhsks'

120

g%dkaisiag kHdi yd keUqre ls

g%dkaisiagrhla jOlhla f,i Nd; lsug k thg ix|djla we;=`M lr kej;
th ,nd .; hq;= h' ix{djla we;=`: lsug w.% foll=;a ix{dj ,nd .ekSug w.% foll=;a
wjYH f' kuq;a g%dkaisiagrhg we;af;a w.% ;=kla muKs' tu ksid ix{dj we;=`: lsu
fyj;a m%odkh i|yd iy ix{dj ,nd .ekSu fyj;a m%;sodkh i|yd yeu g u tl w.%hla
fmd f Nd; lsug is f' ta wkqj fudaplh" mdou yd ix.%dylh hk w.% fmd w.h
f,ig fhdod .kska g%dkaisiagrhla msysgq h yels l%u fyj;a kHdi l%u ;=kla oelah
yels h'

fmd fudapl kHdih (Common Emitter Mode)

fuys oS ix{d m%odkhg yd m%;sodkhg hk lreKq fol u i|yd fudaplh fmd f'
f i|yd PNP yd NPN g%dkaisiag fhdod .kakd wdldrh my; oelaf'

fmd fudapl kHdifha ,laIK

1'
2'
3'
4'
5'
6'

Odrd ,dNh () we;' (Current Gain)

fjda,ah;d ,dNh we;' (Voltage Gain)
m%;sodkh by< ugul mj;S' (Power Output)
m%odk indOkh lsf,da 1la muK f' (Input Impedence)
m%;sodk indOkh lsf,da 50la muK f' (Output Impedence)
m%odk ix{dj iy m%;sodk ix{dj w;r l,d udrej we;'

fmd mdou kHdih (Common Base Mode)

fuu l%ufha oS ix{dj m%odkh yd m%;sodkh hk folg u mdou fmd f' fuu
l%uhg PNP yd NPN g%dkaisiag msysgq jk wdldr my; oelaf'

121

fmd mdo kHdifha ,laIK

1'
2'
3'
4'
5'
6'

Odrd m%;s,dNh tlg jvd wvq h'

fjda,ah;d m%;s,dNh by< h'
cj m%;sodkh tlg jvd wvq h'
m%odk indOkh 50la muK f'
m%;sodk indOkh fu.d tlla muK f'
m%odk ix{dj iy m%;sodk ix{dj w;r l,d udrej ke;'

fmd ix.%dyl kHdih (Common Collector Mode)

fuu l%ufha oS ix{dj m%odkhg;a m%;sodkhg;a hk folg u ix.%dylh fmd f'
fuu l%uhg npn yd pnp g%dkaisiag msysgq jk wdldrh my; oelaf'

fmd ix.%dyl kHdifha ,laIK

1'
2'
3'
5'
6'
6'

Odrd m%;s,dNh b;d by< h'

fjda,ah;d m%;s,dNh tlg jvd wvq h'
cj m%;sodkh je lr.; yels h'
m%odk indOkh lsf,da 300 la muK f'
m%;sodk indOkh fu.d tlla muK f'
m%odk ix{dj iy m%;sodk ix{dj w;r l,d fjkila ke;'

122

by; kHdi l%u ;=k .ek n,k g m%dfhda.sl mm:j, jvd;a fhdod .kq
,nkafka fmd fudapl kHdih nj tys ,laIK wkqj lsj yels h'
by; kHdi ;=k wkqj g%dkaisiagrfha mm:hl msysgqf oS th iqiq mos keUqre
lsu fyj;a fjda,ah;dj iemhSu is l< hq;= h' tg wm wfmalaId lrk wdldrhg
g%dkaisiagrh jOlhla f,i ls%hd lrjd .ekSug yels f' g%dkaisiagrhla l%u ;=klg
keUqre l< yels h' fuu l%u y;r w;r h h fjkial oelsh yels h' tu l%u y;rg
fmd fudapl kHdifhka g%dkaisiarhla keUqre lrk wdldr fidhd n,uq'

iar keUqrej (Fixed Bias)

g%dkaisiagrh keUqre lsf oS wmf.a m%Odk wruqK jkafka mdo Odrdj (IB) j;
ix.%dyl Odrdjla f,i (IC) ,nd .ekSu h' f ksid mdou Odrdjla (IB) we;s jk mos mdo
fudapl ikah (BE) bos keUqre l< hq;= h' f i|yd mdou fudapl (VBE) fjda,ah
;djla iemhsh hq;= h' VBE wkqj IB r|d mj;S' f ksid VBE wvq je u u; IB wvq je jk
nj;a IB wvq je u u; IC wvq je jk nj;a wm ms<s.; hq;= h' f wkqj g%dkaisiagrh VBE
fjda,ah;dj iemhSu u; g%dkaisiagrfha ls%hdld;ajh we;s f'
iar keUqre l%ufha oS VBE ,nd oSu RB k m%;sfrdaOlhla fhdod we;' fuu VBE ksid
mdo Odrdjla we;s f' tu mo Odrdjg wkqrEm j Yd, ix.%dyl Odrdjla .,d hhs'
ix.%dyl m%;sfrdaOlh (RC) uska ix.%dyl Odrdj wkqj ix.%dyl fudapl fjda,ah;dj
(VCE) fjkia lr .ekSug yels f' PNP yd NPN g%dkaisiag iar keUqre lr we;s
wdldrh my; mm:j,ska oelaf'

fuys oS ix.%dyl Odrdj Yd, ksid g%dkaisiagrfha WIaK;ajh by< hhs' tg

g%dkaisiagrh CE mm:fha m%;sfrdaOh wvq f' tg ix.%dyl Odrdj o je f' fuh
keje; keje; is u ksid widudkH f,i g%dkaisiagrfha WIaK;ajh by< hdfuka th
kdY h yels h' tneka l=vd Odrd ,nd .kakd mm: i|yd fuu l%uh iqiq f'

iajhx keUqrej (Self Bias)

iar keUqref we;s fodaIh u yeru i|yd fuys oS mdo m%;sfrdaOlh RB fhdod
we;af;a ix.%dyl m%;sfrdaOlhg (RC) miqj h' f ksid ix.%dyl Odrdj by< hk g RC

123

m%;sfrdaOlh yryd is jk Nj neiau je f' tg RB yryd o Nj neiau wvq jk ksid

IB wvq f' tu ksid IC my; jef' f fya;= ksid IB iar ugulg mj;ajd .ekSug yels
h'

fudapl keUqrej (Emitter bias)

g%dkaisiagrfha ikafha WIaK;ajh je u ksid is jk ix.%dl Odrdf by< hdu
jvd;a id:l j fuu l%ufha oS md,kh lr we;' fuys oS ta i|yd fudapl m%;sfrdaOlhla
(RE) Wmfhda.S lr f.k ;sf' g%dkaisiagrfha WIaK;ajh je ta wkqj IC by< .shfyd;a
RC yryd Nj neiau je f' tg mdou fudapl fjda,ah;dj (VBE) wvq mdou Odrdj
o (IB) wvq f' f wkqj iEu g u (IB) ksh; j ;nd .ekSu is f' pnp yd npn
g%dkaisiagr fudapl keUqre;djg fhdod we;s wdldrh my; mm:j,ska oelaf' fuu
l%uh m%dfhda.sl mm:j, fhdod .ekSug jvd;a iqiq nj fmfka'

RE

RE

124

Nj fn keUqrej (Voltage Divided Bias)

fuys oS ksh; mdou fudapl fjda,ah;djla (VBE) ,nd oSu i|yd iqiq wdldrhg
R1 yd R2 kj m%;sfrdaOl folla Wmfhda.S lr f.k ;sf' I B g idfmalaI j R1 iy R2 ;=<ska
.,k Odrdj Yd, fyhska R1 ;=<ska .,k Odrdjg wdikak j iudk Odrdjla R2 ;=<ska
.,kafka hehs Wml,amkh l< yels h' ta ksid mdo fudapl fjda,ah;dj ia:djr j
mj;S' ta ksid mdo Odrdj o fkd fjkia j mj;S' fuh m%dfhda.sl mm:j, fhdod .ekSug
iqiq l%uhla f'

g%dkaisiag ms<sn| my; i|yka lreKq oek f.k isu jeo.;a f'

g%dkaisiagrhlska ,nd .; yels uQ,sl m%fhdack ;==kls'

1' ix{d jOlhla f,i Nd; l< yels h'
2' iaphla f,i Nd; l< yels h'
3' foda,lhla f,i Nd; l< yels h'

g%dkaisiagrh ms<sn| Tn oek .; hq;= lreKq

1'
2'
3'
4'
5'
6'

g%dkaisiagrh PNP o NPN o hk j.

g%dkaisiagrfha w.% ykd .ekSu'
g%dkaisiagrhla ksjeros j mlaId lsu'
g%dkaisiagrhla i;= ixLHd;h" fjda,ah;dj" Odrdj yd cjh ^laIu;dj& ms<sn| wjfndaOh
g%dkaisiagrhla wxlh wkqj th l=uk ldhhla i|yd fhdojd .; yels o hk j.
g%dkaisiagrhl ,laIK oek .ekSug o;a; fmd;la (Data Book) Nd; lrk wdldrh

125

g%dkaisiagrhl ,dlaIKsl wjiaa:d

g%dkaisiagrhla Nd; l< yels kHdi ;=k ms<sn| j g fmr ia;r lr we;' f
kHdi w;=frka nyq, j fhdod .kq ,nkqfha fmd fudapl kHdihhs'
g%dkaisiagrhlg ix{djla m%odkh lsu" ta ix{dj g%dkaisiagrh ;=< oS ixl%uKh
u yd g%dkaisiagrfha m%;sodkh u ms<sn| j lreKq fidhd n,uq' by; ls%hdj,S ;=k
g%dkaisiagrhla uska is jk wjia:d fjda,ah;d jOl ls%hdj f,i oelah yels h'
fjk;a wdldrhlg olajkafka k g%dkaisiagrhlg B, E yd C w.% w;r mj;sk Nj
wka;r yd tjdg wkqrEm j ta w.% yryd .,d hk Odrd w;r p,kh" tk" V - I ,dlaIKsl
f,i f wjia:d ;=k oelah yels h'
f ,dlaIKsl wjia:d my; wdldrhg oela f'
1' m%odk ,dlaIKslh (Input Chracteristics)
11' ixl%uK ,dlaIKslh (Transfer Characteristics)
111' m%;sodk ,dlaIKslh (Output Charateristics)
f ,dlaIKsl m%dfhda.sl mm:hla wdY%fhka ,nd .; yels h' ta i|yd iqiq
mm:hla my; oelaf'
mA
X

X p,H m%;sfrdaOlhla jk w;r Y p,H ir, Odrd iemhqula f' mdo Odrdj
uekSug uhsfl%da wegrhla o mdo fudapl Ndjh uekSug fjda,a grhla o" ix.%dyl
fudapl Njh uekSug ;j;a fjda,a grhla o ix.%dyl Odrdj uekSug ,S wegrhla
o fhdod .efka'

m%odk ,dlaIKslh (Input Characteristics)

by; mm:fha ix.%dyl fjda,ah;dj (VCE) ksh; w.hl we;s g mdou fudapl
fjda,ah;dj (VBE) wkqj mdou Odrdj (IB) yeisfrk wdldrh
m%odk ,dlaIKslh f' f w.hka m%ia;dr .; l< g my;
m%ia;drh ,ef'

VBE
(v)
IB

vTH

fuys oS ,efnk jl%h vfhdavhl bos keUqre

,dlaIKsl jl%hg iudk h'
126

ixl%uK ,dlaIKslh (Transfer Characteristics)

uq,ska olajd we;s mrsm:fha mdo Odrdj (IB) fjkia lsu x uska l< yels h'
g%dkaisiagrhl ix.%dyl fudapl fjda,ah;dj (VCE) ksh; j ;nd mdou Odrdf (IB)
fjkiaaj,g wkqrEm j ix.%dyl Odrdf (Ic) we;s jk fjkial ixl%uK ,dlaIKslh
uska oelaf'
f wkqj IB Odrdj .,d fkdhk g IC Odrdj .,d
IC
fkdhk nj fmfka' ^fuys oS mdo - fudapl ikah
(B-E) fmr keUqre fkdue;& l%ufhka mdo Odrdj
(IB) je lr;a u mdo fudapl ikah keUqre
^ndOl Njh blau jQ g& ix.%dyl Odrdj ^IC& l%ufhkaa
IB
A
jOkh fjka .,k nj;a wjidkfha ix.%dyl Odrdf
(IC) jOkh fkdfjkia j mj;akd nj;a fmfka' f
ls%hdj,sh olajk pl%h ixl%uK ,dlaIKslh jk w;r
th my; wdldrhg oelah yels h'
jl%fha A l,dmfha oS mdo Odrdjla ke;' ^ IB = l=vd fyda iDK& tneka ix.%dyl
Odrdjla o ke;' f fya;=j ksid g%dkaisiagrh wlS%h h' ta wls%h wjia:dj ke;s k
m%ia;drfha wls%h l,dmh g%dkaisiagrhl lmd yef wjia:dj ^Cut off Region& k jk
w;r g%dkaisiagrh jD; j (OFF) mj;S' fu wjia:df ix.%dylh yd fudaplh w;r
m%;sfrdaOh wkka; f'
lmd ye l,dmh miq l< g g%dkaisiagrh ils%h l,dmfha (Active Region) mj;S'
fuys l%ufhka IB je jk w;r Bg wkqrEm j IC o je f' f p,kh fndfyda g
fh f' ta ksid f wjia:dj fh wjia:dj f,i o yekaf' fuys IC, IB g
wkqf,dauj iudkqmd;sl f'
h lsis iSudjl IB ;j rg;a je l< o Bg wkqrEmSj IC ys je ula fkd,ef'
ta ksid jl%h x wlaIhg iudka;r j .uka lrhs' f wjia:df g%dkaisiagrh ika;Dma;
we;' tu l,dmh ika;Dma; l,dmh (Saturation region) k f' f wjia:df g%dkaii
s g
a rh
ixjD; (ON) wjia:df mj;S'
IB wkqj IC taldldrj fjkia jkg tu w.hka fofla wkqmd;h g%dkaisiagrfha ir,
Odrd ,dNh () f,i ye|skaf'
ta wkqj ir, Odrd ,dNh =

IC
IB

f'

idudkH g%dkaisiagrhl w.h 20 isg 1000 olajd muK h yels h'

by; ia;r l< wdldrhg g%dkaisiagrfha yeisu ms<sn| j meye,s wjfndaOhla

127

,ef' kE u j.hl g%dkaisiagrhl ls%hdj f wdldr f' f wdldr ;=k ,nd .;

yels jk wdldrhg g%dkaii
s g
a keUqre lsfuka ksis m%fhdack ,nd .; yels h' g%dkaii
s g
a rfha
f yeis wkqj my; oelafjk wjia:d i|yd Nd; l< yels h'
1'
Odrdj yd fjda,ah;d jOlhla f,i ^fh l,dmfha&
11' iahla f,i ^lmd yef l,dmh yd ika;Dma; l,dmh f,i&
111' foda,lhla f,i ^lmd yef l,dmh yd ika;Dma; l,dmh udrefjka udrejg
msysgq u'&

m%;sodk ,dCIKsl (Output Characteristic)

g%dkaisiagrhl m%;sodk fjda,ah;dj jk VCE wkqj m%;sodk Odrj jk IC fjkia
jk wkaou oelafjk jl%h m%;sodk jl%h k f' IB ksh; j ;nd VCE Y+kHfha isg
l%ufhka je lrk g IC YS>% f,i je f' bka miq j VCB iu IC je jkafka iq`:
jYfhks' f p,kh fh f' (IB= O )jk wjia:df VCE je l< g b;d l=vd Ic
Odrdjla ix.%dyl yryd .,d hk nj my; m%ia;drfhka fmfka' IB je jk g IC o je
jk neka O IB w.hka i|yd VCE wkqj ,efnk IC w.hka fjk fjk u jl%j,ska oelajQ
g imQK m%;sodk ,dCIKsl ,ef'
IC
IB= 50A

IB= 40A
IB= 30A
IB= 20A
IB= 10A
IB= 0

VCE

g%dkaisiagrhl mrd;sl w.h (Parameters) lsysmhla my; oelaf'

ir, Odrd ,dNh ^m%;s,dNh&
fmd fudapl wjia:df oS ix.%dyl Odrdj yd mdou Odrdj w;r wkqmd;h tu
wjia:df oS Odrd ,dNh f ^ &'

fuh by< w.hla .kS'

fmd mdo kHdifha ir, Odrd m%;s,dNh
Odrdj yd fudapl Odrdj w;r wkqmd;h f'

fuh my< w.hla .kS'

128

f.ka oelafjk w;r th ix.%dyl

Wmu ix.%dyl Odrdj

g%dkaisiagrfha ksIamdokh wkqj fjkia f' g%dkaisiagrhla mm:hl fhdod ls%hd
lrk wjia:df g%dkaisiagrhg ydkshla fkd thska ,nd .; yels Wmu ix.%dyl Odrdjhs'

Wmu iemhq fjda,ah;dj

fuh o g%dkaisiagr ksIamdokh wkqj fjkia f' tla tla g%dkaisiagrh wkqj o;a;
fmd;aj, f w.h i|ykaj we;' mm:hl fhf f Wmu iemhqu fjda,ah;dj fkd
blaujk iemhSug j. n,d .; hq;= f'

cj W;aickh
g%dkaisiagrhl ix.%dylh yd fudapl w;r Odrdjla .,k jg ta ;=< ;dmh ckkh
f' ta ;dmh bj;a fkd l< fyd;a l%ufhka ;dmh by< hdfuka g%dkaisiagrhg ydks is
h yels h' ta wkqj g%dkaisiagrhla kdY fkd jk f,i th ;=< ckkh h yels ;dm
w.h Wmu cj W;aickh k f' fuu w.h fudapl ix.%dyl fjda,ah;df;a
ix.%dyl Odrdf;a .=Ks;hhs'

Wmrsu cj W;aickh
fuys VCE yd IC w;r m%ia;drh jl%hla f'

IC

R
L
VCE

129

f m%ia;drfha L m%foaYfha cj W;aick w.h Wmj cj W;aick (VCE.IC)

w.hg jvd wvq h' tfy;a R m%foaYfha cj W;aick w.h (VCE.IC) Wmu cj W;aick
w.hg (Pd (Max) jvd je h' tneka iEu g u g%dkaisiagrhl ls%hdld;ajh m%ia;drh
wkqj j mi m%foaYfha w.hl msysgqjd .; hq;= h'
tfia u g%dkaisiagrhla m%dfhda.sl mm:hl fhdod we;s g ^fYaIfhka m%;sodk
whrl& tys WIaK;ajh by< hkafka k ;dmdjfYdaIl (Heat Sink) fhdod g%dkaisiagrfha
Wmk ;dmh mirhg bj;a l< hq;= h' f i|yd ;U yd weksh f,dayfhka ;ekQ O
;dmdjfYdaIl Wml%u we;'

ner fLdj (Load Line)

g%dkaisiagrhla i|yd l,ska olajk ,o ixl%uK ,dlaIKsl jl%j,ska g%dkaisiagrfha
IC, IE, VCE jeks w.hla fidhd .; yels h' tfy;a g%dkaisiagrhla ndysr wls%h Wmdx. iu
inkaO fldg mm: ie,iq l< g by; w.hla fidhd .ekSu myiq ke;' ta i|yd ner
fLdj wjYH f'
IC

VCC
RC

VCC

IC

RC
VIcc =
c =
0 VCE

VCE
VCC

VCE

f mm:h wkqj Vcc = Ic Rc + VCE f' fuys Ic Wla; l< g f'

f ilrKh y = mx + c wkqj hk ksid ir, fh m%i;

a drhla ,ef' g%dkaii
s g
a rh
ilrKhg wdfoaY l< g
f' tfuka u
lmd ye m%foaYfha
g%dkaisiagrh ika;Dma; wjia:df VCE Y+kHhg wdikak f' tg
f'

f w.hka VCE yd IC wlaI u; i,l=Kq l< g ner fLdj ,ef'

g%dkaisiagrhla jOlhla f,i Nd; lsf m%;sodk ,dlaIKsl jl%h u; igyka
fldg we;s ner fLdj m%fhdackhg .; yels h' g%dkaisiagrfhka kdY fkd jOlhla
f,i fhu i|yd ner fLdj cj W;aimk jl%hg j miska msysg h hq;= h'

130

g%dkaisiagrh iahla f,i Nd; lsu

(Transister used as a Switch)
g%dkaisiagrh iahla f,i fhdod .; yels nj wms oksuq' f wjia:dj m%dfhda.sl
mm:j, nyq, j fhdod .efka' idudkHfhka fuys mdo Odrdj ^IB& .e,Su yd fkd .e,su
i|yd g%dkaisiagr mdou ixfol (Sensers) iu inkaO lr we;' g%dkaisiagr iahla
f,i fhdod .ekSf fYaI jdis we;'
tk"
i.
laIKsl ls%hdldrs;ajh ^wf.S iaphla f,i&
ii.
oHq;a mq,s= we;s fkd u
iii. f. hk fldgia ^hdka;s%l fldgia fkdue;s u&
iv. fjda,ah;djla u`.ska ls%hd lrh yels u'
v.
Yo fkd keSu'
g%dkaisiagrhla iahla f,i fhdod .; yels wjia:d lsysmhla my; oelaf'

wdf,dal ixf mm:h

^wf oS l%shd;aul jk&

iamY ixf mm:h

wdf,dal ixf mm:h

^wdf,dalfha oS l%shd;aul jk&

131

;dm ixf mm:h

fCIa;% wdprK g%dkaisiag (Field Effect Transistor)

w.% 3 la iys; tal O%ej g%dkaisiag fYaIhls' fuys Odrdj md,kh lsu oHq;a
fCIa;%hla u`.ska is lrk neka F.E.T hkqfjka ykajkq ,nhs' F.E.T m%Odk j. 2 ls'
- ika fCIa;% wdprK g%dkaisiagrh (Junction Field Effect Transistor-JFET)
- f,day Tlaihsv wO ikakdhl fCIa;% g%dkaisiagrh (Metal Oxide Semi Conductor F.E.T- MOSFET)
fuu j. fol u iEoSug .kakd wO ikakdhl j.h wkqj n kd,s ^n-Channel &
yd p kd,s ^p-Channel & jYfhka j. follg fjka flf' fuu j. fol i|yd n
j.fha fyda p j.fha wO ikakdhl fhdod .ekqK o" tajdfha l%shdld;ajh tl iudk
h'
ika lafIa;% wdprK g%dkaisiag ^J.F.E.T &
n kd,S F.E.T j, n j.fha is,slka oKavl rEmfha wdldrhg fomiska p j.fha wO
ikakdhl fldgia folla inkaO fldg we;' tu fldgia fol u" tl u w.%hla fia
bj;g f.k we;' th oajdrh /Gate (G) jYfhka o is,slka oKaf fo fl<jr Source(S)
yd Drain(D) jYfhka o w.% inkaO;d msg;g f.k we;'

S yd D w;r m%;sfrdaOhla iys; Rcq inkaO;djla mj;s'

n kd,S j.fha D yd S w;rg Njhla ,nd ka g n oKav ;=<ska Odrdj p l,dmh w;ka
.,d hkq we;' fuys oS nyq;r jdyl jk bf,lafg%dak muKla .,d hkq we;' f wdldrhg
u p kd,S j.fha oS fjda,ah;djla ,nd ka g isre muKla l,dmh w;ka .,d hhs'
F.E.T j, w.% inkaOfhka my; i|yka lreKq flfrys wjOdkh fhduq l< hq;=
f'

132

1' Source
n fyda p j.fha nyq;r jdyl we;=`M jk w.%hhs' jdyl .uka lrkqfha fuys isg
neka Source f,i k flf'
2' Drain
n fyda p j.fha oKav u.ska nyq;r jdyl msg jk ia:dkh ksid Drain hk kka
ykajhs' tneka D-S fjda,ah;dj VDS jYfhka o D Odrdj I D jYfhka o f'
3' Gate
fuh wl f,i ud;%Kh lrk ,o wNHka;r j tlg inkaO l< l,dm folls'
th pn ikahl wdldrhla .kS' G-S fjda,ah;dj VGS u`.ska G w.%h miq keUqrej ;nd
.efka'
4' Channel
D yd S fjda,ah;dj fyj;a VDS ,nd ka g Gate fol w;ka nyq;r jdyl .uka
.kakd ud.h fyj;a bv m%udKhhs'

J.F.E.T ms<sn| j wjidkfha oS u;l ;nd .; hq;= jeo.;a lreKq

- G w.%h iEu g u miq keUqf mj;sk ksid m%dfhda.sl j I G = 0 f'
- wjYH jdyl ,nd .ekSug Source w.%h iEu g u jdyl wh;a O%Eh;dj inkaO l<
hq;= h'
n Channel : - RK w.%h

p Channel : + Ok w.%h'
n kd,S - J.F.E.T ys l%shdld;ajh
VGS = 0 yd VDS = 0 jk g
VDS = 0 ksid I D = 0 f' tneka p ikah jgd we;s
ydhs; m%foaYh iudk >klka iu;sl j mj;s'

J.F.E.T ,dCIKsl
m%odk ,dCIKsl #- m%odk mm:fha VGS wkqj IG fjkia u m%odk ,dCIKslh f,i
ie,fla' IG=0 ksid F.E.T j, m%odk ,dCIKslh ,nd .; fkd yel'

133

ixl%uK ,dCIKsl #- IG wkqj ID j, fjkia u ixl%uK ,dCIKslh f' IG=0 ksid ta

fjkqjg VGS wkqj ID fjkia u ixl%uKsl ,dCIKslh f,i ,nd .efka' tu`.ska F.E.T
j, wfkdakH ikakhl;dj kue;s mrd;sh ,nd .; yels h'
wfkdakH ikakdhl;dj =

ID
VGS

= gm

m%;sodk ,dCIKsl # - VDS wkqj ID fjkia u m%;sodk ,dCIKsl f,i ,nd .ks'

VGS = 0 yd VDS 0 isg l%ufhka je lrf.k hk g I D Y+kHfha isg l%ufhka je

f'
;j rg;a VDS fjda,ah;dj je lrk g
ID Odrdj o ;j rg;a je Wmu w.hla olajd
.uka lrhs' fuh f.a kshuhg wkql+, j
isf' tk n kd,sh ksh; m%;sfrdaOlhla f,i
ie,l= g fjda,ah;djg Odrdj idudkqmd;sl
f' ^V I & fuu inkaO;dj VDS i|yd jk
ksh; Wmuhla f;la meKs g Odrdj Wmu
ks i d ka bos hg VDS je l< o Odrdf
jOkhla we;s fkdf'
fuu wjia:df ydhs; m%foaYh D foig jOkh jk ksid ksh; ID Ordjla
.,d hhs'(IDSS)
VDS = 0 yd VGS = 0 isg - w.hla olajd je lrf.k hdu
fuu wjia:df G w.%h n kd,shg idfmaCI j wl miq keUqrejlg ,la f' ;j
rg;a VGS RK wka;hg je lrf.k hk g tu ikah Cut off ^ydhs; l,dm m<,a
kd,sh jefik ;;a;ajhg m;a f'

134

- VGS yd VDS je lrf.k hk g

VDS

-VGS je lrk g pn ikafha ydhs; m%foaYh iu;slj wNHka;rhg jOkh

f' fufia jOkh kd,sh imQKfhka ixjD; jk VGS fjd,ah;dj Pinch off
fjd,ah;dj ^VP & f,i ye|ska f' f ksid f.a fjda,ah;dj md,kh lsfuka" Drain
Odrdj o md,kh l< yels h' tneka JFET hkq f.a fjda,ah;dj u`.ska ID md,kh l<
yels Wml%uhls'
FET Ndfha jdis

by< m%odk indOkh'

f>daIdj wvq nj'
m%udKfhka l=vd u'
je ld,hla Nd; lsf yelshdj'
by< ixLHd;j,g ixfoS u'
wl cjhla ,nd .; yels u'
RK WIaK;aj ix.=Klhla mj;ajd f.k hd yels ksid ;dmia:djr nj

Nd; wjia:d
rEmjdyskS$.=jka ,s hka;%j, .=jka ,s ixLHd;^R.F& woshrhka
cj iemhq
U.P.S
MOSFET
fjdfha jHqyh yd l%shdld;ajh wkqj fldgia folls'
1'Enhancement Type -Normally off
2.Deplection Type -Normally on
fuu j.fha FET p fyda n ;yvqjla u; ilia lsug yels neka mm: l=vdjg
ksudKh l< yels h' tneka ix.Dys; mm: ieliSf oS fuu j.h Nd; flf' FET
j, oajdrh mjrKhla yryd fhdod we;s ksid m%odk indokh b;d by< w.hla .ks'
135

1. Enhancement j.h

rEm igyfka mos fuu j.fha FET j, Drain yd Source w;rg iemhqula inkaO
l< g Odrdjla .,d fkdhhs' tu ksid idudkH wjia:df oS jD; mm; f' S
idfmaCIj G g Ok p,Hh fjda,ah;djla iemhq g oajdrhg inkaO fldgfiys Ok
wdfrdamK je jk w;r mjrKfhka reoaO fldgfiys RK wdfrdamK /ia f' tk
;djld,sl j N kd,shla iEfoa' ;j rg;a oajdrhg inkaO Ok iemhqu je l< g h
wjia:djl S yd D j,g inkaO N fldgia fol ;djld,sl j N kd,sfhka inkaO f'
tg ID Odrdjla .,d hhs' Ok VGS fjkia jk g fuu ;djld,sl N kd,sfha yria lv
fjkia jk ksid ID o" ta wkqj fjkia f'

2.Deplection j.h

fuu j.fha FET j, Drain yd Source w;r P substract ;=, n jH fhdod inkaO

136

lr we;' tneka D yd S w;r ix{djla fh g Odrdj .uka lrhs' tu ksid idudkH

wjia:df oS ixjD; mm: f' S g idfmaCIj D fj; p,H RK ix{djla inkaO l<
g oajdrhg inkaO fldgfia RK wdfrdamK /ia jk w;r mjrKhg reoaO fldgfia
S yd D inkaO lr we;s n kd,sldj ;=< Ok wdfrdamK /ia f' tg kd,sldj wjysr
fuka ID Odrdj wvq f' fufia RK VGS je lrf.k hk g h wjia:djl kd,sh
jeiS hdhs'
oajdrhg Ok fjda,ah;djla iemhq g mjrKhg reoaO fldgfia RK wdfrdamK
/ia fuka n kd,sfha yria lv Yd, f' tg je Odrdjla .,d hdug mq`:jk' f wkqj
p,H VGS hgf;a p,H ID Odrdjla ,nd .; yels h'

Enhancement Type

Deplection Type

137

md,k Wml%u
bf,lafg%daksl fCIa;%fha cjh md,kh i|yd Nd; lrk wO ikakdhl Wml%u
w;r my; i|yka Wml%u nyq, j fhdod .efka' fjd fmdf ;hsiag ^Thyristors&kka
ykajhs'
1' is,slka md,l Rcqldrh (S.C.R)
2' oa osYd mQrK vfhdavh' (DIAC)
3' g%hela (TRIAC)
fuu Wmdx. ish,a, u ksudKh fldg we;af;a p yd n j.fha wO ikakdhl
ia:r y;rla fhdod .ekSfuks' tneka fuu Wmdx.j, pn ika 3 la we;s fjhs'

is,slka md,l Rcqldrl (S.C.R)

ndysr j oelsh yels w.% 3 lska iuka; jk w;r tajd wefkdavh (A) " lef;davh (K)
yd oajdrh (G) f,i ykajhs' p ia:rhg ine w.%h wefkdavh f,i;a" n w.%hg ine w.%h
lef;davh f,i;a ykajhs' w;r ueo msys p fyda n ia:rhg ine w.%h oajdrh f' oajdrh
inkaO fldg we;s w.%h mok lr .kska SCR j. flf'
1' p oajdr SCR
2' n oajdr SCR
n oajdr SCR
p n p
n

p oajdr SCR
p n p
n

G
A

G
K

K
G

SCR Nd;h

wefkdavhg Ok (+) iemhqf w.%h o" lef;davhg RK (-) iemhqf w.%h o"
inkaO fldg oajdrh fj; l=vd Odrdjla iemhSfuka SCR ikakhk wjia:djg m;a l<
yels f' ikakhkh werUqK miq oajdr ix{dj bj;a l< o wefkdavfha isg lef;davhg
Odrdj .uka lrhs' fuu Odrdf h wju w.hla olajd ikakdhl;dj mj;sk w;r Odrdj
Bg wvq jQ g ikakdhl;dj bj;a hhs' fuu wju Odrdj r|jd .ekSf Odrdj ^Holding
Current - IH& f,i ye|ska f'

138

R1

S1
S2

S3

R2
L

fuu mm:fha S1 iaph ixjD; wjia:df myk fkd oe,afjk w;r S2 iaph
Tnd w; yeh g myk fkd lvjd oe,a f' fuys p oajdr SCR fha oajdrh fj; R1, R2
Nj fnokfha R2 yryd msysgk fjda,ah;dj u`.ska ix{djla ,nd fuka SCR ikakdhk
wjia:djg m;a f' S2 jD; l< o myk fkd lvjd oe,a f'
myk ksu i|yd ia folla fhdod .; yels f'
- S1 iaph jD; lsu' ^ iemhqu ika lsu &
- S3 l%shd;aul lsu ^wefkdavh yd lef;davh fl mm:hla njg m;a lsu&
^fuys oS SCR ;=<ska .,k Odrdj IH j,g jvd wvq jk ksid th jD; mm;
f'&

m%;Hdj; Odrd md,kh

R1

VR
C
L

fuu mm:fha m%;Hdj;k Odrdjla Nd; lrk ksid oajdrh fj; fkd lvjd iamkao
,nd h hq;= f' tfuka u SCR yryd m%;Hdj;k ;rx.fha tla wOhla muKla ikakhkh
flf' myfka ma;;dj md,kh i|yd VR p,kh lsfuka C, R mm:fha ld, ksh;h
fjkia jk ksid oajdrh fj; iamkao ,efnk wjia:dj ^ld, mudj-Time delay& u`.ska
myfka ma;sh fjkia lr .; yels f'

oajdrh fj; ,nd fok iamkaoh ms<sn| j my; i|yka lreKq n,mdhs'
p oajdr SCR hla k oajdrh fj; + iamkaohla ,nd h hq;= h'
n oajdr SCR hla k oajdrh fj; - iamkaohla ,nd h hq;= h'

by; mm:fha myk ^L& fjkqjg fudagrhla Nd; lsfuka tys N%uK f.h
md,kh l< yels f'

139

vhelh
ialrk vfhdavhl h fjda,ah;djhla blau jQ miq tlajru m%;sfrdaOh wvq
tla Ydjlg Odrdj .,d hk vfhdav fYaIhls' fujeks vfhdav folla iudka;rj
fomig inkaO lr vhelh ilikq ,ef'
tu ksid fuh ;=<ska Odrdj fo Ydjg u ikakhkh h yels w;r u ikakhkh
isjkafka vhelfha ikakhk fjda,ah;dj ,enqKq miqj h'
A2

A1

w.% 2 lska iuka ; Wmdx.hla jk fuu Wml%ufha w.% wefkdavh-1 yd

wefkdavh-2 hkqfjka yeka f' ixfla;h wkqj Odrdj fo Ydjg u .e,sh yels nj
fmfka'
fndfyda g fuu Wmdx.h u`.ska fjk;a Wml%ula md,kh i|yd fhdod .efka'
m%;Hdj; iemhqf wO fol u m%fhdackhg .; yels u fuys jdishla f,i ie,flhs'

g%helh (TRIAC)
g%helh hk SCR folla iudka;rj m%;s reoaO Ydj,g inkaOlr oajrh fmd
w.%hla f,i ikaO lr we;s Wml%uhls'
MT2

MT1
G

w.% 3 la iys; Wmdx.hla f' tajd m%Odk w.%h 1" m%Odk w.%h 2 yd oajdrh f,i
ykajhs' m%;Hdj; Odrd md,khg fhdod .efka' tys + yd - wO ;rx. fol u Nd;hg
.ekSug yels f' g%helfha oajdrh fj; mQrk iamkaokh (Jrigger Pulse) ,nd ug vhelh
Nd; l< yels h' thg m%odkh flfrk iamkaoh u; cjh fjkia lr .; yels f'

R1

VR
C

140

9' ldrld;aul jOl (Operational Amplifiers)

g%dkaisiagr Nd; lr ix{d jOkh lr .ekSu i|yd fhdod .;a jOl mm:
ms<sn|j;a ta jOlj, we;s .=Kdx. ms<sn|j;a g fmr Tn wOHhkh lr we;' ldrl jOl
h g%dkaii
s g
a folla fhdod tl,ia lrk ,o wjl,k jOlhl ^Differential Amplifier& je
oshqkq lsu ls'
f jOl mm:j, oS g%dkaisiagr yd fjk;a Wmdx. .Kkdjla Nd; lr tl,ia
lrk ,o mm:hlska jOlh iuka; f' wjl,k jOlhlg by< m%;s,dN jOlhla
Rcq inkaO ;djla iys;j inkaO lr ldrldrld;aul jOlh tl,ia lrkq ,ef'
jOl w;=frka ix.Dys; mm:hla f,i ilia l< iqfYaI .=Kdx. iys; jOlhla f,i
ldrld;aul jOlh oelah yels h' fjd flfhka lul jOl f,i o ye|skafjhs'
fujeks jOl mm:hla tys Nd; flfrk Wmdx. b;d l=vdjg ksIamdokh lr
;ks weiqreula ;=< wka;.; lr w.% muKla msg;g f.k ilid we;s jOl mm: jOl
ix.Dys; mm: f,i (Amplifier Intergrated Circuit) ykajhs'
lul jOlh O wdldrfha bf,lafg%daksl mm:j, Nd;
flfrk b;d ckms%h ix.Dys; mm: fYaIhls' fjda,ah;d Nd;fhka tl;= lsu" wvq
lsu" .=K lsu wdoS .Ks;uh ls%hd is lsug we;s yelshdj ksid fjdg ldrld;aul
jOl hk ku ,e we;'
lul jOlhl ixfla;h yd ckms%h lul jOl ix.Dys; mm:hla jk 741
ys w.% ieleiau my; olajd we;'

141

cj iemhqu w.%
iEu ix.Dys; mm:hl u ta mm:h ls%hdlrug wjYH cjh i|yd ir, Odrd
fjda,ah;djla inkaO lsug w.% folla we;' lul jOlhlg o ir, Odrd iemhqula
,nd osh hq;= hs'
lul jOl mm: i|yd cj iemhqu ,nd oSf oS my; oelafjk wdldrfha oa;aj
cj iemhqula (Dual power supply) Nd; flfrhs'

O lul jOl i|yd 6V isg 15V olajd mrdifha fjda,ah;djla Nd; l<
yelsh'

m%;sodk w.%h
lul jOlhg N+.; w.%hg idfmaCIj lsish m%odkhla ,nd ka g m%;sodkh
,nd .ekSu i|yd fhdod .kakd w.%hhs' m%;sodkh N+.; w.%hg idfmalaI j ,ef'

wmj;l fkd jk w.%h

f w.%hg ,ndfok m%odkfha O%eh;dj fjkia fkd m%;sodkhg ,ef' tk Ok
fjda,ah;djka ,nd ka g jOkh jQ Ok fjda,ah;djla m%;sodkfhka ,efnk w;r
RK fjda,ah;djla ,nd ka g jOkh jQ RK fjda,ah;djla m%;sodkh f,i ,ef'
m%;Hdj;k ix{djla ,nd ka g l,d udrejla is fkd jOkh jQ ix{djla m%;sodkh
f,i ,ef'

wmj;l w.%h
f w.%hg ,nd fok m%odkfha O%eh;dj udre m%;sodkhg ,ef' tk Ok
fjda,ah;djla ,nd ka g jOkh jQ RK fjda,ah;djla m%;sodkfhka ,efnk w;r
RK fjda,ah;dj ,nd ka g jOkh jQ Ok fjda,ah;djla m%;sodkh f,i ,ef'
m%;Hdj; ix{djla ,nd ka g 1800 l l,d udrejla iys; jOkh jQ ix{djla m%;sodkh
f,i ,ef'
'

142

lul jOlhla i;= uQ,sl .=Kdx. yd fYaI ,laIK lsysmhla fufia oelah yels
h'

b;d Yd, jD; mq`vq fjda,

a h;d ,dNhla (Open Loop Voltage gain) we;' f fjda,
a h;d
,dNh 105 - 106 muK f' ckms%h 741 lul jOlfha f w.h 20000la muK f'

b;d Yd, m%odk m%;sfrdaOhla (Input Resistance) we;' idudkHfhka fuh ^106 - 108 &
muK f' f fya;=fjka jOlfha m%odk ;=< u fyda bka msg;g fyda .,d hk Odrdj
b;d wvq w.hla .kS' fndfyda m%dfhda.sl wjia:d i|yd f Odrdj fkd i,ld yeh
yels ;r l=vd h' tu ksid lksl jOl h m%Njhlg nefla fkdf'

b;d wvq m%;sodk m%;sfrdaOhla (Output Resistance) we;' idudkHfhka fuh 50 - 80

la w;r f' tneka b;d l=vd indokhlska (Impedence) hq;a nrla jqj o inkaO
l< yels h' tu ksid kEu neflg m%Njhla f,i fhh yels h'

lul jOlhlg b;d Yd, ixLHd; mrdihla ;=< mj;sk m%;Hdj;k fjda,
a h;d
ix{d jOkh lsf yelshdj we;' idudkHfhka 0 isg 100MHz olajd mrdihla ;=< ls%hd
lsf yelshdj we;' tk b;d Yd, l,dm m<,la (Band Width) we;'

lul jOlj, Nd;

lul jOlj, ;j;a iqfYaI;ajhla jkafka tlsfklg fjkia O ldh
i|yd Nd; l< yels uhs' lul jOlj, O Nd; uid ne,Sug fmr fuys is jk
jOl ls%hdj fmdf uid n,uq'

143

wmj;l m%odk fjda,ah;dj V2 o wmj;l fkd jk m%odk fjda,ah;dj V1 o

f k m%;sodk fjda,ah;dj my; m%ldYkfhka ,nd .; yels h'

fjda,ah;d ,dN AV =
V0

m%;sodk fjda,ah;dj
m%odk fjda,ah;dj

A ( V 1 - V2 )

fuys A hkq lul jOlfhys jD; mq`vq fjda,ah;d ,dNhhs' A ys w.h b;d Yd,
jk kuq f ;;a;aj hgf;a m%odkhg iemfhk b;d l=vd m%udKfha fjda,ah;djla jqj
o b;d wl f,i jOkh u ksid jOlh wia:dhS jk w;r m%;sodk fjda,ah;dj (V0)
o ika;Dma; f' tk (V1 - V2) wka;rfhys w.h b;d l=vd w.hla blau jQ jyd u m%;sodk
fjda,ah;dj (V0) ;jrg;a jOkh fkd ksh; Wmu w.hla ,nd .kS' m%dfhda.sl
jYfhka V0ys w.h iemhq fjda,ah;dj jk w;r V0 ys (+) Wmu ika;Dma; w.h iemhq
fjda,ah;dfjys Ok (+) w.hg tk +VS g jqj o IV isg 2V olajd m%udKh lska wvq h
yels f' V0ys RK (-) Wmu ix;Dma; w.h iemhq fjda,ahdf RK Wmu w.h g
f m%;os dk fjda,
a h;dfjys
jvd 1V isg 2V olajd m%udKhlska je f' tneka V0 =
ika;Dma; w.h +13V yd -13V muK h yels h'

15 V
fuys oS jOlhla f,i ls%hd lrkafka b;d l=vd fjda,ah;d mrdihla ;=< muKs
^mV m%udKh f&' tneka jD; mq`vq ;;a;ajh hgf;a lul jOlhla fjda,ah;d
jOlhla f,i Nd; lsu m%dfhda.sl jYfhka wmyiq yd m%fhdackj;a fkdjkakd jQ
ldhhls'

lul jOlh iaphla f,i Nd; lsu

jD; mq`vq ;;a;ajh hgf;a jOlhla f,i Nd; l< fkdyels jqj o iahla
f,i Nd; l< yels h' V1 wmj;l fkd jk m%odkh iy V2 wmj;l m%odkh f,i
ie,l+ g V1 > V2 g m%;sodk (V0) Ok Wmu w.hla .kS' V1 < V2 isg m%;sodk (V0) RK
^ - & Wmu w.hla .kS' tneka tu m%;sodk je fjda,ah;d w.h iys; m%odkhg wkqj
m%;sodk w.%h yryd inkaO l< Ndrhla yryd fjda,ah;dj tuska md,kh l< yels h'
f mm:h idudkHfhka Nd; lrkafka fjda,ah;d folla ixikaokh lsug neka
Bg ixikaolh (Comparator) hk ku Nd; flfrhs'

fjda,ah;d ixikaolhla f,i Nd; lsu

fjda,ah;d ixikaolhla f,i Nd; lsu wdoYkh lsu i|yd jQ ir, mm:hla
my; oelaf'

144

LED1

LED2

fuys wmj;l m%odkhg A w.%h;aa wmj;l fkd jk m%odkhg B w.h;a inkaO

l<fyd;a wmj;l fkd jk m% o dkfha fjda , a h;dj (+6V) wmj;l m% o dkfha
fjda,ah;djg (+3V) jvd je neka tk V1 > V2 neka m%;sodkh Ok (+) Wmu w.hla
.ekSu ksid LED1 muKla oe,af'
wmj;l m%odkhg B w.%h;a wmj;l fkd jk m%odkhg A w.%h;a inkaO
l<fyd;a V1 < V2 neka m%;sodkh RK ^-& Wmu w.hla .kS' tg LED2 muKla oe,af'
fjda,ah;d ixikaolhl m%dfhda.sl Nd;hla my; oelaf'

ksjil rd;s%fha oS ks;r o,ajd ;sfnk ,s mykla WoEik iajhxlS%h j ksjd oeu
i|yd f mm:h Wmfhda.S lr f.k we;'
R3, R4 Nj fnu u.ska wmj;l m%odkh ksh; fjda,ah;djla mj;ajdf.k we;'
R1 , R2 Nj fnu uska wmj;l fkd jk m%odkh Njh imhd we;s w;r ta Njh
wdf,dal ixfoS m%;sfrdaOh yd p,H m%;sfrdaOh uska fjkia l< yels jk fia ilid
we;'

145

LDR u; wdf,dalh jefgk g tys m%;sfrdaOh wvq jk neka V1 Njh wvq f'
th V2 Njhg jvd wvq jQ g ^V1 < V2 u& wmj;l m%odkh ls%hd;aul m%;sodkh i|yd
RK ^-& fjda,ah;djla ,efuka g%dkaisiagrh lmd ye wjia:djg m;au ksid ms<shjkh
ls%hd;aul fkd f'
LDR u;g ,efnk wdf,dal m%udKh wvq jQ g ^wre jQ g& m%;sfrdaOh je jk
neka Njh je f' th V2 Njhg jvd je jQ g ^V1 > V2 g& wmj;k fkd jk
m%odkh lsh
% d;aul m%;os dkh i|yd Ok (+) fjda,
a h;djla ,efuka g%dkaii
s g
a rh ika;Dma;
wjia:djg m;a fuka ialrKh ms<shjkh ls%hd;aul L myk oe,af' fuys
wjYH wdf,dal m%udKhl oS ms<shjkh ls%hd;aul lrjd .ekSu R1 , R2 Nj fnf we;s
R1 p,H m%;sfrdaO iSreudre lsfuka l< yels h'
fuh b;d l=vd fjda,ah;d wka;rhlg mjd ls%hd;aul jk neka ldrljOl
fujeks ixfol mm: i|yd jv;a iqiq f'
my; oelafjkafka ir, bf,lafg%dk
a l
s ;rdoshla ksudKh i|yd ixikaol mm:hla
Nd; lr we;s wdldrhhs'

fuys wdOdrlhl t,a kq ;rdoshlg t,a,d we;s nkla u; nr fhdokq ,nhs' kq

;rdosfha isg nk t,a,d we;s ;ka;=j p,H m%;sfrdaOlfha wlaIh jgd jghla T;d we;'
nr fhfok g p,H m%;sfrdaOh iSreudre fuka tla tla lul jOlfha m%;sodkh +
jk yd - jk wjia:d ,ef' tg tla wjia:djl oS r;= LED tl oe,au;a ;j;a wjia:djl
oS fld< LED tl oe,au;a p,H m%;sfrdaOh iSreudre fkd jk wjia:djl oS lsis LED
tlla fkd oe,u;a is fkdf'
ksYa; ialkaO folla i|yd wmj;l m%odk Ok jk wjia:d i|yd ;ka;=j yd
p,H m%;sfrdaOlh ilid .; hq;= hs'
f mm:h ksudKh lr w;ayod n,kak'

146

wmj;l jOlhla f,i Nd; lsu (Inverting Amplifier)

fuys oS wmj;l w.%hg ir, Odrd fjda,ah;dj fyda m%;Hdj;l fjda,ah;d fyda
ix{d m%odkh lrkq ,nk w;r wmj;l fkd jk w.%h N+.; lr we;' wmj;l fkd
jk w.%h m%odkh yd m%;sodkh hk w.% folg u fmd w.%h f' kEu ldrld;aul
jOlhla i|yd fmd jk my; oelafjk kS;s fol fuys oS o wkq.ukh l< hq;= h'

ndysr m%;sfmdaIK mm: mqvq uska iEu g u m%;sodk fjda,ah;dj fyda fldgila fyda
m%odk w.% fj; fhduq flfrkafka m%odk w.% w;r fjda,ah;d wka;rh Y+kH jk
wdldrhg h'

ldrld;aul jOlhl wNHka;r mm:h ilid we;af;a m%odk w.% fol w;r we;s
m%odk m%;sfrdaOh b;d Yd, jk wdldrhg neka m%odk w.% yryd jOlhg .,d hk
Odrdj Y+kHh f,i ie,lsh yels f'

by; kS;s wkqj f jOlfha o m%odk yd m%;sodkh w;rg Rf m%;sfrdaOlh fhdod

RK m%;sfmdaIKh ,nd oS we;' Rf m%;sfrdaOlh m%;sfmdaIK m%;sfrdaOlh f,i ykajhs'
fuys m%odkhg ir, Odrd fjda,ah;djla ,nd kfyd;a tys O%eh;dj udre
jOkh jQ fjda,ah;djla m%;sodkh f,i ,efnk w;r m%;Hdj;l Odrd fjda,ah;d
ix{djla ,nd kfyd;a jOkh jQ wmj;s; ^m%odkhg 1800 l l,d wka;rhla we;s&
ix{djla m%;sodkh f,i ,ef' fuys m%;sodk fjda,ah;dj my; m%ldYkfhka ,nd .;
yels h'
fjda,ah;d ,dNh =

m%;sodk fjda,ah;dj
m%odk fjda,ah;dj

147

fuys RK ,l=fKka lshfjkafka m%odk fjda,ah;dj yd ii|k g m%;sodk

fjda,ah;dj wmj;kh we;s njhs'

wmj;k fkd jk jOlh

fuys oS wmj;l fkd jk w.%h ir, Odrd fjda,ah;d ix{dj fyda m%;Hdj;l
fjda,ah;d ix{d j fyda m%odkh lrkq ,nk w;r wmj;l w.%h N+.; lr we;'
wmj;l w.%h m%odkh yd m%;sodkh hk w.% folg u fmd w.%h f'
fuys oS o by; fo jk kS;sh wkqj Ri yd Rf m%;sfrdaOlj,ska iuka; ndysr mm:h
yryd RK m%;sfmdaIKh ,nd oS we;'
fuys m%odkhg ir, Odrd fjda,ah;djla ,nd kfyd;a tu O%eh;dfjka hq;a
jOkh jQ fjda,
a h;djla m%;os dkh f,i ,efnk w;r m%;Hdjl Odrd fjda,
a h;d ix{djla
,nd kfyd;a jOkh jQ l,d wka;rhla rys; ix{djla m%;sodkh f,i ,ef'
fuys m%;sodk fjda,ah;dj my; m%ldYkfhka ,nd .; yels h'

m%;sodk fjda,ah;dj

fjda,ah;d ,dNh

148

tl;= lsf jOlhla f,i lul jOl Nd; lsu

wmj;l m%odkhg ,nd fok ir, jQ m%;Hdj: fjda,ah;d tl;= lsu i|yd
ldrl jOl Nd; l< yelsh'
Rf

V1
V2
V3

R1
R2
R3

+
741

Vout

k
m%odk m%;sfrdaO iy m%;sfmdaIK m%;sfrdaO w.hka fjkia lsfuka ta ta m%odkhg wh;a m%;s
odkh fjkia l< yels h'

fuu mm:h Y%jH Y%l f,i Nd; l< yelsh'

jOlhlg uhsfl%df*dak inkaO lsf oS tla tla uhsl%f*dakfhka ,efnk
ix{d Y% lr jOlhg ,nd oSu i|yd by; mm:h Nd; l< yels h'
wmj;l m%odkhg Y% l< hq;= ix{d fjk fjk u mud md,l Tiafia ,nd fokq
,ef' f m%odkhka md,kh uska tla tla uhsfl%df*dakfhka ,efnk ix{df ugu
fjk fjk u md,kh l< yels h' m%;sfmdaIK m%;sfrdaOlh i|yd fhdod we;s mud
md,lh m%Odk md,lh (Master Control) f,i ls%hd lr iuia; ix{dj md,kh lrhs'

149

10 ' ihskdldr fkd jk ;rx. yd tajdfha Nd;

Odldr ;rx. yev ms<sn| j f jk jg Tn wOHhkh lr we;' ta wkqj

ihskdldr fuka u ihskdldr fkd jk ;rx. o Nd;fha we;' ihskdldr fkd jk ;rx.
ckkh lr .ekSu i|yd Nd; lrk mm: lsysmhla yd tjeks ;rx. Nd; wjia:d
lsysmhla ms<sn| j uid n,uq'

y;/ia ;rx.
fndfyda bf,lafg%daksl Wmdx.j, ls%hdld;ajh i|yd fuka u ixLHdxl Nd;
ls%hdld;aj i|yd o fujeks ;rx. Wmfhda.S lr .efka'
wia:dhS$tal ia:dhS nyqlmlj, m%;sodkh f,i fujeks ;rx. ckkh f'

D=

W
100%
T

fujeks ;rx. ld, mm:" jyre wdldrfha cj iemhqj, (Switch Mode Power
Supply/SMPS), P.W.M. (Puls with Modulation) j, fuka u ia: md,lj, (Remoute Controller) fhdod .efka'

ldh pl%h (Duty Cycle) - (D)

y;/ia ;rx.hl ldh pl%h hkq Ok wOh i|yd .kakd ld,h (On -time) (W)
foda,k ld,dj;h (T)g ork wkqmd;h m%;sY;hla f,i oelafuka ,efnk w.hhs'

150

cj iemhqj, fjda,ah;d ia:dhslrKfha ldh pl%h wjYH m fjkia lsj,g

Ndckh lrkq ,ef'

lsh;a oe;s wdldr ;rx.

lsh;a oe;s wdldrfha ;rx. ckkh moaO;shl wdfrdamK ick ls%hdj,sh uska we;s
lr .kq ,ef' fujeks ;rx. rEmjdyskS W;al%uK orj,g ix{d ,nd u" lef;dav
lsrK foda,fkalaIfha W;al%uK ;ej,g ix{d ,nd u jeks ldhhka i|yd fhdod
.efka' R fyda C j, w.h fjkia lsu uska ;rx.fha mej;= ld,h fjkia lr .; yels
h'

lsh;a oe;s ;rx.

lsh;a oe;s ;rx.hla ,nd .; yels g%dkaisiag mm:hla my; oelaf'

151

;rx. yev ckkh

ld,h wkqj fjda,ah;df$Odrdf yevh Odldr f,i ,nd .; yels mm:
foda,l mm: f,i ye|ska f' f i|yd g%dkaisiag yd ix.Dys; mm: nyq, j fhdod
.efka' YS% ,xldf m%Odk ,sfha ;rx. yevh ihskdldr f' ta wkqj ihskdldr ;rx.
yevh ms<sn| j Tng meyeos,s h'
kEu ;rx.dldrhl uQ,l
s ;rdx.dldrh ihskdldr ;rx.dldrhhs' wp, wj,nkhla
foda,kh l< g fomig foda,kh l%u l%ufhka foda,k r o wvq ksYap,;djg m;a
f' foda,kh jk r ksh; j mj;ajd .ekSug l=ula l< hq;= o@ A fyda B fyda ia:dkhl
oS p,s; osYdjg u l=vd cjhla ,nd oSu h' tuska p,s; r ksYa; j mj;ajd .; yels f'
ta wkqj iEu foda,khl oS u wjYH m%udKhg cjhla ,nd oSfuka foda,kh ksh; j mj;ajd
.; yels f'
f wj,nfha tla foda,khla hkq Z
isg X olajd foda,kh kej; X isg Z
olajd foda,kh kej; Z lrd meKSu
h' fuf,i tla foda,khla we;s ug .;
jk ld,h wdj;l ld,h f,i;a
;;amrhla ;=< we;s jk foda,k ixLHdj
ixLHd;h f,i;a ye|skafjhs' m<uq j Yys
oS ,nd fok Yla;sh Zys oS Nj Yla;sh
f,i .nvd f' Z isg Y lrd meKSf oS
fuh l%u l%ufhka pd,l Yla;sh njg m;a
f'
fuf,i is jk Yla;s mj;kfha
oS jdhqf m%;f
s rdaOh yd j;kfha >IKh
jeks idOl ksid l%u l%ufhka Yla;s ydks
wj,nh ks Y a p ,;djg m;a f'
oHq;fha oS fufia Yla;s yqjudrejla is
lrka foda,khla is l< yels h' ir,
WodyrKhla f,i Od;%l fm%arl
iudka ; r.; mm:hlg fudfyd;lg
,sh imhk wjia:dla flfrys wjOdkh
fhduq lruq'

152

S iaph fudfyd;lg ixjD; lr jD; l< g oS

fma%rlh ;=<ska Odrdjla .,d hdug W;aidy lrk w;r tys oS
fm%arlh jgd pqnl lafIa;%hla jOkh f' f w;r;=r
Od;%lh wdfrdamKh f' Od;%lh fomi fjda,ah;dj
laIKsl j by< hdu ksid iemhqu k;r jQ Od;%lh
ickh fjka fma%rlfha pqnl lafIa;%h ;j rg;a
jOkh f' bkamiq pqNl fCIa;%h mj;ajd .; fkd yels
j fCIa;%h yels<Su wdrN f'
f ksid we;s jk ma%; fjda,ah;dj ksid kej; Od;%lh wdfrdamKh f' wm Nd;
l< fma%rlh (L) yd Od;%lh (C) mmQK Wmdx. f,i ie,l=jfyd;a f ls%hdj,sh fkd
lvjd is fjka jfrl Od;%lh foig;a ;j;a jfrl fma%rlh foig;a oHq;a Yla;sh
yqjudre u fyj;a foda,kh is f'
tfy;a m%dfhda.sl j wm Nd; lrk Od;%l (C) yd (L) fma%rl mmQK Wmdx. fkd
jk ksid oHq;a Yla;sh yqjudre f oS is jk ldka yd fjk;a fya;= ^m%;sfrdaOh jeks&
ksid Yla;s ydks l%u l%ufhka .,k Odrdj wvq Y+kH f'
fuys oS o f;dard.;a fudfyd;l wjYH m%udKfha cjhla ,nd oSfuka foda,kh fkd
lvjd mj;ajd .; yels f' f cjh ,nd oSu g%dkaisiagrhla ialrKh lsfuka ,nd
osh yels h'
ialrKh lrk wjia:dj ksje/os j ,nd .ekSug m%;sodkfhka b;d l=vd fldgila
m%odkh fj; ,nd oSu is lrhs'

m%;sfmdaIKh

m%odkh

jOlh

m%;sodkh

153

iiskdldr fkd jk ;rx. bf,lafg%daksl ;dlaIKfofha oS nyq, j Nd; flf'

f w;ka my; i|yka ;rx. ckl flfrys wjOdkh fhduq flf'

y;/ia ;rx. ckl

lsh;a oe;s wdldr ;rx. ckl
;s%fldaKdldr ;rx. ckl

y;/ia ;rx. ckkh

Q1 = Q2 = C828
6

R1-R6

= 1kx6

= 1N4148 x 2

C1 = C2 = 0.01 f

CH1 -lef;dav lsrK foda,fkalaIh (CRO)

f mm:h wia:dhs nyqlml mm:hls' Q1 yd Q2 g%dkaisiag iudk g%dkaisiag

folla jqj o tjd wx.iu fkdf' tajdfha jOk ,dNh" m%odk yd m%;sodk inkaO;d
tlsfklg fjkia f'
f mm:hg ,sh iemhQ g R2 yryd Q2 o R1 yryd Q1 o keUqre u wdrN f'
g%dkaisiag fol wiudk ,laIK olajk neka mQK f,i ialrKh ug .; jk
ld,h o fjkia f' Q1 g%dkaisiagrh Q2 g%dkaisiagrhg jvd f.fhka ialrKh
jkafka k Q1 g%dkaisiagrfha ix.%dylh Q2 g%dkaisiagrfha ix.%dylhg jvd f.fhka
N+.; f' tg C1 Od;%lfha R2 foig we;s ;yvqj RK ^-& fjda,ah;djlg m;a jk w;r
ta fjda,ah;dj u`.ska Q2 ys ikakdhl;dj wvq lrk w;r tys ix.%dylh iemhq
fjda,ah;djg im f' tg Q1 ix.%dylh ;j ;j;a N+.; f' bka miq R2 yryd C1
wdfrdamKh jk w;r tys fjda,ah;dj 0.6V jQ .i Q2 g%dkaisiagrh ialrKh f' f
ksid Q2 ix.%dylh N+.; jk w;r C2 ys R1 osYdjg we;s ;yvqj RK fjda,ah;djla .ks'
f ksid Q1 ys ikakhkh kj;s' bkamiq kej; R1 yryd C2 wdfrdamkh Q1 ialrKh
f' fufia Q1 yd Q2 jka jr ialrKh lsu uska ix.%dylfhka y;/ia ;rx.hla
,nd .; yels f' f y;/ia ;rx.fha ld,h r|d mj;skqfha R ys;a C ys;a w.h u; h'

154

Q1,B
0.6

Vcc
Q1,C

t
t

Q2,B

Vcc
Q2,C

1N4148 vfhdavh Nd;fhka y;/ia ;rx.fha yevh ksje/os j ,nd .; yels f'

y;/ia ;rx. Nd; flfrk wjia:d

1' ;rx.fha by< ksk fl<jr iy my< hk flf<jr m%fhdackhg .efkk ^Digital &
ixLHdxl mm: i|yd Nd; lsu'
2' ,s mykla fyda fjk;a mm:hla laIKsl j ilS%h$wlS%h lsug fujeks ;rx. Nd;
flfrhs'

lsh;a oe;s wdldr ;rx. ckl

fujeks ;rx. mf,dalk ldh i|yd Nd; flf' fYaIfhka u rEmjdyskS
;srfha ;sria yd isria mf,dalkh i|yd Nd; flfrhs'

Q1 - Q2
R1-R7

= C828
= 1 k

R8
C 1-C 4
D1-D2
VC

= 680
= 0.01 F
= IN 4148
= +6V

155

f mm:fha uq,a fldgi uska y;/ia ;rx.hla ckkh f'

fya;=fjka my; wdldrhg iamkao fjkia f'

C3 R8 mm:h

g%dkaisiagrfha mdou fj; f iamkaoh ,nd ka g Ok (+) iamkao uska Q3

g%dkaisiagrh tljr u ikakhkh flfrhs' tg tljr u C4 ickh f' tg Q3
ix.%dyl fjda,ah;dj Y+kHhhg wdikak f' Q3 lmd yef wjia:djg m;a R3 yryd
C4 wdfrdamKh f' wdfrdamK jl%fha fh fldgi blau hdug fmr kej; Ok iamkaohla
,enqKq g Q3 kej; ikakhkh lrhs' '

iamkao ld,h wvq jQ g wdfrdamK ;rx.dldrfha fh fldgi ,nd .; yels f'

;s%fldaKdldr ;rx. ckkh

fuys oS ldrld;aul jOlhla wmj;l wjia:df fhdod f.k we;' m%odkh i|yd
y;/ia ;rx.hla ,nd osh hq;= h' fujeks mm:hla uska id:l ;s%fldaKdldr ;rx.hla
m%;sodkh lr .ekSug yels jk w;r ixLHd;h iamkao ld,h u; r|d mj;S'

fujeks ;s%fldaKdldr ;rx. ihsrka ls%hd;aul lsug Nd; flf'

156

NE555 ix.Dys; mm:

ix.Dys; mm:h wdOdr lr f.k O ;rx. yev ckkh lr .; yels f' 555
ix.Dys; mm:hl w.% ykd .eksu yd w.% k lsu lr we;s wdldrh i|yd n,uq'
8

fuys w.% 8la we;s w;r 600 mW muK cjhla we;s flf'
ix.Dys; mm:fha ndysr wdjrKh u; wxl 1 w.%h ykd
.ekSu i|yd rEmfha ;s;l wdldr i,l=Kla fhdod we;' ta
w.%h w.% 1 f,i k fldg oCIskdj; j 2"3''''''''''' hkd
f,i k flf'
1 2
3 4
5' md,k fjda,ah;dj
6' foay,S fjda,ah;dj
1' N+.; w.%h
7' Od;%l ick w.%h
2' mQK ix{d m%odkh
8' (+) Ok fjda,ah;d iemhq
3' m%;sodkh
4' kej; h:d ;;a;ajhg m;a lsu
NE 555 fh wia:dhs nyq lmlh
+
4

RA

fuu mm:fha m% ; s o dkh y;/ia

;rx.h ls' tys by, fjd,ah;djh mj;sk
ld,h RA iy RB yryd C wdfrdmkh jk
ld,hg;a" my, fjda,ah;djh mj;sk
ld,h RB yryd C wfrdmkh jk ld,hg;a
iudkqmd;sl f'

RB
NE 555

3
t1

6
C

t2

2
1

0.01 F

t1=0.69 C(RA+RB)

t2=0.69RBC

T=t1+t2 = 0.69C(RA+2RB)
1
f = T1 = 0.69C(R
+2RB)
A

157

NE 555 fh tal ia:dhs nyq lml

+
10K

7
NE 555

6
C

2
1

0.01 F

fuu mm:fha S ixjD; lr jD; l< g m%;sodkh by< fjda,ah;djlg m;a h

ld,hlg miq kej; my< fjda,ah;djg m;a f' fuu ld,h RC .=Ks;hg iudkqmd;sl
f'
fuu mm:h mukaok rys; iaphla f,i Nd; l< yels h'

T
T=1.1 RC

158

11' ixLHdxl yd m%;siu ksrEmKh

h w.hla fyda jkdlula ksrEmKh lsu i|yd l%u folla Nd; l< yels h'

m%;siu ksrEmKh

f ksrEmKfha mudKhla u; (Scale) fhj fmkajk oYlhla u.ska (Indicator) w.h oelau m%;siu ksrEmKhhs'
Wod ( Trf,daiqj ^kq iys;&" f.udkh" mSvkudkh
f ksrEmKfha fYaI ,laIKh jkafka w.h fjkia ld,h wkqj iqug f,i
isoquhs'

ld,h

WodyrKhla f,i ld,h wkqj ud.hla osf.a Odjkh jk jdykhl f.h ie,lsh
yels h'

ixLHdxl ksrEmKh

w.hla ixLHdxl uska ksrEmKh lsf b,lal Nd; f' f b,lal

hdka;s%l jYfhka fyda oHq;a jYfhka fyda ksrEmKh l< yels h'
Wod (

Trf,daiqj - b,lal f,i oYkh jk fyda b,lal oYKh fkdjk

kuq;a oYlh ^lgqj& lsish ksh; ld, mrdihla ;=<
msysgqu fjkia lrk'
msrjq y,aj, Nd; jk bkaOk grh

f ksrEmKfha fYaI;ajh jkafka w.h fjkia u mshjfrka mshjr fjkia uhs'

WodyrKhla f,i msrjqy,l Nd; jk bkaOk grhla .ksu'q fuys oelafjkafka
bkaOk ,Sgr m%udKh tla oYuia:dkhlghs' ,Sg 10'2 la oela jQ miq < w.h 10'3 ls' 0'2
;a 0'3 ;a w;r w.hla fkdolajhs' f w.h

159

;j;a iqug lsug wjYH k '2 g iy '3 g ;j;a oYuia:dkhla fhh hq;= h' ^'20"
'21" '22'''''''''''''''29" '03&

ixLHdxl ksrEmKfha Nd; jk mdo

by; olajk ,o ixLHd olajd we;af;a b,lal 10la Nd; lrks' ta l%uh oYu
ixLHd fyj;a 10 mdofha ixLHd oelaula f,i yekaf' g wu;r j 8 mdoh 4 mdoh 2
mdoh f,i jO ixLHdxl l%u Nd; l< yels h'

2 mdofha l%uh ^oahx.S ksrEmKh& ^Binary&

f l%ufha Nd; jkafka 0"1 hk b,lal fol muKls' w.h olau my;
i|yka f,i f'
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

1'

0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000

9
10
11
12
13
14
15

1001
1010
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111

oahx.S l%ufha jdis

oahx.S l%ufha m%Odk jdis folls'
oYu ixLHd l%ufha oS hua w.hla oela u i|yd tlsfklg fjkia jQ b,lal
^jkdl& 10la Nd; f' tfy;a oahx.S l%ufha Nd; jkafka jkdl folls'
WodyrKhla f,i 24v l fjda,ah;d w.hla ia:dk folla w;r ifm%aIKh

160

l< hq;= f' ta i|yd Nj udkhla Nd; l< yels h'

fufia ifma%IKfha ud.j, ,dlaIKsl ksid w.hka fjkia h yels h' tfy;a
f jkdlu oahdx.S ixLHd Nd; lr ifma%IKfha fjkia f wjia:dj
fnfyka wvq f' 24 hkq 11000' f i|yd wjYH jkafka foux iahla u`.ska
by< fjda,ah;djla iy Y+kH fjda,ah;djla ialrKh lsuhs'

2'

wm wjg mirfha is lrk isoaka fndfyduhla l,am isoaka follska iuka;

h' isoaka follg jvd we;s g iSudka;hla ;SrKh lsfuka isoaka folla njg
mj;kh l< yels h' f isoaka fol yekaug 0" iy 1 fhosh yels h'
wjYH;dj wkqj yekaf ixLHdxl fol udre l< yels h'
Wod (

0
OF.F

1
ON

ksu

oe,au
Up
Full
Open

Down
Empty
Close

tneka fuu isoaka md,kh lsug 0 iy 1 ix{d ,nd h yels h' ,suh
jYfhka 0 iy 1 ,nd u i|yd ov iy kEu by< fjda,ah;djla Nd; l< yels
h' idudkHfhka 0v iy +5v f i|yd fhdokq ,ef'
isoaka foll fyda Bg je .Kkl m%;sM,hla f,i ,efnk isoaka o" l,am
isoaka folla f,i oelah yels w;r ta wjia:d o 0 iy 1 f,i ie,lsh yels h'

161

Wod (

S1
S2
OFF OFF
OFF ON
ON
OFF
ON
ON
ixfla;j,ska
S1
0
0
1
1

S2
0
1
0
1

L
ksf
ksf
ksf
oe,af
oela jQ g

S1
OFF
OFF
ON
ON

L
0
0
0
1

S2
OFF
ON
OFF
ON

L
ksf
oe,af
oe,af
oe,af

S1
0
0
1
1

S2
0
1
0
1

L
0
1
1
1

fufia inkaO;d lsysmhl m%;sM,hla f,i 0 iy 1 la ,nd .ekSu i|yd ilia

lrk j.=jla i;H;d j.=j fyj;a ;l j.=j f,i yekaf'
by; WodyrKfha 1 j.=jg wh;a mm:fha iap fol u ixjD; l< g muKla
L myk oe,af' .Ks;uh jYfhka f inkaO;df m%;sM,h ,nd .ekSug S1 g S2 isoaka
fol .=K l< hq;= h' ta ksid fujeks inkaO;djla ;luh .=K lsula f,i yekaf'
(Logic Multification)
2 j.=jg wh;a mrsm:fha ia foflka tlla fyda fol u fyda ixjD; l< g
muKla L myk oe,af' .Ks;uh jYfhka f inkaO;df m%;sM,h ,nd .ekSug S1,
g S2 tl;= l< hq;= h' ta ksid fujeks inkaO;djla ;luh tl;= lsu f,i yekaf'
(Logic Addition) f wkqj my; m%ldYk bm;a l< yels h'
1.

S1 x S2 = L

2.

S1 + S2 = L

i;H igykaj, m%;sodkhka i|yd ,sh yels h m%ldYk nQ,Sh m%ldYk f,i
yekaf' fufia isoaka fyda ;;a;aj i,ld tajdfha m%;sM, ,nd .ekSu i|yd m%ldYk ,sh
yels nj m%ldY lr we;af;a fcda nq,a kue;s oHd{hd h' tneka f m%ldYk nQ,Sh
m%ldYk f,i yekaf' tfuka u nq,Sh m%ldYk ksudKh lsu iy iq`: lsu i|yd nQ,Sh
c .Ks;h Nd; f' nQ,Shdkq c .Ks;fha idudkH c .Ks;fha oelafjk iq`: ls
iuyrla
162

Nd; l< yels w;r j." uQ, jeks .Ks; lu wvx.= fkd f' fuys wjOdrKh l<
hq;= m%Odk lreKla jkafka nQ,Sh c .Ks;h ksudKh lr we;af;a isoaka lsysmhl
m%;sM,hka ,nd .ekSug i ixLHd;aul iq`: ls i|yd fkdjk njhs' tneka ;l
tl;= lsf 1 + 1 = 1 f'
f inkaO;d oelau i|yd ixfla; Nd; f' f ixfla; oajdr f,i yekaf'
WodyrKhla f,i ;luh .=K lsu AND oajdrh f,i o ;luh tl;= lsu OR
oajdrh f,i o yekaf' tfuka u

AND oajdrh
S1 iy (AND) S2 ixjD; k
myk oe,af

OR oajdrh
S1 fyda (OR)S2 ixjD; k
myk oe,af'

rEmfha i|yka mm:fha myk oe,au iy iafha

;;a;ajh i;H igykla f,i my; oelaf'
S
ON
OFF

L
ksf
oe,af

S
1
0

L
0
1

f is u o nQ,Sh m%ldYkhla f,i fufia oelah yels h' f is u L = S ;luh

wmj;lh f,i ye|skaf'
ixfla;h
L=S
AND, OR iy wmj;lh m%d:l oajdr f,i ye|skaf' my; i|yka idudkH isu
g o oajdr inkaO;d fhosh yels h'
ksu,a fyda iqks,a" wks,a iu muKla jeis fkd ;snqKfyd;a kdgHh ne,Sug hhs' oajdr
inkaO;d fhoSug fmr m%odk iy m%;sodk ;;a;aj ;SrKh l< hq;= h'
Wod ( ksu,a" iqks,a" wks,af.a meKSu 1 f,i o fkd meKSu 0 f,i o i,luq' jeiai
we;s g 1 iy jeiai ke;s g 0 f,i i,luq' m%;sodkh i|yd kdgHh ne,Sug

163

hdu 1 fkd hEu 0 f,i o i,luq' tg my; i|yka f,i oajdr inkaO;d oelah yels
h'

m%odkhka ,suh ix{d f,i ,nd .ekSf oS tajdfha inkaO;d ,nd .ekSug wO
ikakdhl fhdod mm: ksudKh l< yels h' fjd oajdr mm: f,i ye|skaf'

A
B

Z
B

fujeks mm: o wvx.= lr ix.Dys; mm: ksujd we;' tfuka u AND iy OR oajdr
mm: i|yd m%odkhka follg jvd fhosh yels h'
8

;l oajdr lsysmhla inkaO l< g o tys m%;sodkh i|yd inkaO;d ;l

ilrKhla ,nd .; yels h' by; idudkH isoah i|yd ;l ilrKh my; i|yka
f,i ,nd .; yels h'

164

oajdr lsysmhla inkaO lr ,nd .; yels mm: inkaO;d ;l mm: f,i

ye|skaf' h isoaka iuQyhl m%;sodkh ,nd .ekSf oS ta i|yd ,efnk nQ,Sh m%ldYkh
ta whqka u oajdrj,ska ksudKh lsf oS je bv m%udKhla" je ix.Dys; mm: m%udKhla
iy je ,s n,hla fhoSug is f'
tneka ,efnk nQ,Sh m%ldYkh iq`: lsug yels k by; wjYH;d wju l< yels
h' f i|yd nQ,Sh m%fh Nd; f'

nQ,Sh m%fh
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

A.O
A.1
A.A
A.A
A+O
A+1
A+A
A+A

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

0
A
A
O
A
1
A
1

9.
10.

A=A
A=A
(A.B)C = (A.B.C)
(A+B)+C = (A+B+C)
A + AB = A+B
A(B+C) = AB+AC

11.
12.
13.

(i) A.B =
(ii) A+B =

A+B
A.B

De morgan's Law

WodyrKhla f,i my; i|yka nQ,Sh m%ldYkh .ksuq'

Z = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
f ilrKh ta whqka u oajdr mm:j,ska oela jQ g
A
B
C

f i|yd wmj;l ;=kla m%odk 3 AND oajdr

4 la iy m%odk 4 iys; OR oajdrhla wjYH
f'
by; m%ldYkh my; oelafjk wdldrhg iq`:
l< yels h'

= ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC

= AC (B+B) + BC (A+A) + AB (C+C) 12 jk m%fhh
(A = A+A) ksid m%ldYkhl we;s mo kej; kej; iq`: lsfuka m%;sM,h fjkia
fkdf' tneka A.B.C iy A.B.C hk mo fo jrla fhdod fmd idOl bj;a lr we;'

165

= AC + BC + AB
= C (A+B) + AB

B
C

fufia iq`: lrk jQ o m%ldYkhg oajdr mm: ksudKh lruq' f i|yd wjYH
jkafka wmj;l folla m%odk fofla AND oajdr folla iy m%odk fofla OR oajdr folla
f'

oa;Shsl oajdr

m%d:l oajdr Nd; lr oa;Shsl oajdr ksmojd we;' m%d:l oajdr inkaO lr my;
oelafjk m oa;Shsl oajdr ls%hdj ,nd .; yels w;r" ;ks oajdrhla f,i o oa;Shsl oajdr
ksmojd we;'
1. NAND oajdrh

AND + NOT

NAND

A
0
0
1
1

B
0
1
0
1

Z
1
1
1
0

A
0
0
1
1

B
0
1
0
1

Z
1
0
0
0

A
0
0
1
1

B
0
1
0
1

Z
0
1
1
0

2. NOR oajdrh

OR + NOT

NOR

3. EXCLUSIVE OR (X-OR) oajdrh

Z =A+ B
f,io o lajhs'

166

4. EXCLUSIVE NOR (CX - NOR)

A
B

A.B

A.B+B.A
Z=A.B+B.A

A
B

B.A

Z=A.B+B.A

Z= A + B
f,io

A
0
0
1
1

B
0
1
0
1

Z
1
0
0
0

olajhs

f oa;Sh ;l oajdr Nd; lr nQ,Sh m%ldYk ;jrg;a iq`: l< yels h' ;l mm:
iq`: lsu hkq ilrK iq`: lsu muKla fkd j wju oajdr ixLHdjla iy wju ix.Dys;
mm: ixLHdjla fhdod .; yels jk f,i iq`: lsuhs'
9 m%fhh wkqj h m%ldYkhlg by<ska Double Bar (=) fhoSfuka ;l ;;a;ajfha
fjkila is fkdf' tfy;a tfia fh g Bar tl lg fuda.ka m%fhh my; oelafjk
m fhosh yels h'
A+B

= A.B

A.B

A.B

= A+B

A+B

;j o NAND iy NOR oajdrj, m%odk inkaO lsfuka wmj;l f,i Nd; l<
yels h'

A
0
0
1
1

NAND
B
0
1
0
1

Z
0
1
1
0

A
0
0
1
1

NOR
B
0
1
0
1

Z
1
0
0
0

w.% fol fj;g inkaO l< g Nd; fkdf'

by; ixfYdaOk Nd; lr fuu ix.Dys; mm: wvq ixLHdjla Nd; lsfuka mm:h
ksudKh l< yels h'
-

Z = C(A+B) + A B
Z = C.A.B + A.B

^1&

fuda.ka m%fhh fhoSfuka

Z = C.A.B + A.B
Z = C.A.B. A.B

167

(2)

tla ix.Dys; mm:hl we;=<;a lr we;af;a tla j.hl oajdr mm: muKla ksid
^1& m%ldYkfha m%;sodkh ,nd .ekSug ix.Dys; mm: ;=kla wjYH f' tfy;a ^2& m%ldYfha
m%;sodkh ,nd .ekSug m%odk fofla NAND oajdr iys; ix.Dys; mm: j. folla iEfya'

ixLHdxl ix.Dys; mm:

ix.Dys; mm: j.
ixLHdxl ix.Dys; mm: ksudKfha oS wO ikakdhl Wml%u folla m%Odk jYfhka
fhdod .efka' tla j.hla oaO%ej (Bi Polar) g%dkaisiagj,ska ksmojk w;r tajd (TTLTransistor Transitor logic) ldKavh (family) kka ykajhs' wks;a j.h lafIa;% wdjrK
g%dkaisiag (FET) j,ska ksmojkq ,efnhs' tajd CMOS - (Complemontry Metal Oxide Sam
conductor) ldKAvh kka ykajhs'

TTL ldKavh
oa O%ej g%dkaisiag uska ksmojd we;' ls%hd lsf oS je cjhla wjYH kuq;a
ls%hdld f.h je h' TTL ix.Dys; mm:j,g iemhsh hq;= fjda,ah;dj 5v ls' 74xx
yd 54xx ldKavfha ix.Dys; mm: f,i TTL j.h nyq, j oelsh yels h' 74xx fYa%Ksfha
ix.Dys; mm:j, lsh
% dld WIaK;ajh 00C -700C w;r h' 54xx fYaK
% f
s ha lsh
% dld WIaK;ajh
0
0
55 C -125 C w;r h' f ksid 54xx fYa%Ksfha ix.Dys; mm: f,ka wl h' o;a;
igykaj, Ok w.%h fyj;a iemhq Njh ,nd osh hq;= w.%h Vcc hkqfjka o N+.; w.%h
GND hkqfjka o k lr we;' TTL j.fha ix.Dys; mm: Nd;fha oS m%fhdackhg fkd
.kakd w.%j, ;luh ugu by< mj;sk ksid wkjYH f>daId we;s h yels h' fuu
;;a;ajh u yeru i|yd Nd;hg fkd .kakd ish u w.% GND iu inkaO lsu
fhda.H h'

CMOS ldKavh
fuh ;ks O%ej g%dkaisiag Nd;fhka ksmojd we;' ;l oajdr Yd, m%udKhla wvq
bv m%udKl fhosh yels ksid ixlSK mm: i|yd jvd;a iqiq f' TTL j.hg jvd wvq
cjhlska ls%hd lrk w;r u ls%hdld f.h o wvq h' ksIamdok ls%hdj,sh TTLj.hg jvd

168

wiSre jk w;r u ia;s oHq;a wdfrdamK ksid o kdY hd yels f' f ksid .nvd
lsf oS mjd w.% tlsfkl inkaO j mej;Su i|yd ikakdhl ;yvqjla u; .nvd lr
we;' 3V - 15V w;r kEu Njhla iu inkaO lsf yelshdj we;' o;a; igykaj,
VDD hkqfjka i|yka w.%h Ok Njh iu inkaO u;a VSS hkqfjka i|yka w.%h N+.;
lsu;a is lrhs' w;a Trf,daiq" l=vd le,alshqf,ag" cx.u rl:k jeks WmlrKj, f
j.h nyq, j Nd; flfrhs'
CMOS ;dlaIKfhka ksmo jQ ix.Dys; mm: m%Odk jYfhka j. follska nyq, j
oelsh yels h' 4000 fYa%Ksh" 4500 fYa%Ksh hgf;a f j.fha ix.Dys; mm: fndfyda g
oelsh yels h' Nd;fha oS m%fhdackhg fkd .kakd ish u w.% iemhq Njh iu fyda
N+.;h iu fyda inkaO lsu lrkq ,ef'
by; ia;r l< TTL yd CMOS ldKavj, ,dCIKsl my; oelafjk mos idrdxY.;
lr oelah yels h'

1'
2'
3'
4'
5'
6'
7'

,dlaIKslh
iemhq fjda,ah;dj
m%pdrK mud ld,h
m%odkhg inkaO l< yels oajdr
.Kk
m%;os dkhg inkaO l< yels oajdr
.Kk
m%odk ;l ugu
0
1
m%;sodk ;l ugu
0
1
ix.Dys; mm: kdulrKh

8' ls%hdld WIaK;ajh

TTL
5V
8ns - 25ns
10

CMOS
5V - 15V
15ns - 100ns
50

50

0.8 v g my<
2.4 v g by<
0.6 v g my<
2.8 v g by<
74......
54.....

0C0 - 70C0

1v g my<
iemhq
4v g by<
fjda,ah;djh
.0v g my<
10 v je k
9.95g by<
40......
45.....
74c ...
74HC..
-55C0 125C0

by; ,dlaIKslhka idudkH ,dlaIKsl jk w;r iia;r ,dlaIKslhka i|yd o;a;

m;sl
% d mrsY,
S kh l< hq;= f' flfia fj;;a TTL oajdrj, m%pdrK mud ld,h (Propergation
delay)^m%pdrK mud ld,h hkq oajdrhlg h ;l ;;a;ajhla m%odkh l< g thg wod<
m%;sodk ;lk ;;ajh m%;sodkh ug .; jk ld,hhs& CMOS j,g jvd wvq h' wf.S
;l ls%hd i|yd fndfyda g TTL fhdod .efka' ;j o TTL ix.Dys; mm: i|yd 5v
0.25
l ia:dhSldrl iemhq Nd;fhka fjda,ah;djla ksjeros j ,nd osh hq;= w;r
CMOS i|yd ia:dhSlrKh lrk ,o iemhqula wjYH fkdf'

169

;j o TTL ldKavfha ix.Dys; mm:j, ldKav 6la jk w;r tajdfha f.h iy cj

W;aickh O f'
Wod ( TTL
ksIamdolhdf.a fla;h
TTL ldKavh
Wm ldKavh
;l ls%hd (AND)

SN

74

LS

CMOS
ksIamdol fla;h
ldKavh
;l ls%hdj

CD

40

40

08

ixLHdxl ix.Dys; mm: my; i|yka f,i j.SlrKh l< yels h'
SSI

Small Scale Integration

^oajdr 12g wvq&

MSI

Medium Scale Integration

^oajdr 12 - 100 olajd&

LSI

Large Scale Integration

^oajdr 100 - 1000 olajd&

VLSI

Very large Scale Integration

^oajdr 1000g je&

SSI, MSI oajdr mm: TTL, CMOS j. foflka u ksmojd we;s w;r LSI, VLSI
fYa%Ksj, ix.Dys; mm: fndfyda g CMOS ldKavfhka muKla ksmojkq ,ef'
VLSI j.hg wh;a jkafka CPU j." u;l mm: j. Input/Output Interface wdoshhs'

170

wvq m%odk iys; oajdrj,ska je m%odk iys; oajdr ,nd .ekSu

m%odk fofla AND oajdrj,ska m%odk ;=fka AND oajdr ,nd .ekSu

m%odk fofla OR oajdrj,ska m%odk ;=fka OR oajdr ,nd .ekSu

m%odk fofla NAND oajdrj,ska m%odk ;=fka NAND oajdr ,nd .ekSu

nQ,h
s ka m%ldYk iudk l< fkd yel'

m%odk fofla NOR oajdrj,ska m%odk ;=fka NOR oajdr ,nd .ekSu

nQ,shka m%ldYk iudk l< fkd yel

f wkqj m%odk fofla NAND iy NOR oajdrj,ska Bg je .Kkla m%odkhka iys;

NAND iy NOR oajdr ,nd .; fkd yels h'

171

m%odk fofla X-OR oajdrj,ska m%odk ;=fka X-OR oajdr ,nd .ekSu

je m%odk iys; oajdrj,ska m%odk fofla oajdr ,nd .ekSu

m%odk ;=fka AND oajdrj,ska m%odk fofla AND oajdr ,nd .ekSu

fuys b;s m%odkh ;l ugu Z1Z tk Ok ^+& iemhqug inkaO l< hq;= h'
- i|yka lr.;a m%odk fofla AND oajdrfha i;H igyk

A
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

B
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

CZ
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

m%odk fofla AND i;H igyk

b;s m%odkh" ;l 1 tk Ok
(+) iemhqug inkaO l< hq;= h'

iEu m%odk ;=fka i;H igykl u ;s;s fLdj,ska fldgq lr we;af;a m%odk fofla
i;H igykhs' tg b;s m%odkh 1 k inkaO l< hq;= ia:dkh +V jk w;r 0
k N+.; ,laIh f'

172

m%odk ;=fka OR oajdrj,ska m%odk fofla OR oajdr ,nd .ekSu

fuys b;s m%odkh ;l ugu 0 g tk RK ^-& iemhqug inkaO l< hq;=

h' tfia ilia lr .;a m%odk fofla OR oajdrfha i;H igyk my; oela f'
A
B
C
Z
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
fuu i;H igyfkka m%odk fofla OR ys
1
0
1
1
i;H igyk fjkalr.;a g b;s m%odkh"
1
1
0
1
;l 0 tk RK (-) iemhqug inkaO l<
1
1
1
1
hq;= nj meyeos,s f'

m%odk ;=fka NAND oajdrj,ska m%odk fofla NAND oajdr ,nd .ekSu
A
B
C
Z
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
fuu i;H igyfkka m%odk fofla NAND
1
0
1
1
i;H igyk fjkalr.;a g b;s m%odkh"
1
1
0
1
;l 1 tk Ok (+) iemhqug inkaO l<
1
1
1
0
hq;= nj meyeos,s f'

m%odk ;=fka NOR

A
B
C
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1

oajdr j,ska m%odk fofla NOR oajdr ,nd .ekSu

Z
1
0
0
0
0
0
fuu i;h igyfkaka m%odk fofla NOR ys i;H
0
igyk fjkalr.;a g b;s m%odkh ;l z0Z tk
0
RK (-) iemhqug inkaO l< hq;= nj meyeos<s
f'

173

ixLHdxl bf,lafg%dksl ;dlaIKfha Nd; jk mm: j. uQ,sl j flgia follg

j.SlrKh l< yels h'

1'

ixfhdack ;l mm: (Combination Logic Circuit)

;l lsh
% d ^iso
a ka& lsym
s hl inkaO;dfjka m%;os dkhla ,nd .; yels mm: fuf;la
ia;r lrk ,oafoa tjeks mm:j, ls%hdj jk w;r ta mm:j, ;ekq tallh oajdr f'

2' wkql%l ;l mm: (Scquential Logic Circuit)

wkql%l ;l mm:j, ;ekq tallh ms<s fmd< (Flip Flop) jk w;r tajdfha
fYaI;ajh jkafka u;l ;nd .ekSf yelshdjla ;suhs' tneka h ;l m%;sodkhla
,nd .ekSf oS m%;sodkfha Bg fmr ;l ;;a;ajh o ie,ls,a,g .; hq;= f' ms<sfmd< j.
5 ls'

1'

S.R ms<s fmd< (Set Reset)

S.R. ms<s fmd< NAND iy NOR Nd; lr ksudKh l< yels h' tys Q m%;sodkh
jk w;r Q l,amh f' ^wjYH k muKla f m%;sodkh fhdod .efka'& Set m%odkh
inkaO oajdrfha m%;sodkh ms<sfmdf<ys m%;sodkh f'
fYaIfhka m%odk foll ;l ;;ajh tlajr u fjkia lsf oS l=uk m%odkhla m<uq
j m%odkh jkafka oehs ksYa; j ;SrKh l< fkd yels ksid tla m%odkhla muKla tla jrl
oS fjkia l< yels jk mos ieliq i;H igyklska wjika i;H igyk ksudKh l< hq;=
f'
S
0
0
1
1

R
0
1
0
1

Q
Q
fkd;ld y
1
0
0
1
fmr ;;a;ajh

S
0
0
1
1
1

R
0
1
1
0
1

Q
1
1
1
0
0

Q
1
0
0
1
1

NAND mm:h
m<uq jk i;H igyfka m%;sM, ,nd .ekSu i|yd fo jk i;H igyk Nd; l< yels
h' tys m%odk udre lr tla jrlg tla m%odkhla muKla fjkia jk f,i ilia lr we;'

174

wjika m%odk wjia:dj w;ska tla lr we;af;a ta wjia:df m%;sodkh jvd;a ksrjq,a lr
.ekSu msKsi h' l,am m%;sodkh ieu g u m%;sodkfha f,dauh h hq;= h' tfia
fkdue;s k ta m%;sodkh m%;slafIam f' fo jk i;H igyk wkqj 1 1 ,efnk iEu
wjia:df oS u Bg fmr ;l ;;a;ajh fkd fjkia j mj;ajd .efka" fyj;a u;l ;nd
.efka'

S
0
0
1
1

NOR mm:
R
Q
Q
0
fmr ;;a;ajh
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
fkd;ld y

S
R
Q
Q
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
NOR oajdr fh g fmr ;;a;ajh iy fkd ;ld yk wjia:dj udre jk w;r S, R
wiudk m%odk ,nd fok wjia:dj, oS NAND fh mm:j, m%;sodkhg iudk h' fuys
oS S (Set) hkq m%;sodkh 1la u h' R (Reset) hkq m%;sodkh uq,a wjia:djg m;a u h' tk
z0Z u h' tfy;a f ms<s fmd< fofla u m%odkfha S = 1 jk g Q = o jk w;r R = 1 jk
g Q = 1 f' tneka ksjeros m%;sM,h ,nd .ekSug wmj;l m%odkhka ,nd osh hq;= h'

2' >lduh S - R ms< fmd< (Clocked S-R Flip-Flop)

f mm:h o NAND iy NOR fhdod ilia l< yels h' S-R ms<s fmd<j, m%odkh
,nd ka .i m%;sodkh ,efnk w;r Clocked S - R ms<s fmd<j, m%;sodkh ,eug >ld
iamkao ,nd osh hq;= f'
NAND
NOR
CK S
R
Q
Q
Q
Q
0
0
0
fmr ;;a;ajh
fkd;ld yrS
0
0
1
"
0
1
0
1
0
"
1
0
0
1
1
"
fmr ;;a;ajh
1
1
1
1

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

fmr ;;a;ajh
0
1
1
0
fkd;ld yrS

fmr ;;a;ajh
"
"
"

175

by; igyk wkqj NAND oajdr iys; cloked S-R ms<s fmdf<ys m%;os dkh ,efnkafka
>ld m%odkh z1Z jQ g oS h' NOR oajdr iys; ms<s fmdf<ys m%;sodkh ,efnkafka >ld
m%odkh z0Z jQ g oS h' >ld iamkaohla wjYH jkafka hula ls%hd;aul l< hq;= wjia:d
oelaughs' ^mQrKh lsu& by; mm:j, >ld m%odkh ,nd oS miq j m%odk ,nd oS we;'
ta ksid >ld iamkaoj,ska n,dfmdfrd;a;= jQ ldhh bgq ke;' y;?ia iamkaohla >ld
iamkaohla f,i fhdod .kakd g tys wjia:d 3la oelaf'
a
b

mm:hla f wjia:d 3 ysoS u mQrKh Trigger l< yels h'

a ;l ugf oS mQrKh
b by<hk fl<jr mQrKh
c my< fl<jr mQrKh

Level Triggering
Positive going edge triggering
Negative "
"
"

f wjia:d ;=fkka h ;l ugul mQrKh f ld, iSudjla oelafjk ksid

mQrKh l< hq;= wjia:d oelafjkafka by< hk fl<jr iy my< hk fl<jfrys h
>ld m%odkh 1 jk iEu mm:hla u by< hk fl<jf oS mQrKh f' tfuka u >ld
m%odkh 0 jk iEu mm:hla u my< hk fl<jf oS mQrKh f' ta ksid NAND oajdr
fh mm: by< hk fl<jf oS mQrKh jk w;r NOR oajdr fh ms<s fmd< mm: my<
hk fl<jf oS mQrKh f' ta wjia:d ;l igykaj, olajd we;af;a
iy
f,i
h' ixfla;j, my; i|yka f,i olajd we;'

;j o ;l igyk wkqj Set = 1 jk g m%;sodkh = 1 jk w;r Reset = 1 jk g

m%;sodkh = 0 f' tneka m%odkh wmj;l lsu wjYH fkdf'
f wkqj tla tla ms<s fmdf<ys le igyk my; oelaf'

176

3'

DATA j.fha ms<s fmd< (D-TYPE FLIP FLOP)

by; i|yka cked S-R ms<s fmd< foflys m%odkh wiudk jk g m%;sodkh 1 fyda 0
f' tk S = 1, R = 0 jk g Q = 1 o S - 0, R = 1 jk g Q - 0 o f' fufia tla jr
u SR m%odk folg wiudk m%odk ,nd oSug wmj;lhla fhosh yels h'

D
CK
Q
D
CK
Q
1
X
X
1
X
X
0
X
X
0
X
X
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
kej; m%odkhla ,nd oS >ld iamkaohla ,nd fok ;=re m%;sodkh tfia u mj;S'
tneka ;djld,sl j u;l mm:hla f,i Nd; l< yels h' Tng 1011 ixLHdj u;l
;nd .ekSug wjYH k D j.fha ms<s fmd< 4la Nd; l< hq;= f'

Q
ck

ck

Q
ck

Q
ck

>ld m%odkhg by< hk fl<jr ,nd ka g o;a; m%;sodkh f' fuu ;;a;ajh
kej; m%odkhla ,nd oS >ld iamkaokhla ,nd fok ;=re fkd fjkia j mj;S'
D j.fha ms<sfmd< wvx.= ix.Dys; mm: fjf<|fmdf<ka ,nd .; yels h' tneka
oajdr mm:j,ska ksudKh lsu wjYH fkdf' ;j o ta mm:j, wjYH wjia:dj, oS
m%;sodkh z0Z lsug myiql i,id we;' o;a; m;s%ldjla mYS,kh lsfuka ix.Dys;
mm:fha w.% ykd .; yels h'

4' J-K ms<s fmd<

Clocked- S - R ms<s fmd< mm:j, tla m%odk ;;a;ajhla fkd;ld yef' J - K
ms<sfmd<j, ta ;l inkaO;dj o m%fhdackhg .efka' J - K ms<s fmd< Clocked S-R ms<s
fmd<la f,i o D j.fha ms<s fmd<la f,i o Nd; l< yels ksid ij ms<sfmd<la
(Universal Flip - Flop) f,i ye|skf
a '

177

J
K
Q
Q
0
0
fmr ;;ajh
ck
0
1
0
1
Q
1
0
1
0
K
1
1
Toggle
J=1 iy K=1 jk g ON/OFF iahla f,i m%;sodkh ls%hd lrhs' tla >ld
iamkaohla ,nd fok g m%;sodkh z1z jk w;r wfkla >ld iamkaofha oS m%;sodkh z0Z f'
g wu;r j m%odk ;=kg iajdk j ls%hd;aul jk ;j;a m%odk folls' PRE = PRE SET
z0Z jk g m%;sodkh 1 jk w;r CLR = CLEAR z0Z jk g m%;sodkh 0 f' ta wkqj
imQK i;H igyk my; oelaf'

5'

CK

PRE
0
0
1
1
1
1
1

CLR
0
1
0
1
1
1
1

J
X
X
X
0
0
1
1

K
X
X
X
0
1
0
1

Q
Q
X
X
1
0
0
1
fmr ;;a;ajh
0
1
1
0
Toggle

X hkq 1 fyda 0 f'

T j.fha ms<s fmd< (Togale Flip Flop)

kEu ;l oajdrhl fyda ms<s fmd<l m%odk jD; mm: jQ g ;l z1Z f,i ms<s
.efka' ta ksid JK ms<s fmd<l m%odk jD; mm: j ;enQ g iahla f,i ls%hd lrhs'
Q
ck
Q

.Kskh (Counter)
1' by<g .Kskh
T j.fha ms<s fmd< Nd; lsula f,i .Kskh ye|skah yels h' Tj.fha ms<s fmd<
4la fYa%ks.; j ;nd tla tla ms<sfmdf,ys m%;sodkh Bg inkaO ms<s fmdf<ys >ld
m%odkhg ,nd ka g m<uq ms<s fmd<g fhdok >ld iamkao by< .Ksk w;r ms<s fmd<
m%;sodkj, tl;=j oauh inkaO;djla f,i ,nd .; yels h'

178

QA
J
ck
K

QB
J

QD

QC

ck

ck

ck
K

tla tla >ld iamkaoh wjidkfha ms<s fmd<j, m%;sodk ;l ;;a;ajh i,ld ne
g ta w.h l%ufhka je we;s nj fmfka' f wkqj ms<s fmd< 4 la Nd; lr 16g .Kka
l< yels w;r 16 jk >ld iamkaofha oS m%;sodkh Y+kH f'
.Kskh ls%hd;aul wjia:df CLK Y+kH lsfuka m%;sodk Y+kH l< yels h' f w.%h
Nd; lsfuka kEu w.hla olajd .Kka lsug f .Kskh m%;sixOdkh l< yels h'
WodyrKhla f,i 10g muKla .Kka lsug wjYH k QB QD m%;sodk fol z1Z jk g
CLK ls%hd;aul l< hq;= f' f i|yd NAND oajdrhlg QB, QD m%odkh lr m%;sodkh
CLK g inkaO lsfuka 10 olajd .Kka lsfuka miq m%;sodkhka ish,a, Y+kH l< yels
h'

179

12' uqs; mm: mqjre - Printed Circuits Bords

bf,lafg%daksl mm: tl,ia lsug' O mqjre fhdod .kS' tajd w;r jHdmD;s
mqjre" ffrda fnda" uqs; mqjre fjhs' fjfrda fnda" kej; ;s;a kHdi ^Dot Metrix& yd ;SrE
^Strip& hkqfjka j. folls' kuq;a iar j yd ksjer j mm: tl,ia lsu i|yd uqs;
mm: mqjre iqiq f' fuu mqjre u`.ska bf,lafg%dksl mm:fha Odrd ud. ksjer j
we;=<;a fldg we;s w;r Wmdx. i lsu i|yd wjYH isre o ia:dk .; fldg we;'
uqs; mm: mqjrejla ksudKh lsu i|yd fldm la,E fnda ^Copper Clad
Bord& fhdod .efka' bf*dlaiS oe ma,diala fyda bf*dlais *hsn re ma,diala u; ;+kS
;U ;yvqjla we, fuka fldm la,E fnda ^CCB& idod .efka' fjd fjf<|fmdf<ka
, .; yels h'

wod< mm:h ;U ;yvqj u; i,l=Kq fldg tu ;U ;SrE muKla b;s jk fia

wkjYH ;U fldgia bj;a fldg Wmdx. inkaO lr .ekSu i|yd wjYH isre o
.ekSfuka uqs; mm: mqjre ;kd .; yels h'

fujeks uqs; mm: mqjrejla ilia lr .ekSf mm: ud. i,l=Kq lr .ekSug
Nd; lrk l%u fo 3 ls'
1' ksoyia w;ska weu'
2' fiao rduq uqKh'
^Silk Screen Printing&
3' Ok m%ldYs; ixf l%uh'
^Positive Photo Sensitive &
ksoyia w;ska weu
t;r ixlSK fkd jk Yd, Odrd ud. fkdue;s ir, mm: ilia lr .ekSug
fuu l%uh iqiq h' m<uq j wod< Odrd mm: ud.h lvodishla u; ie,iq l< hq;= h'

180

wk;=rej tu mm: igyk ;U mqjrej u;g ,nd .; hq;= f' fuys mqjrej u;g Odrd
ud. igyk ,nd .; hq;af;a th m%;sj; lrks' wod< Odrd ud.h c, m%;sfrda fkd
ueflk ;Ska; j.hlska ^,el" lshqfglaia fyda mukka udl jeks fkd ueflk
;Ska;& i,l=Kq l< hq;= h' tfuka u Wmdx. i jk ia:dk o tu`.ska wjYH m i,l=Kq
lsu l< hq;= f' me;,s ma,diala Ndckhla ;=<g i,l=Kq lr.;a PCB mqjrej ;U
fldgi by<g isk fia ;nd f*la laf,darhs djKh ^Fecl3& mqjrej jefik fia
fhdokak' tg jD; ;U fldgia f*la laf,darh djKfha oshu wdrN f'
djKh fi,u" r;a lsu jeks ldhhka u`.ska m%;sls%hdf YS>%;dj f.j;a l<
yels h' idkaKh wkjYH m je lsfuka Odrd ud.j, ksudj wl%uj;a f' wkjYH
;U fldgia bj;a jQ miq .e<fmk WmlrKhlska mqjrej bj;g f.k c,fhka fydka
fidaod h,d .kak' bka miq Wmdx. i jk ia:dk i|yd isre o .ekSu u`.ska mm:
mqjrej ksu lr .; yels h'
fiao rduq uqKh
tl u wdldrfha uqs; mm: mqjre Yd, m%udKhla ilia lrk wjia:dj, fuu
l%uh fhda.Hh f' fiao rduqj u; wjYH mm:h we| Odrd ud. b;s jk m wfkla
fldgia wdjrKh lr .; hq;= h' wk;=re j fiao rduqj ;U mqjrej u; ;nd c, m%;sfrda
;Ska; u`.ska mm: igyfka Odrd ud. i,l=Kq lr .; hq;= h' ;Ska; hKq miq fmr
m f*ala laf,darhs u`.ska wkjYH ;U fldgia bj;a fldg isre o .ekSu l< hq;= h'
isre f ;U ;yvqj we;s me;af;a isg isre h hq;=hS'
Ok m%ldYs; ixf l%uh
fuys kso fmfkk fld<hla u; wod< mm:h igyka fldg Odrd ud.
wdf,dalh kso fkd hk ;Ska; j.hla u`.ska we| .kq ,ef' wk;=re j fuu fld<h
;U mqjrej u; ;nd msgm;a lsu is lrhs' f i|yd ;U mg,h u; Ok ^wdfrdams;&
m%ldYs; wdf,amhla .,ajkq ,ef' wk;=rej kso fmfkk fld<h ;U mqjrej u; ;nd
wdf,dal Odrdjla jeug i,ia jkq ,nhs' tg is jk ridhksl m%;sl%Shdjla u`.ska Odrd
ud. yd b;s fldgiaj, ridhksl fjkia is f' tu fjkia iys; ;U mqjrej
fidah yhsfv%dlaihs ^NaOH& djKhla u`.ska fia fuka Odrd ud.j, Ok m%ldYs;
wdf,am b;s wkjYH m%foaYj, Ok m%ldYs; wdf,am bj;a hhs' fufia idod .;a mqjre
fmr mu f*la laf,darhs djKhla ;=< nyd le,;Sfuka wkjYH ;U fldgia bj;a lr
.; yels h'
l=uk wdldrhlg ilia lr .;a uqs; mm: mqjrejla jqj;a f*la laf,darhs
djKh ;=< ;nd .; hq;af;a ksjer f,i ksfLkh ^Etching& jk f;la muKs' wvqfjka
ksfLkh jqjfyd;a wkjYH ;U fldgia ;ek ;ek b;s f' jefhka ksfLkh jqjfyd;a
Odrd ud.j, ;U fldgia Ndrh fomiska we;=<g hd yel'
181

13' oHq;a pqNl ;rx. yd tajdfha m%pdrKh

wm wjg mirfha we;s iajdNdl oDYH wdf,dalh o oHq;a pqnl ;rx. fYaIhls'
wdf,dalfha ixLHd;h b;d Yd, h' g wu;r j O ldhhka i|yd oHq;a pqnl
;rx. ksmojd .kq ,efnhs'
.=jka ,s iy rEmjdyskS jev igyka ifma%IKh i|yd fhdod .kq ,nkqfha o oHq;a
pqnl ;rx. jk w;r tajdfha ixLHd;h wdf,dalfha ixLHd;hg jvd fnfyka wvq f'
m%;Hdj;k Odrdjla f.k hkq ,nk ikakdhl hq.,la jgd p,H pqnl lafIa;%hla
jOkh jk nj wms oksuq' tfuka u ikakdhl fol w;r p,H oHq;a lafIa;%hla o
jOkh f' pqnl lafIa;%h .,d hk Odrdjg iudkqmd;sl jk w;r oHq;a lafIa;%h
ikakdhl fol w;r mj;akd fjda,ah;djg iudkqmd;sl f'
my; wdldrfha ihskdldr ;rx.hla flfrys wjOdkh fhduq lruq'

f ihskdldr ;rx.fha A isg B f;la Odrdj jOkh jk g ikakdhlh jgd

pqnl lafIa;%h o jOkh f' B isg C f;la l%ufhka Odrdj wvq jk g pqnl lafIa;%h
yelsf<a' A isg B f;la fjda,ah;dj jOkh jk g ikakdhl fol w;r lafIa;%h
jOkh jk w;r B isg C f;la fjda,ah;dj wvq jk g ikakdhl w;r oHq;a lafIa;%h
o yelsf<hs' C isg D f;la Odrdj reoaO osYdjg jOkh jk nj fmfka' ta wkqj pqnl
lafIa;%h o reoaO osYdjg jOkh f' D isg E f;la Odrdj wvq jk ksid pqnl lafIa;%h
o yelsf<hs'

tfuka u C isg D f;la fjda,ah;dj m%;sreoaO j jOkh jk ksid

ikakdhl fol w;r oHq;a lafIa;%h o m%;sreoaO osYdjg jOkh jk w;r D isg E f;la
fjda,ah;dj wvq jk neka oHq;a lafIa;%h o yelsf<hs'

182

m%;Hdj;k ;rx.fha ixLHd;h je l< g fyj;a Ok ^+& wO jl%hg yd RK^-& wO

jl%hg ^tla ;rx.hla i|yd& .; jk ld,h wvq l< g pqnl lafIa;%h yd oHq;a lafIa;%h
imQKfhka yl=<d .ekSug fkd yels j iaj,amhla b;s f' fuf,i b;s jk pqnl
yd oHq;a lafIa;% l%u l%ufhka ikakdhlfhka bj;g .uka .kS' f ls%hdj,sh oHq;a
pqnl lsrKh (Electro - Magnetic Radiation) f,i ye|skafjhs' fufia lsrKh jk
Yla;sh ;rx.dldr f,i .uka lrk w;r ta ;rx. oHq;a pqnl ;rx. f,i ye|skafjhs'

oHq;a pqnl ;rx.j, ,laIK

.uka lsug ^ifma%IKhg& udOHhla wkjYHhs'

wdf,dalfha f.fhka .uka lrhs'
my< ixLHd;hl isg b;d by< ixLHd;hla olajd Nd; l< yelsh'

oHq;a pqnl ;rx. ls%hdj

.=jka ,s hka;%hla ls%hd lrka ;sfnk wjia:djl ta wi, l=vd ir, Odrd fudagrhla
ls%hd lrjkak' .=jka ,s hka;%fha pr pr y`vla ksl=;a f' ta uka o@ fudagrh ls%hd;aul
jk g kHdh foaYlh iy we;s,a nqreiq w;r mq,s`.= we;s fuka oHq;a pqnl ;rx.
ckkh f' ta oHq;a pqnl ;rx. .=jka ,s hka;%h fj; tk oHq;a pqnl ;rx.j,g
ndOdld f' tneka tjeks wkjYH Yo wefia'
tfuka u .=jka ,s hka;%hla ls%hd;aul j we;s g l lene,a,la fldaIhl w.%
folg inkaO lr jka jr l lene,a, ika lrkak' tg o .=jka ,s hka;%fha
pr pr .d Yo kefa' h<s fldaI ixLHdj je lr by; ls%hdj,sh is l< g .=jka
,sfhka ksl=;a jk wkjYH Yofha y`v o je f' f wkqj oHq;a pqNl ;rx.
cklfha m%n,;dj je l< g ;rx.fha m%n,;dj o je jk nj fmfka'

jD; ikakdhl uska is flfrk lsrKh

ikakdhlhl fo fl<jr j; j
;nd th fj; wixLHd; m% ; Hdj;k
Odrdjla m%odkh l< g oHq;a pqnl ;rx.
f,i h Yla;s m%udKhla lsrKh f'
m%odkh flfrk ;rx.fha ixLHd;hg wh;a
;rx. wdhdufhka 1$4 l ka ikakdhl fol
ria l< g Wmu lsrK m%udKhla ,nd
.; yels nj fidhd f.k we;'

183

by; wdldrhg wjldYh ;=< oHq;a pqnl ;rx. lsrKh l< yels f' tfuka u
tu ;rx. wdf,dalfha m%f.fhka wjldYh ;=< fndfyda rla m%pdrKh l< yels h'
ixLHd;h by< kexu;a iu lsrK Yla;sh by< hk neka wvq cj m%udKhlska oHq;a
pqnl ;rx. m%pdrKh l< yels fjhs'
oHq;a pqnl ;rx. m%pdrKh i|yd m%Njhka wjYH w;r tjeks m%Nj ifma%Il f,i
ykajkq ,ef' tfuka u ta ;rx. m%;s.%yKh lrkqfha wdodhlh usks'

tla tla ldhh i|yd oHq;a pqnl ;rx. fjka lr we;s wkaou
ixLHd mrdih

fjka lr we;s ldhh

30 - 535KHz

iuqdikak mKsjqv yqjudre yd kdjql lghq;= i|yd

535 - 1605KHz

uOH ;rx. (M.W.) ldYk l,dmh

1605 KHz- 30MHz

wdOqksl .=jka ,s ixLHd;" wka; cd;sl fl ;rx.

ldYkh

30 - 41MHz

rcfha yd rcfha fkd jk iar iy ixpdrl mKsjqv

41 - 68MHz

rEmjdyskS kd,sld 1 - 4

68 - 88MHz

rcfha yd rcfha fkd jk fiajd

88 - 108MHz

ixLHd; uQPs; (F.M.) .=jka ,s l,dmh

108 - 122MHz

.=jka yd kdjql lghq;= i|yd mKsjqv

122 - 174MHz

rcfha yd rcfha fkd jk fiajd

174 - 220MHz

rEmjdyskS kd,sld 5 - 12

220 - 470MHz

wdOqksl .=jka ,s" iar yd ixpdrl mKsjqv

470 - 890MHz

rEmjdyskS kd,sld (U.H.F.)

890MHz - 3GHz

.=jka yd kdjql lghq;= fvd md,kh

3 - 30 GHz

laIq ;rx. md,kh

184

f igyk wkqj

535 - 1605KHz f;la ixLHd; mrdi fjka lr we;af;a uOHu ;rx. (M.W.).=jka ,s
m%pdrKj,g h'
2.2 - 7MHz f;la ixLHd; mrdi fjka fldg we;af;a fl ;rx. 1 (SW - 1) .=jka ,s
m%pdrKj,g h'
7 - 22 MHz f;la ixLHd; mrdi fjka fldg we;af;a fl ;rx. 2 (SW - 2) .=jka ,s
m%pdrKj,g h'
88 - 108 MHz f;la ixLHd; mrdi fjka flg we;af;a ixLHd; uQPk (F.M.) .=jka
,s m%pdrKj,g h'

oHq;a pqnl ;rx.j, ixLHd; mrdi my; i|yka wdldrhg fjka lr we;'
ixLHd; mrdih

ykajk kduh

;rx. wdhduh

0 - 30KHz

Very Low Frequency

b;d wvq ixLHd;h (V.L.F.)

10Km g je

30 - 300KHz

Low Frequency
wvq ixLHd;h (L.F)

1 - 10Km

Medium Frequency
uOHu ixLHd;h (M.F.)

100 - 1000m

High Frequency
by< ixLHd;h(H.F.)

10 - 100m

Very High Frequency

b;d by< ixLHd;h (V.H.F.)

1 - 10m

Ultra High Frequency

w;sWp ixLHd;h (U.H.F.)

10 - 100cm

Super High Frequency

wWp ixLHd;h (S.H.F.)

1 - 10cm

Extra High Frequence

w;sYh Wp ixLHd;h (E.H.F.)

1 - 10 mm

300 - 3000 KHz

3 - 30MHz

30 - 300MHz

300 - 3000MHz

3 - 30GHz

30 - 300 GHz

185

13'2 uQPk l%u

Y%jH ix{djla fyda oDYH ix{djla fyda h f;dr;=rla fyda Rcq j u je wE;lg
.uka lrh fkd yels h' tfy;a oHq;a pqnl ;rx.j,g b;d r .uka lsf yelshdj
we;' f ksid h f;dr;=rla fyda ix{djla" r ia:dkhlg heu ^ifma%IKh lsu&
i|yd" oHq;a pqnl ;rx.j, wod< f;dr;=re fyda ix{dj" we;=<;a lr m%pdrKh flf'
ifma%IKh lsug wjYH ix{dj wkqj oHq;a pqnl ;rx.fha h fjkila we;s
lsu uska f ldhh bgq lr .; yels h' fuys oS ix{dj $f;dr;=r f.k hkq ,nkafka
oHq;a pqnl ;rx.h wdOdrfhks' tneka oHq;a pqnl ;rx.h jdylh (Carrier) jYfhka
ye|skafjhs' jdyl ix{djla fjk;a ix{djla wkqj fjkia lsu uQPkh hkqfjka
ye|skaf'
m%;siu ix{d uQPkh my; i|yka f,i j.SlrKh l< yels h'
ia;dr uQPkh ^AM&

ld, uQPkh

ixLHd; uQPkh ^FM&

l,d uQPkh ^PM&

nyq, j Nd; lrkq ,nk uQPk j. w;ka uQPk l%u ;=kla flfrys wjOdkh
fhduq lruq'

ia;dr uQPkh (Amplitute Modulation) A.M.

ixLHd; uQPkh(Frequencey "
) F.M.
l,d uQPkh (Phase
"
) P.M.

ia;dr uQPkh (Amplitute Modalation

uQPk ix{dj

jdylh oHq;a pqnl ;rx.

186

by; rEm igykaj, uQPk ix{dj yd jdyl ix{dj fmkakq lr we;' ta wkqj
oHq;a pqnl ;rx.fha ia;drh ksh; j mj;sk w;r jdyl ;rx.fha ia;drh fjkia
jk nj meyeos,s h' uQPk ix{df ia;drhg wkqrEm j jdyl ;rx.fha ia;drh fjkia
lsu ia;dr uQPkh f,i ye|skafjhs' ia;dr uQPkfha oS wksjdhfhka u ;sh hq;=
,laIKhla jkafka jdyl ;rx.fha ia;drh iy ixLHd; ix{d ;rx.fha ia;drh iy
ixLHd;hg jvd Yd, h hq;= u h'

ix{dj
^uQPk ;rx.h&
jdyl ;rx.h

uQ; ;rx.

ixLHd; uQPkh (Frequency Modulation)

ia;dr uQPkfha oS ix{df ia;drhg wkqrEm j jdylfha ia;drh fjkia lrk
,oS' ixLHd; uQPkfha oS is lrkqfha ix{df ia;drh wkqj jdylfha ixLHd;h fjkia
lsu h' fuys oS jdylfha ia;drh ksh; j mj;ajd .ekSu b;d jeo.;a f' tfuka u
ix{df ia;drh wkqj jdylfha ixLHd;h fjkia l< hq;= neka jdylfha ixLHd;h
b;d je lsu w;HjYH h' tfia l< g ix{df wju ia;drh yd Wmu ia;drh
oelau fyj;a ixLHd; fjki ^ixLHd; wm.ukh& (Frequency Deviation) Yd, l< yels
f' tuska ix{d ia;drhla ish f;dr;=re jdylh uska ifm%aIKh lsu myiq f'
Y%jH ;rx. u`.ska ixLHd; uQPkh lrk g ixLHd; wm.ukh + 75 KHz muK h hq;=
h' f ixLHd; wm.ukh ix{d ia;drh wkqj is jkakla ksid fhosh yels ix{d
ia;drfha iSudjla mj;S'

187

ix{d ;rx.fha ixLHd;h wkqj jdylfha ixLHd;h fjkia u is f' jdylfha

ixLHd; fjkia f YS>%;dj wiS; ksid kEu by< ixLHd;hla" ixLHd; uQPkhg
Ndckh lr ifm%aIKh l< yel'

uQPs; ;rx.hla hkq ix{d ;rx.hla wka;.; l< uQPk ^jdyl& ;rx.hls' ta
uQPs; ;rx.h uQPkh (de - Modulation) lsfuka kej; ix{d ;rx.h fjka lr ,nd
.; yels f'

188

.=jka ,s ;dlaIKh
mdrml mKsjqv yqjudre lsf l%u u.ska ikaksfokh l< yels r b;d wvq u;a"
r ia:dkhlg ,sms u.ska fyda rl:k /yeka ud.fhka mKsjqv yqjudre l< yels Od;dj
h iy f.h iSud u ksid oshqKq jk f,dalfha Bg jvd f.j;a ikaksfok l%uhl
wjYH;dj u;= h' .=jka ,s ;rx. fidhd .ekSfuka miq fuu wjYH;dj imQK lr
.ekSu i|yd tu ;rx. fhdod .ekSu ms<sn| j oe wjOdkh fhduq h' my; i|yka lreKq
ksid .=jka ,s ;rx. r ikaksfokh i|yd b;d f.fhka Nd;hg .ekqKs'
1' .=jka ,s ;rx. r ia:dkhlg m%pdrK l< yels u'
2' ifma%IKh lsug wjYH mKsjqvfha ;rx.dldrh wkqj myiqfjka .=jka ,s ;rx.
fjkia l< yels u'
3' tfia fjkia l< o ;rx. .uka lrk frys lsis fjkila is fkd u'
4' r ia:dkhlg ifma%IKh l< o mKsjqvfha uQ,sl .=Kdx. fjkia fkd u'
5' ix{dj wkqj fjkia l< .=jka ,s ;rx.fhka kej; myiqfjka ix{dj ykd .;
yels u'
.=jka ,s ifm%aYKfha oS ia;dr uQPkh fyda ixLHd; uQPkh Nd;d lrkq ,nhs'

ia;dr uQPkh

ia;dr uQPkh (Amplitude Modulation) hkq ix{df ia;drh wkqj jdylfha ia;drh
fjkia lsuhs' ix{djl wjYHfhka u ifma%IKh l< hq;= mrd;slhka folls'
1' ix{df ia;drh
2' ix{df ixLHd;h

189

uQPk ;rx.fha jdyl ia;drh u; ix{d ia;drh msysgd we;s nj oelaf' fuu rEm
igyk wkqj ix{df ia;drh jdylfha ia;drh olajd muKla je l< yels nj
fmfka' Bg je jQ g ydks iys; ix{djla ,ef' jdylh uska /f.k hk ix{dj
kej; ykd .ekSu uQPkh (De-Modulation) f,i yekaf' uQPkfha flfrkafka
fjkia lrk ,o jdyl ia;drfha YSI oHq;a mm:h ud.fhka hd lsuhs' fuys jvd
ksrjoH ix{djla ,nd .ekSug YSI tlsfklg imfhka msysh hq;= h' tlu jdyl
ixLHd;hla Nd; lr O ix{d ixLHd;hla ifma%IKh lsf " ix{d ixLHd;h je
jk g ;rx. wdhduh wvq jk ksid tu ;rx. wdhduh ;=< msysgk jdyl YSI ixLHdj wvq
f' tg ix{d ixLHd;fha h w.hl id:l uQPkhla ,nd .; fkd yels h'
f wkqj ia;dr uQPkfha ifma%IKh l< hq;= ix{df ia;drh iy ixLHd;h
iSud jk nj fmfka'
.=jka ,s ikaksfokfha uQPkh lrk ,o ix{dj ifma%IKh lsug .=jka ,s
ifma%Ilhla o (Transmetter) tu .=jka ,s ;rx. ,nd f.k uQPkh lr .ekSug
wdodhlhla o (Receiver) wjYH f'

190

ifma%Ilhl uQ,sl fldgia

uhsl%f*dakh

Y%jH ixLHd;
jOlh
1

jOlh (

uQPlh

fmryk

3
foda,lh

cj jOlh

fuh fmr jOlhla f,i ls%hd lrhs' fmr jOlfha ldhhka my; oela f'
uhsl%f*dakh iy ifma%Ilh w;r indok .e<mSu'
uQPkhg .e<fmk f,i ix{d ugu ^ia;drh& ilia lsu'
wjYH ixLHd; mrdih fmrd .ekSu

2'

foda,lh (

.=jka ,s ixLHd;h ckkh lrkafka fuu fldgisks' fuu ixLHd;h 300 kHz
isg 3000 kHz w;r h hq;= ksid wixLHd; foda,lhla wjYH f' ;j o fuu ixLHd;h
b;d ksrjoH h hq;= h' wdodhlfhka f;dard .kafka fuu ixLHd;hhs' tneka fuu
foda,lh i|yd ls%iag,a foda,l Nd; lrkq ,ef' fuu ix{df ia;drhla ixLHd;h;a
ksrjoH f,i mj;ajd .ekSu w;HjYH f'

3' uQPlh (
foda,lfhka ,efnk wixLHd;fha ia;drh" uhslf
% *dakfhka ,efnk ix{d ;rx.fha
ia;drh wkqj fjkia lsu uQPlfha ldhhs' uQPkfha O ixLHd; ^m%ixjdo&
ckkh u fkd je<elah yels lreKls'

4'

fmryk (

uQPlfhka ,efnk ix{d rdYsfhka wjYH ixLHd; mrdih muKla f;dard .ekSu
fmryfka ldhh hs'

5'

cj jOlh (

fmrd.;a ixLHd; mrdih lsf,da fjd ixLHdjla olajd jOkh lsu cj jOlfha
ldhh hs' cj jOlfha ner f,i lsh
% d lrkafka wekafgkdjhs' Wmu cjhla ifmaI
% Kh
lsu i|yd cj jOlfha m%;sodk indokh iy wekafgkd indokh .e<msh hq;= h' fuu
ldhh is lrkafka o cj jOlh isks'

6'

wekafgkd (

cj jOlfhka ,efnk fjda,ah;d ;rx. oHq;a lafIa;%hla njg;a" Odrd ;rx.

pqnl lafIa;%hla njg;a mj;kh lsu wekafgkdfjka is lrkq ,nhs' tg ix{dj
iska uQPkh lrk ,o jdylh oHq;a pqnl ;rx.hla fia wjldYhg uqod y'

191

wdodhlhl uQ,sl fldgia

iqir .=jka ,s ixLHdk wdodhl

1.

.=jka ,s
ixLHd;
whr
I.

uQPlh

jOlh

iamSlrh

.=jka ,s ixLHd; whr (

my; i|yka ldhhka .=jka ,s ixLHd; whfrka bgq f'

II'

wekafgkdf iamY jk oHq;a lafIa;%fhka fjda,ah;dj o pqnl lafIa;%fhka

Odrdj o ckkh jk ksid" wekafgkdf h cj m%udKhla fma%rKh f' tu cj
m%udKh b;d l=vd ksid ^iuyr g uhsfl%dfjd .Kkls&' m<uqfjka u th
jOkh lr.; hq;= h'

O ixLHd;j,ska ,efnk oHq;a pqnl ;rx. wekafgkd iamY fuka fmar

% Kh
jk fjd,ah;d iy Odrd ;rx.j,ska wmg wjYH ixLHd;h f;dard .ekSu' ^f
i|yd iudka;r.; iqir mm:hla Nd; flf'&

wekafgkdj;a wdodhlh;a w;r indok .e<mSu'

ix{df cjh jOkh lsfuka" ix{dj f>daIdjg olajk wkqmd;h je lsu'

uQPlh

f;dard.;a .=jka ,s ixLHd;h u; msys ix{dj fjka

lr .ekSu fuu whf ldh Ndrh fjhs' f i|yd ix{d
vfhdavhla iy fmrykla Nd; f' fuu fmryk uska
wixLHd; N+.; lr my< ixLHd; Y%jHh ;rx. muKla
jOlhg ,nd fohs'

III'

jOlh

.=jka ,s ixLHd; whf wjYH ixLHd;h muKla f;dard .ekSu i|yd iudka;r
iqir moaO;s tlla muKla Nd; lrhs' tfy;a f;dard .kakd ,o ixLHd;hg ^ f0 &
imfhka msys ixLHd; h o ^ f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 & fmrykh ;=<ska .uka lsu fkd je<elah
yels h' tneka wjYH ixLHd;h f;dard .ekSu i|yd ;jrg;a fmryka Nd; lsug is
f' fmryka ;=< ix{dj ydhkh jk ksid jOlh iu. iqir mm: 1 la fyda 2 la
fhug is f' fuu jOl iqir jOl f,i yekaf'

192

.=jka,s ixLHd; whf iqir moaO;sh;a jOl whf

iqir moaO;s;a tla jr iqir lsu wmyiq ksid fujeks
.=jka,s hka;% iqiq jkafka tla ixLHd;hla muKla
,nd .ekSug h' tneka fujeks .=jka ,s hka;% iqir
.=jka ,s ixLHdk wdodhl (Tunned Radio Frequency
Receiver - TRF) f,i yekaf'

O jevigyka /f.k tk jdylj,g iqir lsu

i|yd w;s Iu yehq l%uh ^Super heterodyne method&
Nd; f' fuys is flfrkafka iqir jOl folla
fyda ;=kla .=jka ,s ixLHd; mrdifha fkd jk fjk;a
w;rue ixLHd;hlg iqirlr th fjkia fkd jk
wdldrhg .=jka ,s ixLHd; whfrka miq fhdod wjYH
.=jka ,s ixLHd;h w;rueos ixLHd;hg mj;kh lr
fmrd .ekSuhs'
oe;s Iu yehq wdodhl

.=jka ,s
ixLHd;
whr

fs

Y%lh

fi

w;r ue
ixLHd;
whr

wkdjrlh
^uQPlh&

jOlh

f0

foda,lh
I'

.=jka ,s" Y%l iy foda,l whr

.=jka ,s ixLHd; whf;a foda,l wosfhf;a iudka;r iqir mm:h ne.ska fhdod
we;s ksid tu mm: fol tla jr fjkia lsug yels jk f,i iqir Od;%l fol iu
^Ganging& .kajd we;' tk tu Od;%l fol tla jr fjkia l< yels h' f wkqj .=jka
,s ixLHd; woshfrka h ixLHd;hla f;dard .;a g Bg .e<fmk foda,l ixLHd;hla
foda,lfhka ilia lr .kS' tu ixLHd; foflys fjki w;r ue ixLHd;h f,i"
w;rue ixLHd; whrg .uka lrhs' fuu ixLHd; ;=fka inkaO;dj my; oelafjk
m f'

193

WodyrKhla f,i isxy, iajfoaYSh fiajh 700 kHz la ,efnkafka hhs is;uq' w;rue
ixLHd;h 455 kHz f' foda,lfhka ,efnk ixLHd;h my; i|yka m f'
f1 = f0 - fs
f0 = fi + fs = 455 + 700 = 1155 kHz

bx.S%is fiajh 1100 kHz

,efnkafka hhs is;uq' tu wjia:df foda,k ixLHd;h

f0 = fi + fs = 455 + 1100 = 1555 kHz

fufia imQK uOHu ixLHd; mrdih ;=< u foda,k ixLHd;h o fjkia f'
uOHu ixLHd; mrdih 525 kHz - 1605 kHz olajd f'

II'

w;rue ixLHd; whf ldhhka my; oelaf'

Y%lh ;=< wjYH w;rue ixLHd;hg wu;r j ;j;a ixLHd; Yd, ixLHdjla
ksmo f' tu wkjYH ixLHd; w;ka w;r ue ixLHd;h fmrd .ekSu'

w;r ue ixLHd;h jOkh lr .ekSu ^,s fjda,a lSmhl isg fjda,a 2 muK
olajd&'

iajhxlS%h m%;s,dN md,kh ls%hd;aul lsu'

iajhxlS%h m%;s,dN md,kh hkq .=jka ,s ifma%IKfha is jk ix{d ugf

fjkia iukh lsu i|yd wdodhlh ;=< ilia lr we;s ls%hdoduhls' fuys jdylfha
idudkH w.h ykd f.k tu w.h je f ix{df is jk je wvq lsu i|yd
w;rue ixLHd; whf g%dkaisiagrhl keUqrej fjkia lrkq ,ef' fuu ls%hdj,sh
iajhxlS%h j is jk f,i ilia lr we;'
III. wkdjrl

whr

wkdjrl whf w;rue ixLHd;h u; we;s ix{dj ykd .ekSu is lrkq ,nhs'
Bg wu;r j Yo md,kh fuu whf wjidkfha is f' ;j o iajhxlS%h j m%;s,dN
md,khg wjYH jdylfha idudkH w.h ,nd .ekSu o wkdjrl whf is lrkq ,nhs'

194

D1 vfhdavfhka miq uQPs; jdylfha + fyda - wO jl% ,nd f.k tajdfha YSI
inkaO lsu C1, R1, C2, R2 j,ska lrkq ,ef' C3 uska ix{df ir, Odrd w.h bj;a
lrk w;r m%;Hdj; ix{dj muKla jOlh fj;g fhduq lrkq ,nhs' ta w;r R3 uska
ir, Odrd fjda,ah;dj u; we;s ix{dfjka fldgila f.k tu fldgfiys we;s
m%;Hdj; fldgi C4 uska N+.; lr jdylfha m%;Hdj; w.h muKla iajhxlS%h m%;s,dN
md,kh i|yd fhdo.kq ,ef'

ixLHd; uQPkh ^F.M.&

ifma%IKh l< hq;= ix{df ia;drh wkqj jdyl ;rx.fha ixLHd;h fjkia lsu
ixLHd; uQPkfha is lrkq ,nhs' ixLHd;h fjkia jk mrdih iSud iys; jk ksid
ifma%IKh l< yels ix{df ia;drh iSud iys; f'

ix{df ixLHd;h wkqj fjkia jkafka jdylfha ixLHd;h fjkia f YS>;

% djhhs'
fuu w.h wkka;h olajd fjkia l< yels ksid F.M. yryd ix{df kEu ixLHd;hla
ifma%IKh l< yels h' tu ksid ;;a;ajfhka by< Yo ix{d F.M. yryd ifma%IKh
l< yels f'

195

ifma%IKhl uQ,sl fldgia

jOlh

Pre-Emphasis

uQPlh

ixLHd;
.=Klh

cj
jOlh

foda,lh

1'

jOlh

uhsl%f*dakfhka ,efnk Yoh jOlh uska jOkh lrkq ,nk w;r fmrykla
f,i o ls%hd lrhs' imQK ls%hdj A.M. ifma%Ilfha jOl whf ls%hdjg iudk f'
2. Pre Emphasis :
AM ifma%IKfha fuka fkdj F.M.ifma%IKfha by< ixLHd;j, je f>daIdjla
tl;= f' tu ksid uQPkhg fmr by< ixLHd; jOkh lrhs' tg ix{dj f>daIdjg
olajk wkqmd;h by< ugul ;nd .; yels f' wdodhlfha fuu ls%hdjg reoaO ls%hdj
is lr ix{d ia;drh idudkH w.hg f.fkkq ,nhs'

3'

uQPlh foda,lh

tla tla fiajdjg ,nd we;s jdyl ixLHd;hg wod, Bg my, ixjOkhla foda,lfhka
ksmojkq ,nhs' uQPlfha jdyl ia;drh fjkia fkd ixLHd;h muKla ix{d
ixLHd;h wkqj fjkia lf' jdylfha tall ia;drhlg fjkia jk ixLHd;h uQPlfha
ixf;dj f,i yekaf' tafuka u ixLHd;h fjkia jk mrdih ixLHd; wm.ukh
f,i yekaf' ffiOdka;sl ixLHd; wm.ukh +100 kHz jk w;r m%dfhda.sl j fuu
w.h +75 kHz f'

4'

ixLHd; .=Klh

my< ixLHd;j, uQPkh l< o wjYH ixLHd; w.hg m;a jk f;la ixLHd;h
je lsu fuu whf ldhh hs'

5'

cj jOlh

ldYkh lsug wjYH ugu f;la uQl ix{df cjh jOkh lr wekafgkdjg
fhduq lsu fuys ldhh hs'

196

FM wdodhlh
.=jka ,s
ixLHd;

Y%lh

w;r ue
ixLHd
whr

iSud
ldrlh

uQPlh

De
Emphasis

foda,lh

1'

.=jka ,s ixLHd; whfrka flfrk ldhhka my; oelaf'

2'

wjYH ixLHd;h f;dard .ekSu'

f>daIdjg ix{dj olajk wkqmd;h je lsu'
ix{dj jOkh lsu'
wekafgkdj iy wdodhlfha b;s fldgig we;s indol .e<mSu
w;r ue ixLHd;h wekafgkdfjka we;=`: u k;r lsu'
foda,l ix{dj wdmiq meKSu je<elau'
m%;sn ixLHd;h bj;a lsu'

Y%l$foda,l whf ls%hdj

AM j, fuka u FMj, o w;rue ixLHd;h ia:djr w;r tu w.h 10.7 MHz f'
fuu ixLHd;h uOH ixLHd;h f,i i,ld + 75 kHz ixLHd; wm.ukhla ,efnk m
ix{d ia;drh ixLHd;hla njg mj;kh lrkq ,ef' fuu uOH ixLHd;h fjkia
jqjfyd;a ta i|yd ir, Odrd fjda,ah;djla ,ef' tu ksid A.M. j, fuka fkdj b;d
ksjer j w;r ue ixLHd;h fhh hq;= h'

3'

w;r ue ixLHd; whr

uQPlh i|yd 10.7 MHz w;r ue ixLHd;h jgd fjkia jk ixLHd;hla ,nd h
hq;= ksid w;r ue ixLHd; whf ls%iag,a fmryka fhdod wjYH mrdih fmrd .kq
,ef'

4'

iSudldrlh

uQPlh i|yd vfhdav moaO;shla fhdok ksid w;r ue ixLHd;fha ia;drhg o

ixf f' tfy;a ia;drfha wjYH ;rdx.dldrh ke;s ksid f>daIdjla f,i ix{djg
tl;= f' tu ksid wkdjrlhg fmr iSudldrlhla fhdod ia;drh iSud lrkq ,ef'

197

iSudldrlh

5'

wkdjrlh

wkdjrlh uska 10.7 MHz w;rue ixLHd;h ,ef k o Bg by< ixLHd;hla

i|yd +V w.hla o Bg my< ixLHd;hla i|yd -V w.hla o ,nd fok mm: wkdjrl
f,i Nd; lrkq ,nhs' tg wkdjrl m%;sodkh ix{d ixLHd;hg iudk f'

6'

De Emphasis :

ifm%aIKfha Pre Emphasis whf ix{df by, ixLHdk jOkh l< w;r
fuys jOkh lrk ,o fldgia idudkH ;;a;ajhg m;a lrkq ,ef'

Pre Emphasis

S
N

De Emphasis
N

wdodhlfha
f>daIdj tl;= we;'

by< ixOHdk ix{d wvq jk g f>daIdj o

wvq we;'

198

.rEmjdysks ;dCIKh
rEmjdyskshlska mska;+rhla olsk g tu mska;+rh fjk;a ia:dkhl .nvd lr ;nk
,o tlla fyda tu fudfydf;a leurdjlska ,nd .;a tlla h yels h' rEmjdysksfhka olsk
mska;+rh tla jr u imQKfhka fkd ,ef' mska;+rhla .nvd lsug fyda fjk;a
ia:dkhlg ifm%aIKh lsug tys ia;r tla;rd rgdjlg ilia l< hq;= f' fuys oS
mska;+rh b;d l=vd fldgiaj,g fjka lr tu fjka lrk ,o fldgfia oSma;shg wkqrEm
fjda,ah;djla ksmojkq ,ef' fuu l=vd fldgi mska;+r uQ,hla f,i ye|skaf' fuu
mska;+r uQ," ;sria fma<s jYfhka f.k tlska tl jf isg ol=Kg f.fhka fjda,ah;djka
njg m;a f' fuu l%shdj ;sria mf,dalkh ^Horizontal Scanning& f,i ye|ska f' fufia
jf isg ol=Kg mf,dalkh l< miq f.fhka leurdj j fl<jrg f.k kej;
mf,dalkh wdrN l< hq;= h'
rEmjdysksfha oS flfrkafka tla tla mska;=r uQ,hg wh;a fjda,ah;djg wkql+, jQ
bf,lafg%dak lonhla" rEmjdyskS k<h ;=< tys uqyqKf;a wdf,am lrk ,o fmdiamr u;
m;s; ug i,iajd" tu`.ska fmdiamrj, wod< os,siSu ,nd .ekSuhs' fmdiamrhla hkqq
bf,lafg%dak lonhla m;s; jQ miq m;s; jk bf,lafg%dak m%udKhg wkqrEm oSma;sh
,nd.; yels ridhksl ixfhda. f' iq l iy r;=" ks,a" fld< hk jK ,nd.; yels
fmdiamr j. fjk fjk u we;' rEmjdyskshl rEm k<h lef;dav lsrK k<hls' ;sria
mf,dalkh i|yd ;sria ;yvq folg l%ufhka - isg + olajd je jk fjda,ah;djla ,nd
ka g bf,lafg%dak lonh jf isg ol=Kg .uka lrhs' kej; bf,lafg%dak lonh
wdmiq .ekSug + isg - olajd hk fjda,ah;djla fhosh hq;= h' fuys oS ,efnk ;rx.
wdldrh lsh;a oe;s ;rx.hls'

tla fLdjl ld,h hkq" ;sria mf,dalk ld,h + ;sria wdmiq meKsf ld,h f' fuh
64 s lg iudk h'
f wkqj ;;amrhlg fLd .Kk

1
= 15625
-6
64 x 10

f wkqj fLd 15625 la ;;amrhla ;=< oS mf,dalkh f'

199

tla fLdjla mf,dalkh jQ miq fo jk fLdj i|yd bf,lafg%dak lon my<g

.ka l< hq;= h' fufia l%ul%ufhka bf,lafg%dak lonh my<g .uka lrk w;r
bf,lafg%dk
a lonh my< fl<jrg meKs g msk;
a r
+ hla ;srh u; osia f' tla msk;
a r
+ hla
i|yd fLd 625 l ld,hla fjka f' fuhska fLd 40 l ld,hla mska;+rh lshfuka miq
bf,lafg%dak lonh by< fl<jrg meKsu i|yd jeh f' fuu l%shdj,sh isria
mf,dalkhhs'(Vertical Scanning)
;;amrhg fLd 15625 la jk w;r tla mska;+rhla i|yd fLd 625 l ld,hla .ks'
f wkqj ;;amrhlg mska;+r .Kk = 15625/625 = 25 ls' ;%mhla m%lafIamKh lrk
g ;;amrhg rEm rduq 24 la m;s; f' f ksid .eiaiSulska f;drj mska;=r fmkajhs' thg
fya;=j mska;+rh tla jr u m;s; uhs' tfy;a rEmjdyskS ;srh u; mska;=r m;s; jkafka by<
isg my<g h' tu ksid ;;amrhg mska;+r 25 la m;s; jqj o .eiaiSula iys; j fmfka' fuh
je,elaug ;;amrhg rEm rduq 50 la j;a m;s; l< hq;= f'
rEmjdyskS ;srh u; osiah yels ia;rd;aul mska;+rh jkafka mska;=r uQ,fhka
uq,hg iq l olajk g oS h' fufia iia;rd;aul mska;=rhla ,nd .kakd wjia:djl
mska;+rhg fLd 625 la m;s; lrjka" ;;amrhg mska;=r 25 la m;s; lsug fu.d yia
5 (5 MHz) l ixLHd;hla wjYH f'
fuh ;;amrhg mska;=r 50 olajd je l< fyd;a fu.d yia 10 l ixLHd;hla
wjYH f' fuh Yd, l,dm m<,ls' tu ksid fLd 625 ms<sfj,ska mf,dalkh fkdlr
fLdjla yer fLdjla mf,dalkh lrkq ,ef' tg fLd 625 la m;s; jkafka rEm rduq
follg neka 5 MHz hgf;a ;;amrhg rEm rduq 50 la ;ekam;a l< yels h' tg .eiaiSula
we;s fkdf'
mska;=rfha ;ks jKhla muKla we;s g th ir, Odrd w.hls' tu ksid oDYH
ix{d l,dm m<, ir, Odrdf tk" ixLHd;h 0 isg 5MHz olajd ysfoa' tg fma%laIKd
j,sh my; rEmfha i|yka mos f'

f wkqj tla rEm rduqjlg fLd 312'5 l ld,hla .; f' fuhska fLd 20 l
ld,hla isria wdmiq meKsu i|yd jeh lrkq ,nhs' fufia bf,lafg%dak lonhla by<
isg my<g fifuka .uka lr Bg wvq ld,hlska wdmiq .uka lrhs' tneka lef;dav lsrK
k<fha isria ;yvqj,g fhosh hq;af;a o lsh;a oe;s ;rx.hls'

200

iuuQ;lrKh iy oDYH ;rx.fha fldgia

mska;+rhla ;sria mf,dalkh lsf os leurdj tla fLdjla wjika lrk g
rEmjdyskS ;srh o tu fLdj ;srh u; igyka lr wjika l< hq;= h' tfia lsug iEu
fLdjla mf,dalkh lr wjika nj leurdj iska rEmjdysksh fj; oekah hq;= h'
fufia oekau i|yd fLdj wjidkfha ;sria iuuQ; iamkaO fhdokq ,ef'
tfuka u isria mf,dalkfha oS o leurdj tla rduqjla mf,dalkh lr wjika jk
g rEmjdyskS ;srh o tu rduqj ;srh u; igyka lr wjika l< hq;= h' rduqjla mf,dalkh
lr wjika nj oekaug isria iuuQ; iamkao fhdokq ,ef'
;sria iuuQ; iamkao ;sria wdmiq meKsf ld,h ;=, oS ^12s& ksl=;a flf' fuu
ld,h ;sria ysia lsf ld,h ^Horizontal Blanking Period& f,i ye|skf
a ' my; oelafjkafka
;sria mf,dalkh i|yd wjYH ;rx. wdldrh iy tu ld,h ;=< oDYH ;rx.h we;s jk
wdldrh f'

A- fmr wd,skaoh
^Front Porch)

B - ;sria iuuQ; iamkaoh

(synchronizing plase - 4.7 s)

C - miq wd,skaoh
(Back Proch 5.8 s)

isria mf,dalkfha oS o leurdj iska tl rduqjla mf,dalkh lr wjika jk g

rEmjdyskS ;srh o tu rduqj ;srh u; igyka lr wjika l< hq;= h' rduqjla mf,dalkh
lr wjika nj oekaug isria iuuQ; iamkaoh fhdokq ,ef' isria iuuQ; iamkaohg
ld,h fLd 2'5 ls' fuu ld,h isria ysia lsf ld,h ^ Vertical Blanking Recieved & ;=<
msysghs' ;sria fLd wkqms<sfj<ska ie,l+ g fLd 625 ka m<uq rduqj f,i 1"3"5"7" ''''' fLd
mf,dalkh jk w;r fo jk rduqj f,i 2"4"6"8" '''''' fLd mf,dalkh f' tu ksid m<uq
rduqj T;af;a rduqj f,i o" fo jk rduqj brf rduqj f,i o ye|ska f' T;af;a rduqj
fLd 312'5 lska wjika jk w;r brf rduqj 625 jk fLdfjka wjika f' tfy;a i;H
jYfhka lshfjk fLd .Kk fuhg jvd wvq f' my; i|yka jkafka T;af;a rduqj yd
brf rduqj ilia we;s whqre h'

201

1
2
3
4
5

313
314
315

312
313

624
625

T;af;a rduqj
brf rduqj
fuys isria wdmiq meKsu i|yd .; jk fLd 20 w;ayer ke;' tla tla rduqj wjidkfha
isria iuuQ; iamkao ,efnk wdldrh my; oela f'

;sria iuuQ; iamkaofha by< hk fl<jf isg B<`. iamkaofha by< hk fl<jr
olajd 64 s ld,h .Kka .kq ,ef' tfuka u T;af;a fyda brf fCIa;%h wdrN jkafka
isria iuuQ; iamkaofha by< hk fl<jf isg h' isria ysia lsf ld,h jk fLd 20
l ld,h ;=< oS o ;sria iu uQ; iamkao ,ef'
isria iuuQ; iamkao ld,h fLd 2 1$2 ls' f ld,h ;=, oS msysgk ;rx.j,
ld,dj;hka T;af;a rduqf' iy brf rduqf' tlsfklg fjkia f' fuu ;;a;ajh
iu lsu i|yd iuuQ; ld,hg fmr fLd 2 1$2 l ld,h ;=,oS;a iu lsf iamkao fhdokq
,ef' tu iamkao rEmfha olajd ke;'
rEmjdykS kd,sldjlg wjYH ld,dm m<,'
by; fm%aCIKdj,sfha Y%jH ix{dj wvx.= lr ke;' rEmjdysks ifm%aIKfha oS
mska;+r ixLHd; mrdih 0.5 MHz g msg;ska Y%jH ix{dj msysgjkq ,ef' oeka fuu ix{dj
r ia:dkhlg ifm%aIKh lsu i|yd tu ix{d u`.ska jdylhla uQPkh l< hq;= h'

202

rEmjdyskS ifm%aIKfha oS oDYH ix{dj

u`.ska jdylh ia;dr uQPkh lrk w;r Y%jH
ix{dj u`.ska fjk;a jdylhla ixLHd; uQPkh
lrkq ,ef' f wkqj jdyl folla wjYH nj
fmfka'
ia;dr uQPkfha oS jdylh iu. ix{d ixLHd;fha me;s l,dm folla we;s f'
WodyrKhla f,i 100 MHz jdylhla by; olajd oDYH l,dm m<, u`.ska ia;dr uqPKh
l< g my; i|yka fm%aCIKdj,sh ,ef'
USB - by< me;s l,dmh
LSB - my< me;s l,dmh
(MHz)

f wkqj me;s l,dm fol u ifm%aIKh lsug 10 MHz l,dm m<,la wjYH f'
fuh oDYH ix{djla i|yd muKs' Y%jH ix{dj iu. ie,l+ g l,dm m<, 10 MHz j,g
jvd je f' oDYH ix{df je u fldgi msysgkafka 0-1 MHz l,dm m<, ;=< h'
tneka tu l,dmh muKla my< me;s l,dmfhka wh;a jk f,i imQK by< me;s
l,dmh;a my< me;s l,dmfhka fldgil=;a fjka lrkq ,ef' fuh Vestigal side band
f,i ye|skaf' VSB ys fm%aCIKdj,sh my; mos f'

Y%jH ix{dj ifm%aIKh lrk jdylh msysgqjkafka oDYH jdylhg 5.5 MHz ks'
Y%jH ix{dj u`.ska tu jdylh ixLHd;h uQPkh lrkq ,ef' rEmjdyskSj, Y%jH ixLHd;
wm.ukh 50 KHz f' tk 0.05 MHz f' f wkqj rEmjdyskS fiajdjl imQK
fm%aCIKdj,sh my; oelaf'

by; fm%aCIKdj,sh wkqj tla kd,sldjla i|yd 7MHz l l,dm m<,la wjYH
jk nj meyeos,s f' .=jka ,s kd,sldj, fuka fkdj rEmjdyskS kd,sld tllg miq ;j
tlla f,i fm%aCIKdj,sh ;=< msysgqjhs' k,sldjla fmrd fjka lr .ekSu i|yd b;s
jkafka 7-(1.25+5.55)=7-6.8=0.2MHz l mr;rhls^200KHz&'

203

rEmjdykS ixLHd; ld,m

,xldf rEmjdyskS ifm%aIKh i|yd l,dm folla Nd; lrkq ,ef' tajd VHF
yd UHF f,i ye|ska f' VHF l,dmh kej; fldgia follg fjka f' (VHF-L VHFH) ' fuu mrdi fol VHF-I iy VHF-III f,i o ye|ska f' VHF-II l,dmh FM .=jka
,s kd,sld i|yd fjka lr we;'
VHF-I l,dmfha channal 1-4 olajd o VHF-III l,dmfha 5-12 olajd o UHF
ld,mh 13-68 olajd o ldYkh f' my; igyfkka tu kd,sld j, jdyl ixLHd;h
ms<sn| ia;r oelaf'
ld,mh
VHF-I

VHF-III

kd,sld wxlh
oDYH jdylh
Y%jH jdylh
1
rEmjdysks ldYkh i|yd Nd;d fkdf'
2
48.25
53.75
3
55.25
60.75
4
62.25
67.75
5
175.25
180.75
6
182.25
187.75
7
189.25
194.75
8
196.25
201.75
9
203.25
208.75
10
210.25
215.75
11
217.25
222.75
12
224.25
229.75

l,dm m<,
41-47
47-54
54-61
61-68
174-181
181-188
188-195
195-202
202-209
209-216
216-223
223-230

l,dmh
mrdih
VHF-I
41-68 MHz
VHF-II
68-174 MHz
VHF-III
174-230 MHz
UHF
470-790 MHz
ixLHd; fm%aCIKdj,shlska oelafjkafka ixLHd;h wkqj ia;drfha fjkia uls'
;rx.dldrhlska oelafjkafka ld,h wkqj ia;drh fjkia uls' fuu l%u foflka u
ix{djl iajNdjh oelah yels h'

204

rEmjdyskS wdodhlhl fldgia

PC = 38.9

SC =33.4

l iq rEmjdyskshl le igykla rEmfha oelaf'

205

tys m<uqfjka u wekafgkdjg inkaO .=jka oq,s ixLHd; woshr we;' .=jka ,s
ixLHd; woshfrka my; i|yka ldhhka is lrhs'
1'
2'
3'
4'
5'
6'

wod< kd,sldj f;dard .ekSu

ix{dj f>daIdjg olajk wkqmd;h je lsu'
wekafgkdj iy rEmjdysksfha b;s fldgia w;r indok .e<mSu'
foda,k ixLHd;h wdmiq wekagkdjg .uka lsu je,elau'
w;r ueos ixLHd;hg iudk ixLHd; we;= u je,elau'
m%;snk ixLHd;h bj;a lsu'

rEmjdyskS hka;%j,ska h kd,sldjla ,nd .ekSf oS tu kd,sld jg iqir l< hq;=

h' ta i|yd m%:ufhka iudka;r L-C mm:hla fh w;r miqj p,H Od;%l vfhdav fh
bf,lafg%dk
a l
s iqir mm: fhdok ,os' kk rEmjdysks i|yd CIq md,l^Micrp Proccessor&
fhdod iqir ls lrkq ,ef' fuu`.ska jvd ixfoS j yd ksjeros j wjYH kd,sldj f;dard
.; yels h'

Y%l foda,l woshr

rEmjdyskS i|yd o w;sIu yehq l%uh Nd; lrk neka kd,sld f;dard .ekSf
yelshdj je lsug w;r ueos ixLHd; Nd; f' jdyl ixLHd; mrdihg ndysr ixLHd;hg
fyd|ska iqir lrk ,o moaO;shla fj;g wjYH kd,sldf jdyl ixLHd;h mj;kh
lr fhduq lrkq ,ef' ta iu. u wjYH kd,sldjg fomiska msys kd,sldj, jdyl
ixLHd;h o Bg wod< ixLHd;hgkag mj;kh f' tfy;a w;r ueos ixLHd;hg fyd|ska
iqir lr we;s ksid wjYH kd,sldj muKla f;dard .kS'
tfy;a ixLHd;h mj;kfha oS jdyl folla mj;kh h hq;= ksid w;rueos
ixLHd;fha fm%ACIKdj,sh fjkia f' Y%l foda,l woshfrka my; i|yka ldhhka bgq
f'
1' mska;+r jdylhg wh;a w;r ueos ixLHd;h ,nd .ekSu i|yd wod< foda,l ixLHd;h
ksmo u'
2' Y%l woshf oS foda,l ixLHd;h iu. Y% oDYH jdylhg iy Y%jH jdylhg wod<
w;rueos ixLHd;h ksmo u'

206

.=jka ,s ixLHd;
fm%alaIKdj,sh

w;r ueos ixLHd;

fm%alaIKdj,sh

w;rueos ixLHd;h" .=jka ,s ixLHd;fha;a foda,l ixLHd;fha;a fjkig iudk h'

fuu inkAOh fi = fo - fs m%ldYfhka oelah yel' fi - w;rueos ixLHd;h" fo foda,l
ixLHd;h" fs .=jka ,s ixLHd;h' fuys oS w;r ueos ixLHd;h i|yd ,efnk fm%Ca IKdj,sh
.=jka ,s ixLHd; fm%aCIKdj,sfha omk m%;snh hs'

w;rueos ixLHd; woshr

w;r ueos ixLHd; woshf ldhhka my; oela f'
1' wjYH kd,sldj f;dard .ekSu'
f i|yd oa;aj iqir moaO;s fyda saw filter fhdod.kS' fuhg fya;=j f;dard .; hq;=
l,dm m<, je u;a fm%aCIKdj,sfha fomi nEjqu f.j;a h hq;= u;a h'
2' hdno kd,sldj, Y%jH jdylhka oDYH jdylhka fmrd bj;a lsu'
3' uqPkhg iEfyk ugulg ix{dj jOkh lsu'
4' iajhxl%Sh m%;s,dN md,kh l%shd;aul lsu'
WodyrKhla f,i 3 jk kd,sldj f;dard .kafka hehs is;uq' tys 5MHz l,dm
m<,la iu. Y%jH jdylh fmrd fjka lr .; hq;= h' th fmrd fjka lrk g 2 jk
kd,sldf Y%jH jdylh;a" 4 jk kd,sldf oDYH jdylh;a h m%udKhla ,ef' w;r ueos
ixLHd;h' woshf m<uq fldgfia oS fuu wkjYH ixLHd;h bj;a lrkq ,ef' B<`.
fldgfia oS wjYH ixLHd; mrdih jOkh lrkq ,ef'

207

wkdjrlh
wkdjrl woshf ldhhka my; oelaf'
1' oDYH w;rueos ixLHd;h jk 38.9 MHz bj;a lr oDYH ix{dj fmrd .ekSu'
2' oDYH w;rueos ixLHd;h ia:djr foda,l ixLHd;hla f,i l%Shdlr tu ixLHd;h Y%jH
w;rueos ixLHd;h jk 33.4 MHz iu`. Y% 5.5 MHz Y%jH wka; jdylhla ksudKh
lsu'
3' Y%jH ;rx.h iqug lsu'
;rx.dldrh ^oDYH&

fm%alaIKdj,sh

wkdjrlfhka miq leurdjlska ,efnk ;rx.dldrh iy fm%aCIKdj,sh ,e we;'

oDYH fmr jOlh

wkdjrlfhka miq ,efnk oDYH ;rx. wxY 3 lg m%odkh l< hq;= h' tfuka u Y%jH
;rx. FM wdodhl fldgig fhduq l< hq;= f' fuys oS oDYH ;rx. wxY 3 lg fnosh hq;=
ksid;a Y%jH ;rx. bj;a l< hq;= ksid;a fmd ix.%dyl jOlhlska Odrdj jOkh lrkq
,ef' fmd ix.%dyl jOlhla" Odrd jOlhla f,i Nd; l< yels h'

208

oDYH fmr jOlfha fudaplhg 5.5 MHz ^Y%jH ixLHd;& W.=,la inkaO lr
Y%jH ixLHd; N+.; lrkq ,ef' thg fya;=j bka Tng Y%jH ixLHd;h wjYH fkd uhs'

Y%jH ixLHd; woshr

fuu woshr FM .=jka ,s wdodhlhl w;rueos ixLHd; woshrg miq fldgig iudk
h' rEmjdyskshl Y%jH w;r ueos ixLHd;h f,i l%shd lrkafka oDYH wkdjrlfhka msg jk
5.5 MHz wka; jdylhls' th L-C iudka;r .; mm:hlska fyda l%siag,a fmryklska
fmrd FM uqPlhlska uqPkh lr ,efnk Y%jH ixLHd; DE-emphasis lr jOkh
lrkq ,ef'

iajhxl%Sh m%;s,dN md,kh

.=jka oq,s hka;%j, we;s w;rueos ixLHd; woshfrka flfrkafka jdylfha idudkH
w.h fjkia jqjfyd;a tu d-c w.h Nd; lr idudkH w.h ilia lsu u`.ska ix{dj
ia:djr lsuhs' fuh idudkHh AGC l%uhhs' rEmjdysksj, Wmu l jKh msysgk
wjia:djl iy Wmu iq jKh we;s g idudkH w.h fyj;a d.c w.h fjkia f'
fuu fjki ix{df is jk fjkila ksid AGC i|yd fhoh fkd yels h'

209

tu ksid iuuQ; iamkaoj, ia;drh fjkia jQ g muKla AGC l%shd;aul l< hq;=
h' fuu l%shdj,sh Keyed AGC f,i ye|skaf' fuys oS iuuQ; iamkao we;s wjia:df oS
muKla AGC moaO;sh ialrKh lr tu wjia:df mj;sk d-c w.h u`.ska w;r ueos
ixLHd; woshr iy .=jka ,s ixLHd; woshfrys keUqrej fjkia lrkq ,nhs' kk
rEmjdyskS hka;%j, fuu fldgi bj;a lr we;'

oDYH m%;sodk woshr

oDYH m%;sodk woshfrka my; i|yka ldhhka is f'
1'
2'
3'
4'
5'
6'

1800 ka ix{df l,dj fjkia lsu'

isria wdmiq meKSf iy ;sria wdmiq meKsf oS ;srh wre lr ;eu'
ix{dj 90V la muK olajd jOkh lsu'
iq$l fjki md,kh lsu'
oSma;sh md,kh lsu'
rEmjdysksh l%shd rys; lsf oS tla jr u tl;= jk bf,lafg%dak lonh bj;a lsu'

1' oDYH m%;sodk woshr i|yd fmd fudapl mm:hla fhoSfuka m%;sodkh 1800 la fjkia
lr .; yels h'
2' rEm k<h wre lsu i|yd bf,lafg%dak lonfha bf,lafg%dak m%udKh wvq l< hq;= h'
rEm k<fha ksudKh my; mos f'
A - iQ;%sldj'
B - lef;davh'
C - md,k cd,h'
D - ;ajrK cd,h'
E - kdNs.; cd,h'
F - W;al%uK o`.rh'
G - wefkdavh'
H - fmdiamr iu. ikakdhl ia:rhla wdf,am lrk ,o ;srh'
I - N+.; lrk ,o rEm k<fha ndysr ia:rh'
ix{dj imhkafka lef;davhg h' Bg imfhka msysgqjd we;s md,k cd,h N+.;
lr fyda - fjda,ah;djl r|jd we;' ix{df iq oelafjkafka Y+kH fjda,ah;djg
wdikak fjda,ah;djls' tg md,k cd,fha fjda,ah;dj iu`. ii|k g fjki b;d
l=vd h'

210

tu ksid lef;davfhka uqla; jk bf,lafg%dak ish,a, u mdfya ;srh fj; .uka lrhs'
tg ;srfha oSma;sh je f' ix{d fjda,ah;dj by< hk g md,k cd,hg idfmACI j
fjda,ah;d fjki je f' tg lef;davfhka msg jk bf,lafg%dak je m%udKhla
md,k cd,h yryd N+.; f' ix{df iuuQ; iamkao we;s wjia:df Wmu fjda,
a h;djla
fmkakq lrhs' tg lef;davfhka msg jk ish u bf,lafg%dak md,k cd,h fj; .uka
lrk fyhska ;srh imqKfhka wref'
Bg wu;r j oDYH m%;sodk g%dkaisiagrh lmd yk wjia:djg m;a lsfuka tys
ix.%dyl fjda,ah;dj" tk lef;dav fjda,ah;dj Wmu w.hlg m;a l< yels h'
fYaIfhka isria ysia lsf ld,h ;=< oS isria m%;sodk woshfrka + fjda,ah;djla oDYH
m%;sodk g%dkaisiagrfha fudaplhg fhoSfuka tu woshr wl%Sh lrkq ,ef'
3' ix{d ia;drh 90v olajd muK je lsu i|yd ix.%dylfha iemhq fjda,ah;dj Bg
wdikak h hq;= h' m%;Hdj; fjda,ah;dfjka l%shd lrk rEmjdyskShla k iemhqfuka
tu fjda,ah;dj ,ndfohs' 12v l iemhqfuka l%shd lrkafka k ;sria wfjda,ah;d
mKdulfhka (Fly Back Transformer) wfjda,
a h;djla fm%r
a Kh lr' th RcqlrKh lr
,nd .ks'
4' iq l fjki hkq oSma;sfha fjkihs' f i|yd ix{d ia;drh fjkia l< hq;= f' ta
i|yd mdoug fyda fudaplhg p,H m%;sfrdaOh inkaO lr N+.; lsu l< yels h'

iq l fjki wvqh

iq l fjki jeh

5' oSma;s md,kfha os isjkafka mska;+r k<hg hk bf,lafg%dak m%udKh md,kh lsuhs'
fuysoS oDYH m%;sodk g%dkaisiagrfha ix.%dylh p,H m%;sfrdaOlhla u`.ska N+.; lrkq
,ef' tg m%;sfrdaOh wvq jk g .uka lrk bf,lafg%dak N+.; f'

oSma;sh je

oSma;sh wvq

6' rEmjdysksfha iemhqu bj;a lrk g ^off lrk g& tla jr u W;al%uK o`.rj, pqnl
fCIa;%h bj;a f' tfy;a rEm k<fha mDIaGfha wdfrdamKh wvq ug h ld,hla .; f'
f jk g lef;davh o WKqiq we;' tu ksid thska msg jk bf,lafg%dak ;srh lrd

211

wdlIKh f' tg oSma;su;a ;s;la f,i osia f'th l%ufhka wvq hhs' f wdldrfhka
lsysm jrla is jqjfyd;a fmdiamr ms<siaiS hhs' th je,elaug rEmjdysksh l%shd;aul lrk
wjia:df Od;%lhla + jYfhka wdfrdamKh lr ;nd" rEmjdyskh
s off lrk g lef;davfha
bf,lafg%dak iu. WodiSk ug bv y'

iul+re fPaokh
;sria iy isria W;al%uKh i|yd wjYH jkafka ix{df ;sria iy isria iul+re
iamkao f' fuu iamkao fjka lsu iul+re fPaokhhs' iul+re iamkao ix{df Wmuh
jk ksid pnp g%dkaisiagrhla C mka;sfha jOlhla f,i keUqre lsfuka iul+re iamkao
muKla ,nd .; yels h'
bka miq fuu iamkao isria iy ;sria f,i fjka l< hq;= f' isria iul+re iamkao
isria jOl fj; o ;sria iul+re iamkao ;sria jOlh fj; o fhduq l< hq;= f' ;sria
iamkao fjka lsug l=vd Od;%l m%;sfrdaOl wvx.= wjl,lhla Nd; lrhs'

isria iul+re iamkaoh fjka lsu i|yd idfmaCI j Yd, w.hkaf.ka hq;= wkql,lhla
Nd; lrhs'

isria foda,lh yd jOlh

isria iul+re iamkao ixLHd;h 50 Hz f' fuu ixLHd;h ,nd .ekSug nyqlmlhla
fyda wjysr foda,lhla Nd; l< yels h' fuu foda,lfha ckkh jk ixLHd;h ksjeros
lsug iy iuuQ; lsu i|yd isria iul+re iamkao Nd; f' bkamiq foda,l ;rx.h
lsh;a oe;s ;rx.hla njg mj;kh lr cj jOlhla u`.ska jOkh lr W;al%uK
o`.rj,g fhduq lrkq ,ef' ta wkqj bf,lafg%dak lonh isria j mf,dalkh f' fuu
iamkaofhka idm,hla oDYH m%;sodk g%dkaisiagrh fj; o hef^isria wdmiq meKsf oS
;srh wre lsu i`oyd&'

212

;sria foda,lh yd jOlh

;sria iul+re iamkao ixLHd;h 15625 ls' mska;+r mj;skafka ;sria mf,dalkfha
bf,lafg%dak lonh ;=< h' tu ksid ixLHd;h b;d ksjeros h hq;=h' f i|yd iajhxl%Sh
ixLHd; md,khla Nd; lrkq ,nhs' bka miq ,efnk ;rx.dldrh jOkh lr ;sria
m%;sodk g%dkaisiagrh fj; fhduq lrkq ,nhs' th by< fjda,ah;djlg Tfrd;a;= fok w
ixLHd; ialrK g%dkaisiagrhls' thska m%;sodkh jkafka 15625 Hz iamkaodldr ;rx.hls'
tu iamkao W;alu
% K o`.rj,g fhduq l< g" tys fm%r
a ;djh;a fmdgj,a w;r we;s Od;djh;aa
Nd; lrka lsh;a oe;s ;rx. njg m;a f' isria m%;os dk lsh;a oe;s ;rx. foda,fkaCIhlska
ksCIKh l< yels kuq;a ;sria m%;sodk lsh;a oe;s ;rx. ksCIKh lsu wmyiq h'
lsh;a oe;s ;rx.fha YS>% nEjqf oS ckkh jk fm%
a ; '.d'n' ;sria m%;os dk mKdulfha
m%d:lhg fhduq lr oa;Shslfhka wfjda,ah;djla ckkh lr.ks' fuu mKdulfha
m%;sodkfhka my; i|yka ldhhka o bgq lr .kS'
1' l iq rEmjdyskshl k fjda,a 16000 l muK iamkaohka 15625 Hz ixLHd;hlska
ksmou' fuu fjda,ah;d iamkaoh mska;+r k<fha wefkdavhg fhdokq ,ef' mska;+r
k,fha msg; mDIaGh N+.; lr we;s ksid wNHka;r mDIaGh iu. Od;%l ls%hdjla we;s
lrhs' ^rEm k,fha wNHka;r mDIaGfha ikakdhl ia:rhla wdf,amlr we;s ksid&
tu.ska fuu w fjda,ah;d iamkao d.c fjda,ah;djla njg m;a lrhs' fuh wefkdav
fjda,ah;dj h f,i ykajk w;r lef;davfha bf,lafg%dak wefkdavh fj; f.k taug
Wmld f'
2' iajhxl%Sh ixLHd; md,khg wjYH 15625 la iamkao ,nd oSu'
3' AGC moaO;sh il%Sh lsu i|yd wjYH iamkao ,nd oSu'
4' ;ajrK md,kh i|yd wjYH 400v muK fjda,ah;dj ,nd oSu'
5' wvq fjda,ah;d iemhqj,ska l%shdlrk rEmjdysksj, oDYH m%;sodk woshrg wjYH
fjda,ah;dj ,nd oSu'
6' jK rEmjdyskSj, jK fla;lhg wjYH 15625 Hz iamkao ,nd oSu'
;sria m%;os dk g%dkaii
s g
a rhg inkaO W;alu
% K o`.rhhg iudka;r we;s wNHka;r
Od;%l 15625 Hz j,g wkqkdo we;' tneka tu ixLHd;fha oS wvq Odrdjka .,d hhs'
wNHka;r Od;%l w.hka m%udKj;a fkd jk g" ndysr Od;%l iudka;r .; lrkq ,ef'
fuu g%dkaisiagrh ialrKh jk ksid th ixjD; jQ miq .,d hk Odrdj ixjD;
mm:hla yryd .uka lrfuka Yla;s ydksh wju f' f i|yd g%dkaisiagrfha fudapl
ix.%dyl yryd vfhdavhla inkaO lr we;' fuh mukaok vfhdavh ^Damper Diode&
fyj;a CIu;d ixrCIK vfhdavh f,i ye|ska f'

213

jK rEmjdyskS ldYk iu;hka

jK rEmjdyskshlska mska;+rhla ,nd .ekSf ma; ix{d iu. jK f;dr;=re
o ,nd.; hq;= h' uQ,sl jK fyda m%d:l jK Y% lsfuka kEu jKhla ,nd .; yels
h' tl;= lsfuka jK Y% lsu iy wvq lsfuka jK Y% lsrSu hkqfjka Y% ls l%u
folls' rEmjdyskS ioyd Nd; lrkafka tl;= lsfuka jK Y% lsf l%uhhs ^Additive
Mixing& f ioyd m%d:l jK ;=kla Nd; f
r;=
ly

fld<

o
iq
uhqr
ks,a

ks,a

m%d:l jK O wkqmd;fhka tl;= lsfuka tlsfkl fjkia jQ jK ,nd .;

yels h' tu ksid kEu mska;+r uQ,hl we;s uQ,sl jK ixrpl ;=k ifm%aIKh l< yels
k tajd Y% lr m<uq jKh m%;sckkh l< yels f' jK leurdj ;=< is jkafka
mska;+r uQ,hl we;s m%d:l jraK ;=k fjka lr ta ta jKfha ma;shg iudkqmd;sl
fjda,ah;djka iq l leurd k< ;=klska ckkh lr .ekSuhs' fuu fjda,ah;djka ;=k
ifm%aIKh lsfuka miq jK rEm k<h ;=< fyda ^LCD& ;srhl tu fjda,ah;djg
wkqrEm ma;shla Bg wod< jK ;s;aj, we;s lrkq ,nhs' r isg kslaIKh lrk g
mska;+rfha ;snQ jK ta wdldrfhka u wmg ,ef' tfy;a tla tla ;srj, fhdod we;s jK
;s;aj, ;Sr;dj iy jKh wkqj mska;+rfha ienE jKh fkd ,e hdug mq`:jk'
f wkqj jK rEmjdyskS ;srhl tla mska;+r uQ,hla ilia ug m%d:l jK
;=fkys uQ, ;=kla tl;= h hq;= h' tfy;a jK oelSu ioyd wefiys mj;sk j,;djh
ksid r isg kslaIKh lrk g jK ;=k fjk fjk u fkd fmfka'
jK ix{d ifm%aIKfha tys ma; ix{dj l iq rEmjdyskS krTk whg o
kslaIKh l< yels jk f,i ilia h hq;= h' f wkqj jK ;=kg wod< fjda,ah ;djka
yd ma; ix{djg wod< fjda,ah;dj we;= j ix{d y;rla ifm%aIKh l< hq;= f' fuh
m%dfhda.sl j wmyiq lghq;a;ls' tneka jK ;=k u tl;= ma; ix{dj iEfok ksid
jK follg wod< fjda,ah;djka iy ma; ix{dj ifm%aIKh lrkq ,ef' b;ss
jKh by; ix{d ;=k Nd; lr rEmjdysksh ;=< ilia lrkq ,ef'
rEmjdyskS ix{d ifm%aIKh ioyd iu; ;=kla Nd; f'
1 NTSC - National Television System Comittee

^we't'c' 1951-1953&

2 SECAM - Seqential Colour And Memory ^ m%xYh 1957-1958 &

3 PAL - Phase Alternative Line

^cuksh 1959 &

Y%S ,xldf Nd; flfrkafka PAL B iy PAL G iu;hka h'

214

O wdodhl weka f gkd j.

wixLHd; m%;Hdj; ,s Odrdjka .,d hk ifm%aIK ud.hl fl<jr jD;
l< g tu fl<jka oahq;a pqnl ;rx. lsrKh jk nj by; olajd we;' fl<jf
isg ;rx. wdhduhlska 1/4 l rl wxYl 90 la ria l< g Wmu lsrKhla is f'
Wmufhka lsrKh is jk Ydj fl<jr ria lrk ,o wlaIhg ,nl ;,hhs' lsrK
m%foaYh oelafjk igyk O%ejl igyk ^ Polar Diagram & f,i yekaf'
Wmu lsrKh jk Ydj
/4

/4
ria lrk ,o fldgi oa fmda,hla ^Dipole& f,i yekaf' tg tys . ;rx.
wdhdufhka Nd.hls'^ /2 & ;rx. ,nd .ekSf oa fmda,hg ,n ;,fhka ,efnk
oahq;a iy pqnl lafIa;%j,ska ms<sfj,ska fjda,ah;dj iy Odrdj Wmu f,i fm%arKh
f' ;rx. wdhdufhka Nd.hg jvd 5% la .ska je f,day oKavla oa fmda,fha isg ;rx.
wdhdufhka 1/4 l rlska ;enQ g O%ejl igyk Bg reoaO Ydjg ;,af' tk" tu
Ydfjka ,efnk ;rx.j,g je m%;spdrhla olajhs' fuu oKav mrdj;lhla ^Reflector&
f,i yekaf' fuh ksid ;rx. ,nd .ekSf bfhka ,efnk ;rx.j,g je m%;spdrhla
olajk w;r msgqmiska ,efnk ;rx.j,g olajk m%;spdrh wvq f'
mrdj;lh

mrdj;lh

oa fmda,fha .ska 5% la fl f,day oKavla o fmda,fha isg ;rx. wdhdufhka

0'15la bfhka ;enQ g O%ejl igyfka b fldgi ;j;a Yd, jk w;r miQ mig we;s
fldgi l=vd f' tk bfhka ,efnk ix{djg Wmu m%;spdrhla olajhs' fuu f; jk
oKav Yd.kajkh ^ Director & f,i yekaf'
mrdj;lh

Yd.kajkh

mrdj;lh Yd.kajkh

215

fufia ilik ,o moaO;shla wekafgkdjla f,i ye|skafjk w;r oa fmda,h

mrdj;lh iy Yd .kajk uQ, ^Elements& f,i yekaf' wekafgkdjl mrdj;l h
mrdj,hla f,i ilia lsfuka iy Yd .kajk ixLHdj je lsfuka Ydk;sh je l<
yels h' fujeks Ydk; wekafgkd Nd;fhka ksh; osYdjlska ,efnk j, ix{dj,g
by< m%;spdrhla ,nd.; yels f' oa fmda,h o`vq folla ,efnk wdldrhg kud ilia l<
g tys m%Odk indokh je l< yels w;r by< m%;spdrhlao ,nd.; yelsh' th kjk
,o oa fmda,hla ^Folded Dipole& f,i ye|skaf'
mrdj;lh

osYd.kajkh

oa fmda,h
VHF mrdifha oafmda,hla fi'' 60 la muK . jk ksid msgqmiska msys mrdj;lh
mrdj,sl yevhg ilia l< yelsh' fuys mrdj;lfhka fLdjlg kdNs.; h hq;= ksid
mrdj,h ilia l< hq;af;a is,skavrhl fldgila f,ih' tfy;a ixLHd;h by< hk g
tk UHF, SHF laIq ;rx. iSudj olajd je jk g oa fmda,fha . ( / 2) fi''
lSmhlg fyda ' lSmhlg iSudf' tg th ,laIHdldr jia;=jla f,i Wml,amkh lr
mrdj;lh jD;a;dldr mrdj,sl yevhlg ilia l< yels f' fuys oa fmda,fha isg
mrdj;lhg r ;rx. wdhdufha .=Kdldrhla f,i je lr Yd, mrdj,hla fhfuka
b;d j, ix{d vhsfmda,h fj; kdNs .; l< yels f' fjd mrdj,sl wekafgkd f,i
yekaf'
wekagkdj
iy LNA
mrdj,sl
mrdj;lh

216

ixLHdxl rEmjdysks m%pdrKh

rEmjdyskS leurdjlska ksl=;a jk m%;s iu ix{dj ixLHdxl rgdjla njg mj;kh
lr ifm%aIKh lsfuka jdis lsysmhla w;a f' ixLHdxl rgdjla njg mj;kh lsu
i|yd Nd; l< yels le igykla my; oela f'

m%;siu

kshe lsu

m%udK

fla;

iy r|jd ;nd

lrKh

lsu

ixLHdxl

.ekSu
fuu ldhdj,sh rEmjdyskS ix{dj imQKfhka ilia l< miq ^iuuQ; iamkao
we;=<;a l< miq& ifm%aIlhg fhduq lsug fmr is lrkq ,nhs'
1' kshe lsu iy r|jd ;nd .ekSu' (Sample & Hold)

m<uqfjka m%;siu ix{df ia;drh h ld,dj;hlg jrla ukskq ,nhs' fuh

ksheos lsu f,i yeka f' bkamiq b;d iq f,djla ^uhsfl%da ;;amr 3 la muK& r|jd
;nd .kS' tfia lsfuka ksjer j fjda,ah;dj uek.; yels h' kshe lsf ixLHd;h
fS k
fS

1 f
TS

2' m%udKlrKh # (Quanti Zation)

kshe lsfuka miq ,efnk w.h mQK ixLHdjla fkd h yels h' tu ksid
kshefhka ,efnk w.h mQK ixLHdjla njg mj;kh l< hq;= h' fuu l%shdj
m%udKlrKh f,i yeka f'
WodyrKhla f,i ksheh 4.4 V k th 4 V f,i m%udKlrKh f' 4.6 V
k 5V f,i m%udKlrKh f' tg m%udKlrKfha i;H w.h wvq fyda je jk
nj fmfka'

217

fmfka' fuh m%udKlrKfha fodaIh f,i yeka f' f wkqj"

Wmu m%udklrK fodaIh =

m%udKlrK ug folla w;r fjki

2

fuu fodaIh wvq lsug m%udKlrK ug folla w;r mr;rh wvq l< hq;= h'
tjg Wmu ixLHdj oelaug ug Yd, ixLHdjla wjYH f' ta wkqj tla tla
ugu oelau i|yd wjYH oauh ixLHdxl .Kk je f'
3' fla; lsu # (Coding)
fla; lsf ,efnk oYu ixLHd oauh ixLHd njg mj;kh lrkq ,nhs'
m%udK lsf ug .Kk je jk g oauh ixLHd .Kk o je l< hq;= h'
WodyrKhla f,i m%udklrK ug .Kk 16 la k oauh ixLHd .Kk 4lska fuu
ug .Kk oelah yelsh' rEmjdysksj, m%udKlrK ug 255 la fhdokq ,ef'
tg tu ixLHdj ixLHdxl 8 lska oelah yels h'
0

0000

0000

0000

0001

0000

0010

0000

0011

1111

1111

'
'
'
'
255

bka miq fuu ixLHdxl fY%aKsh i|yd wod< fjda,ah;d iamkao fY%aKsfhka ,nd
.; yels h'
Wod #

fuu ix{dj u`.ska jdylhka uQPkh lr th ifm%aIKh l< yels h'

218

ixLHdxl l%ufhka rEmjdyskS ldYkh lsf jdis

1'

kshe ls folla w;r ;j;a kd,sld rdYshl kshe ls fhh yels h' ^nqyqm;a
lrKfhka& tu`.ska tla ud.hla fyda jdylhla Nd; lr kd,sld rdYshla
ifm%aIKh l< yels h'

2'
3'

ix{djg is jk ydkS kej; m%lD;su;a lsu b;d myiq h'

uQ; ;rx.fha Wi ksh; neka ifm%aIlhg fhh hq;= cjh b;s lr .;
yels h'
ix{dj w;r ueka ,nd .ekSf wjia:d fnfyka wvq f'

4'

219

14' m.Kl fufyhq moaO;s

m.Kl oHdj (Computer Science) yodrK g nyq, j u Nd; jk jpk folla
jYfhka oDVdx. (Hardware) iy uDldx. (Software) yekah yels h' oDVdx. hkq
m.Klfha we;s iamY l< yels ish u fN!;sl fldgia h' ta wkqj oDVdx. Nd;
lrka m.Klhla tl,ia lr thg ,sh iemhQ muKska u th kshu lsh
% dld ;;a;j
a hlg
m;a lr .; fkd yels h' tneka oDVdx. lsh
% d lrk wdldrh lsih
s NdIdjlska m.Klfha
uOH ieliq tallhg (C.P.U.) oekq h hq;= h' tk ta oDVdx. wjYH m yeisrug
ke;fyd;a fufyh ug" oDVdx.j,g jegfyk NdIdjlska Wmfoia ,nd h hq;= f'
fufia oDVdx. fufyh u i|yd Nd; lrkq ,nk m%Odk Wmfoia we;=<;a uDldx.h
fufyhq moaO;s uDldx.h (Operating System Soft Ware) hkqfjka yekafjhs' f uska
m.Klfha we;s oDVdx.j, ksjeros ls%hdld;ajh ,nd .; yels h' m.Klfha uq,a wj
j, fufyhq moaO;sh ;e uska ls%hd;aul l< yels h' f ksid th (D.O.S.- Disk
Operating System) jYfhka yekah' tu fufyhq moaO;sfha fYaIhla jQfha ;%l
mYS,l w;=re uqyK
q ;la (Graphical User Interface) fkdue;s j Odkj,ska muKla lsh
% d;aul
u h' f ksid is jk foh Nd; lrkakdg oek .ekSug fkd yels f' fuys m%;sM,hla
jYfhka miq ld,Sk j ;%l w;=re uqyK
q ;a iys; fufyhq moaO;s ys h' fujeks fufyhq
moaO;shla f,i kafvdaia (Windows) keue;s fufyhq moaO;sh oelah yels h ' uq,a u
ld,j, Windows 3.0 fufyhq moaO;s Nd; h' wk;=rej tajdfha O ixialrK
(Versions) ys h' tk" Windows 95, 98, 2000, ME, XP, Vista, Server 2000, Server 2003
f,i h'

fuys (Server - 2000, Server - 2003) wd fufyhq moaO;s Nd; jkafka m.Kl
cd,j, f;dr;=re mj;ajd f.k hk yd im;a iemhS is lrk m.Klj, h' wksla
fufyhq moaO;s ksfjiaj," ldhd,j, Nd;hg iqiq f,i ilia lr we;' f
ixialrKj,g wu;r j fjk;a fufyhq moaO;s jQ Linux, Unix, Ubuntu kj,ska jQ
fkdf,a ,nd .; yels ksoyia uDldx. (Open source) ys we;'
m.Klhg iqiq fufyhq moaO;shla f;dard .ekSf tu f;dard .kakd fufyhq
moaO;sh Nd; lrkakdf.a wjYH;djg .e<fmk yd m.Klfha we;s oDVdx.j,g .e<fmk
fufyhq moaO;shla h hq;= f' bka miq th ksjer j ia:dmkh l< hq;= h'

fufyhq moaO;shla ia:dmkh lsu

1' m%:ufhka m.Klhg ,sh imhd th ls%hdrN lr" h;=re mqjref we;s DEL/F2
^m.Klhg wkqj& h;=r ;o l< hq;= h' tg m.Klh CMOS/BIOS set up lrd <d
f'

220

2' tys m.Klh uQ,Sl j u mK .ekah hq;= wdldrh .ek Wmfoia wvx.= jevigykla
jk Bios jevigyk wdrN f' tysos my; ;srhg iudk ;srhla olakg ,ef'
fuu jevigyfka we;s fukQ (Menu)
j,ska m.Kl ^fukq ;=<g .uka lsug
Arrow yd Enter h;=r Nd; lrhs & wdrNl
wkqlu
% h (Boot sequence) ilia l< hq;= h'
fuys m<uq jk wdrNl Wml%uh 1st
Boot device jYfhka CD ROM yd fo
jk jk wdrNl Wml%uh jYfhka HDD
fhdod .; hq;= h'
3' bka miq tys Save & Exit fukqjg f.dia" Save lr ^iq/l& bj;a h hq;= h' ^ bj;a ug
fmr ixhqla; ;e Odjlh (CD ROM) ;=<g fufyhq moaO;shla iys; ixhqla; ;eh
we;=<;a l< hq;= h'&
4' bkamiq j m.Kl ;srfha Press any key to boot from CDf,i fmkajk g h;=re
mqjref tkag h;=r fyda fjk keu h;=rla ;o l< hq;= h' tg Odjlh uska
ls%hdrN ;srh u; Setup is inspecting your computer's hardware configration ... hk
jdlH m%oYkh lrhs
5' l f,djlg miq Windows setup f,i ks,a meye;s ;srhla ,ef' fuu ;srfha oS jka
jr fmkajk Odk yd Wmfoia ms<smoska fufyhq moaO;sh ia:dmkh l< hq;= h'
6' ta wkqj fufyhq moaO;sh ia:dmkh lsf mshjrj,a lsysmhlg wod< ;srhka olakg
,efnk w;r tys os B<. mshjrg hdug" ;o l< hq;= h;=r o tajdfha oelaf' fuu ;srhka
w;r m<uq j my; oelafjk ;srh ,ef'
fuu ;srh l f,djla ;sfnk w;r fuys
my; we;s ;Sref ol=Kq fl<jka O f.dkq
k ls y s m hla jka jr fjkia fjka
fmkajhs'^tk fufyhq moaO;sh ia:dmkh
lsu is lrk f.dkq u;lhg .ekSu fuys oS
isf'& fuys os Tn lsisjla lsug wjYH fkd
jk w;r B<. ;srh mefKk f;la n,d
iskak'
bka miq mefKk fuu ;srfha kafvdaia
fufyhq moaO;sh ia:dmkh lsug iqodk nj;a"
boshg hd hq;= k tkag h;=r ;o lrk f,i;a
mjihs' fuys oS Tn l< hq;af;a h;=re mqjref
tkag h;=r ;o lsuhs'

221

bka miq ,efnk fuu ;srfha oS fufyhq

moaO;sh ksIamdolhska iska bosm;a lr we;s
.siqug tl. oehs uikq ,nhs' tys oS Tn
iska h;=re mqjref F8 h;=r ;o lr .siqug
tl. h hq;= h'

fuu ;srfh oS fufyhq moaO;sh msysgq

h hq;= oDV ;eh(Hand Disk) f;ah hq;=
f' ;j o oDV ;eh fldgiaj,g fjka
lsf wjia:dj o (Partition) fuys oS ys f'
ta wkqj fuys oelafjk Wmfoia wkqj f.dia
oDV ;eh fldgia lsysmhlg fjka lr
wjidkfha fufyhq moaO;sh ia:dmkh l<
hq;= fldgi f;dard tkag h;=r ;o l< hq;=
f'
bka miqj f;dard .;a oDV ;eh fyda oDV
;efha fjka l< fldgi wdlD;slrKh
(Format) l< hq;= wdldrh uik w;r thska
Format tha partition using the NTFS file system f;dard^Arrow Keys Nd; lrkak& tkag
h;=r ;o lrkak'

tg oDV ;eh Format u is jk w;r th ;srfha ly meye;s fldgqjla ms hka

olakg ,ef' bka miqj oDV ;ehg fufyhq moaO;s f.dkq msgm;a u wdrN jk w;r
th o ;srfha fmr mos u olakg ,ef' moaO;s f.dkq msgm;a jQ miq m.Klh kej; m%;s
mK .ekafjk w;r" tys oS uq,ska oelajQ mos Press any key to boot from CDf,i
mKsjqvh osia jk fudfydf;a lsisu h;=rla tu is fkd l< hq;= h' tg my; m<uq
rEmfha ;srh o h f,djlg miq fo jk rEmfha ;srh o ,efnkq we;'

222

by; fo jk rEmfha Next fnd;a;u la,sla lr bka miq ,efnk ixjdo fldgqj
;=< Tf ku iy wdh;kh we;=<;a lr kej; Next fnd;a;u la,sla l< hq;= h'
tg ,efnk fldgqf ils%h lsf fla;h (Product Key) we;=<;a lsug wjia:dj
mefKa' tg ixfla; ^wkq,laIK& 25 lska iuka; ils%h lsf fla;h we;=<;a l<
hq;= h' th ksjer j we;=<;a l<fyd;a muKla fufyhq moaO;sh bhg ia:dmkh
f'
bkamiq oskh yd f,dj iEoSug;a" f,d l,dmh f;aug;a wjia:dj ,efnk
w;r tajd iqiq mos ieliSu is lr bkamiq ,efnk ixjdo fldgqj, os. u Next
fnd;a;u la,sla lrka hkak' wjidkfha Welcome ljQ`:j fmkajkq ,nhs'

bka miq j ,efnk fuu ;s r fha oS

m.Klh wdrCId lsug wod< ieliS
f;ah hq;= w;r miqj wdrCIl ms<sfj;a
fhdokafka k Not right now .. f;au la,sla
lr Next fnd;a;u la,sla lrkak

wjidkfha m.Klh Nd; lrkakkaf.a

k fuys oS we;=<;a lr Next fnd;a;u la,l
s a
lr bka miq Finish fnd;a;u la,sla l< g
fufyhq moaO;sh ia:dmkh lsf l%h
s dj,sh
wjika f'

fufyhq moaO;sh iu jev lsu

fufyhq moaO;sh mK .eka jQ miq tys O w;=re uqyqK;a oel .; yels h' fuys
fYaIfhka u m.Klfha m%Odk w;=re uqyqK; fvialafgdma(Desktop) f,i yekaf'
th my; rEmfha oelaf'
m.Klh ls%hdrN lsug" moaO;s tallh
(System unit) u; we;s iaph (Power Switch)
;o l< hq;= f' m.Klh keje;au i|yd
m.Kl w;=re uqyqKf;a (Desktop) we;s Start
Button u; ujqih ;olsfuka ,efnk fukqf
we;s Turn Off Computer u; la,sla lr ,efnk
ljq`:f we;s Turn Off u; ujqih ;o lsfuka
miq " l f,djls k a m.Klh Shut down
;;a;ajhg m;a l< yels f'
223

m.Klfha O w;=re uqyqK;a

m.Klfha m%Odk w;=re uqyqKf;a (Desktop) ysia ;ekl ujqifha ol=Kq fnd;a;u ;o
lsfuka mefKk fukqf Properties jpkh u; la,sla lsfuka miq mefKk ljq`:f
we;s Desktop msgqj f;dard tys Background fldgqj ;=<ska yd msx;+rhl kula u; la,sla
lsfuka yd Appearance msgqf we;s whs;u fjkia lsfuka w;=re uqyqK; fjkia lr .;
yels h'

f*da,av ksudKh lsu

m.Klfha f*da,av ksudKh lsug my; wdldr lsysmfhka kEu tlla fhdod
.; yels f'

Desktop

Drivec

Right Click
Open

File

New

Folder

New

Folder

f*da,avrhla jD; (Open) lr th ;=<g O wdldrfha f.dkq we;=<;a l< yels

h' f.dkq we;=<;a lsu" Move Nd; lsfuka o" Copy/Paste uska o l< yels f'
f.dkqjlg kula ,nd fok g th ksjer ,nd h hq;= f' fuys oS tla f*da,avrhla
;=<g we;=<;a lr we;s f.dkqjl kula iys; yd tu f.dkq os.=j u iys; fjk;a f.dkqjla
tu f*da,avrh ;=<g we;=<;a l< fkd yels h' fufia lsug ;e;a l< g w;ska we;=<;a
lsug ;e;a lrk kka jQ f.dkqjla" oekgu;a tu ia:dkfha we;s nj yd oekg we;s
f.dkqj uld th fjkqjg w;a f.dkqj fhosh hq;= oehs wika mKsv fldgqjla ,ef'
t;=<ska is h hq;= fohg wod< fnd;a;u th hq;= h' kuq;a tl u kduhla iys; jqj;a
tlsfklg fjkia .= iys; f.dkq tl u ia:dkhl^f*da,avrhla ;=<& ksudKh l< yels
f' tk (Book.Doc, Book.xls, Book.PPt, Book.Txt) wd jYfhks'

f.dkq yd f*da,av fiu

Seach uska ,efnk ixjdo fldgqj
f.dkqjla fyda f*da,v
a rhla fiug Start
Nd; l< yels h' fuu ixjdo fldgqf" fih hq;= f.dkqf ku ,nd oSug we;s fldgqf"
O l%uj,g f.dkq ku we;=<;a l< yels h' ksoiqkla f,i f.dkqf ku fkdokakd
jqj;a .=j okafka k" weia%la i,l=Kg(*) miqj ;s; o^'& bkamiq .=j o" fldgqj ;=<g
we;=<;a lsfuka wod< f.dkqj fidhd .; yels h' tfia u .=j fkd okakd kuq f.dkqf
ku okafka k" fih hq;= f.dkq kduh f,i ZZf.dkq ku . *ZZ ,nd oSu uska wod<
f.dkqj fidhd .; yels f' tfia u kulska fldgila okakd g tu kf

224

fldgi iu * i,l=K ,nd f.dkqj fih yels h' ksoiqkla f,i Pap hk
wl=re j,ska mgka .kakd kula iys; yd f.dkqf .=j o fkd okakd g" fi fldgqj
;=< fidhk f.dkqf ku ZZPap* . * ZZ f,i ,nd h hq;= f' ta wkqj * i,l=fKka
oelafjkafka kE u wl=re ixLHdjla we;s jpkhla hkakhs'

MS Word Nd;fhka f,aLkhla ilia lsu

Start
Program
MS Office
Word 2004 fyda fvialafgdma
tl u; we;s MS Word ksrEmlh (Icon)
u; fojrla ujqih ;o lsfuka tu
jevigykg msish yels f' fuu jevigyk Nd;fhka ,smshla fyda fjk;a
f,aLkhla ilia lsug yels h' tys oS m%:ufhka u" tu f,aLkh fyda ,smsh ilia lrkq
,nk lvodisfha m%udKh f;ah hq;= h' f i|yd file
page set up la,sla lsfuka
,efnk my; rEmfha oelafjk ixjdo fldgqj Nd; lrhs'
fuys we;s msgq(Tab) ;=fkka Paper Tab tl
f;dard f.k ta ;=< we;s Paper size jpkhg
my<ska we;s fldgqj u; la,sla l< g os.
yefrk fukq tlska lvodisfha m%udKhla f;ah
hq;=h' ^Wod ( A4, A5, Letter) tfia ke;s k
Width yd Height fldgq ;=<g msgqf ;sh hq;=
os. yd m<, ,nd osh hq;= h'
tfia u fuu ixjdo fldgq f m<uq
msgqj(Tab) jk Margine msgqj f;dard tys we;s
Top,Bottom.Left,Right fldgq ;=<g msgqf
by<ska" my<sska" jka yd ol=fKka lsisjla
fkd,sh h hq;= ysia bv m%udKh f;au l<
yels h'

wl=rej, iajNdjh fjkia lsu

fuys h;=re ,shkh (Type) lsug wjYH wl=re (Fonts) j.h f;dard .ekSu" wl=re
j, m%udKh" Wod ( ^12" 14" 18& f;dard .ekSu wdh fjkia lsu i|yd word jevigyk ;=<
olakg we;s my; oelafjk ;Sref we;s fuj, u; la,sla lsfuka is lr .; yels h'
fuu ;Sref we;s fuj, (Tools) ish,a, my; rEm igyfka olajd we;'

225

4 5

8 9

10

1- wl=re j.h f;ah yels h'^O iajrEmfha bx.%Sis wl=re" isxy, wl=re wdosh&
2- wl=rej, m%udKh f;ah yels h'
3- wl=re ;o meye lrhs'
4+- wl=re we, lrhs'
5- wl=re hka brla w|shs'
6- jdlH fma<sa jYfhka msgqf jug" ueog" ol=Kg yd fomig iunr l< yels h'
7- fma<S w;r mr;rh fjkia l< yels h'
8- lreKq oelaf oS tajd wxlkh l< yels h'
9- lreKq oelaf oS tjd ixfla; l< yels h'^;re ,l=Kq hgf;a lreKq oelau&
10- wl=rej, jKh fjkia l< yels h'

j.=jla we;==`: lsu

Insert
Table f;ah hq;=
j.=jla we;=`: lsug Menu bar tfla we;s Table
h' tg ,efnk ixjdo fldgqf we;s Row j,g j.=f ;sh hq;= fma<s .Kk;a" Column
;=<g j.=f ;sh hq;= ;SrE .Kk;a ,nd oSu is lr tys we;s OK fnd;a;u la,sla l< g
j.=j ,nd .; yels h'

mska;+rhlaa we;=<;a lsu

Picture
Clip Art f;arE g word ljq`:f ol=Kq miska ,efnk
Insert
Clip Art fldgqj ;=< we;s Search Text : jpkhg my<ska we;s fldgqj ;=< wjYH rEmfha ku
ghsma lr tys we;s fnd;a;u la,sla lrkak'
tg tu kka msx;+r we;ak tajd Bg my<ska we;s fldgqj ;=< fmkajk w;r" tafia
fmkajk msx;+rhla u; la,sla l< g ,efnk fukqf Insert jpkh u; click l< g
msx;+rh msgqj ;=<g we;=<;a lr .; yels h'

f,aLkh uqKh lsu

Word jevigyk ;=< oS ,smshla ilia lr tys oDV msgm;la (Hard copy) ,nd .ekSu
i|yd uqlh (Printer) Nd; l< hq;= w;r th is lr .ekSug wjYH ixjdo fldgqj ,nd
print u; la,sla lsfuka is lr .; yels h'
.ekSug fukq ;Sref we;s File
Print ixjdo fldgqj ,eug m.Klfha uqK hka;%hlg wh;a Odjl f.dkq msysgqjd
;sh hq;= h' ke;fyd;a fuu ixjdo fldgqj fmkajkafka ke;' Odjl f.dkq msysgqjd we;s
k fuys oelafjk B<. rEmfha Name: fldgqj ;=< uqlfha ku fmkajhs'

226

f ixjdo fldgqf printer rduqj hgf;a we;s

Name : fldgqfjka uqKh is lrk uqlfha ku o"
Page range rduqj hgf;a we;s
All f;are g f,aLkfha we;s msgq ish,a, o"
Current page f;are g oekg lirh /|s we;s msgqj o"
Pages: f;dard wjYH msgq wxl bosfhka we;s fldgqj ;=< ghsma lsu o"
Number of copies: jpkh bosfhka we;s fldgqj ;=<g tla f,aLkhlska wjYH msgm;a
ixLHdj o ,nd osh hq;= f' by; mos wjYH ish,a, ilia lr (fYaIfhka fuys we;s
Properties fnd;a;u Tnd ,efnk ljq`:j ;=<ska uqK lvodisfha m%udKh o ksis wdldrhg
ieliSu l< hq;= h'& wjidkfha fuu fldgqf we;s OK fnd;a;u tfuka uqKh wdrN
oDV msgm; ,nd .; yels f'

m.Kl ffjri
m.Klfha fyda th Nd; lrkakdf.a fyda wkqoekqulska f;drj iajhxlS%h j u
mrs.Klh ;=< fjkia ls is lrka l%shd;aul jk jevigykla^l%uf,aLhla&" mrs.Kl
ffjrihla f,i ye|sk
a h yels h' f l%uf,aL (Programme) IaG fla; (Malicious Code)
jYfhka o yekafjhs' O mqoa.,hska iska" whym;a wruqKq bgq lr .ekSug ilia lr
we;s fuu ffjria jevigykaj,g iajhxl%sh j u l%shd;aul h yels h' tfia u fuu
ffjria jevigykaj,g iajhxl%sh j u msgm;a (Copy) f yelshdj we;'^tk ;ud iska
;ud u msgm;a lsu is l< yelsh'& tneka fjd b;d kdYld l%uf,aLhka f'
fjd wka;cd,h" mEka Odjl" ixhqla; ;e (Internet, Pendrive, CD ROM, Floppy
disk) yd wkshka ilia lr we;s jevigyka iys; (Crack lrk ,o WindowsXP jeks&
;e uska o O wjia:dj, ils%h u is h yels h' tneka uDldx. ,nd .kakd

227

g tajdfha n,m;% iys; uDldx.u (Licensed Soft Ware) f;dard .ekSu jvd;a iqiq
f'
nyq,j u mj;sk ffjrihla jYfhka fg%dacka fydaia ^Trojen Horse& yekah yels
h' fjdg jvd Yd, jYfhka m.Klhg ydks muqKqjk ffjria j. g l,ska ;snqK
o oekg mj;sk m%;sffjria uDldx.j,g tajd bj;a lsf yelshdj we;' we;e g
ffjria jevigyka m.Klh ;=< ;ekam;a j ;s" iuyr kj, muKla ls%hd;aul u
o is h yels h' m.Kl ffjria uska my; oelafjk wdldrfha ydks m.Klhg we;s
l< yels h'
oDV ;eh format lsu
Boot Sector ;=< we;s f.dkq uld oeu
mrs.Kl u;lhka jk RAM fyda ROM/Bios w;am;a lrf.k tajdfha we;s
o;a; uld oeu'
oDV ;eh mqrd u iajhxl%sh j u msgm;a fjka" oDV ;efha Nd; l< yels
Od;dj wys lsu'
ffjriaj, ;j;a fYaI;ajhla jkafka tajdg m.Kl cd, yryd" ;uka iska u
ifma%IKh ug yels uhs'
mrs.Klhla ;=<g ffjria we;=`: h yels wjia:djla jYfhka wka;cd,h yd oHq;a
;emE, (E-Mail) yekah yels h' wka;cd,h uska O uDldx. yd o;a; nd.; (Down
head) lsf fYaIfhka u fkdf,a ,nd .; yels O uDldx. iu. ffjria
m.Klhg we;=`: h yels h' tfia u oHq;a ;emE, Nd;fha o O j.fha m.Kl
ffjria we;=`: h yels h'

ffjria wdrlaIl uDldx. ^m%;sffjria uDldx.& (Antivirus Software)

wka;cd,h yd inkaO f m.Klh ffjriaj,ska wdrlaId lsu i|yd m%;s
ffjria uDldx. nyq, j Nd; flf' f uska fYaIfhka u wka;cd,h fj;ska
mefKk O j.fha ffjria m.Klhg we;=`: u j<lajd .efkhs'
nyq, j Nd; flfrk m%;sffjria uDldx. f,i my; tajd oelah yels h'
Macafee

Norton

Kasper Sky

AVG

Avast

flfia jqj o kEu m%;sffjria uDldx.hla jka jr hdj;a ld,Sk lsu update
l< hq;= h' ta uska w;ska ys jk ffjria j. ykd .ekSug m%;sffjria uDldx.hg

228

yelshdj ,ef' fufia hdj;a ld,Sk lsu i;shlg j;djla" uilg jrla f,i
;ukaaf.a is;e`.s wdldrhg wka;cd,h ;=<ska is lr .; yels h'
kEu f*da,avrhla fyda f.dkqjla u; ujqifha ol=Kq fnd;a;u tfuka ,efnk
fukqf we;s Scan for virus la,l
s a lsfuka tu f*da,v
a rh ;=< ffjria ;sf oehs kslaIKh
l< yels w;r tajd uld oef yelshdj o we;' f ksid m.Klh;a iu jev lsf
CD, Pendrive jeks foa ks;r m%;sffjria uDldx.h u.ska mCId lr ne,sh hq;= h'

229

15' m.Kl NdId

fh uDldx. (Application Software)

m.Kl i|yd Nd; flfrk uDldx. uQ,sl jYfhka fldgia follg fjka lr
we;' tk"
1' moaO;s uDldx.

(System Soft ware)

2' fh uDldx.

(Application Soft ware)

m.Klfha oDVdx. yd uDldx. w;r inkaO;dj mj;ajd f.k hdu" tajd hdj;a
ld,Sk lsu" fodaI ksjer lsu wd ish ldhhka i|yd" moaO;s uDldx. Nd; flfrhs'
moaO;s uDldx.j,g ksoiqka jYfhka Windows 95,98,XP, Vista, 7 iy wksl=;a iyhl
jevigyka (Utility Programs)oelah yels h'

Bg wu;r j mrs.Klh Nd; lrkakdg wjYH lrkakdjq ldhhla bgq lr .ekSug

hdf " tu ldhh bgq lr .; yels jev igykla ^uDldx.hla& wjYH f' ta wkqj
Nd; lrkakdf.a wjYH;dj bgq lr .ekSu i|yd Nd; lrk uDldx. fh uDldx.
jYfhka ykajhs' Wod ( MS Office, Auto Cad, Jet Audio, Page Marks, Photo shop

fjdg wu;r j w;ska u m.Kl jevigykla$uDldx.hla ksudKh lsu

fyj;a l%uf,aLhla ilia lsu i|yd O m.Kl NdId jevigyka (Languages) Nd;
flfrhs' fuu m.Kl NdId jevigyka u.ska O uDldx. ieliSu fyj;a l%uf,aL
,su b;d myiqh' m.Klfha oDV fldgiaj,g Rcqj u f;are .; yels yd m.Klh ;=<
l%shd;aul jk m.Klfha NdIdj jk hka;% NdIdj (Machine Language) fhdod f.k
uDldx.hlg wh;a l%uf,aLhla ,sug mYS,lhdg wmyiq h' tneka fjk;a O by<
ugf m.Kl NdId Nd; lrka l%uf,aL ieliSu is flfrhs' fuys my< ugf
NdId (Low Level Language) jYfhka hka;% NdIdj ^oauh NdIdj$1"0 NdIdj& yekah
yels w;r by< ugf NdId (High Level Languages) jYfhka VB6, VB.net, C++, C #,
Java, jeks NdId jevigyka yekah yels h'

230

m.Kl NdIdj, mKduh

m.Kl i|yd fuf;la Nd; lr we;s NdId j." ldKav ;=klg fjka l< yels h'
1'
2'
3'

hka;% NdIdj
tfi,s NdIdj
by< ugf NdIdjka

(Machine Language)
(Assembly Language)
(High Level Languages)

hka;% NdIdj (Machine Language)

m<uq mrmrdf m.Kl NdId hkqfjka o f NdId yekah yels h' f NdIdj
uQ,sl j u 0 yd 1 u; mok we;' f ksid f NdId m.Klhg Rcq j u f;are
.; yels f' tfy;a f NdIdfjka m.Klh fj; f;dr;=re ,nd ug th Nd;
lrkakdg fnfyka u Ialr f' tneka fuu NdId my< ugf NdId jYfhka ykajk
,os' tfia u fuu NdId" m.Kl j.h wkqj fjkia f' tk" Intel iud.ka ksmojk
uOH ieliq tall (CPU) iys; m.Kl i|yd ilia lrk ,o jev igykla" AMD fyda
fjk;a j.hl CPU tlla we;s m.Klhl ls%hd;aul l< fkd yels f' tfia u fuu
NdIdfjka l%uf,aL ,sug l%uf,aLlhdf.a m.Kl oDVdx. ms<sn| oekqu o by< ugul
;su jeo.;a f'

tfi,s NdIdj (Assembly Language)

f NdIdj fojk mrmrdf m.Kl NdIdjla jYfhka o yekah yels h' fuh
m<uq mrmrdf m.Kl NdIdjg jvd Nd; lrkakdg u|la myiq jk wdldrhg ilia
l< NdIdjla f' fuys b;d fl Odk lsysmhla muKla Nd; lsug yels h' f
i|yd Nd; flfrk Odk lsysmhla jYfhka MOV, Add, Sub yd O ixfla; oelah
yels h' fjd o fYaIfhka u ta ta hka;%hkag u iSud jQ" hka;% u; hefmk NdId jYfhka
ye|skah yels h' flfia fj;;a f NdIdjlska ,shk ,o jevigyka Rcq j u m.Khg
,nd oSfuka ls%hd lr h fkd yel' ta ksid fjd fjk;a NdId mj;l jevigykla
uska kej; hka;% NdIdjg yrjd oSu l< hq;= h'

by< ugf NdIdjka (High Level Languages)

f NdId ;=ka jk mrmrdf m.Kl NdId jYfhka o ye|skah yels h' f NdId
fYaIfhka u m.Kl mYS,khg jvd;a myiq jk wkaoug ilia lr we;' fuu NdId
m.Klhg Rcq j u f;are .; fkd yels h' fYaIfhka u Odk ,nd oSu ke;fyd;a
l%uf,aLh ,su i|yd ir, bx.S%is NdIdj fhdod f.k we;' fuu NdId hka;% u;

231

hemSu is fkdf' l%uf,aLhla ilia l< miq kEu m.Klhl ls%hd;aul l< yels
f'
fjd hka;% NdIdjg yerug fjk;a mj;l jevigykla fhdod .kS' f
NdIdj,g WodyrK jYfhka C, C++, VB ye|skah yels h'

m.Kl NdIdjla Nd; lr .eg i|Su

lsish m.Kl NdIdjla Nd; lrka .egjla i|Sf oS ta Wmfoia b;d u
l%udkql+, j m.Klh fj; ,nd osh hq;= h' f i|yd fYaIs; jQ mshjr lsysmhla
wkq.ukh l< hq;= h' tk"

1' m%:ufhka u ,nd .kakd ,o .egj Yaf,aIKh lsu'

f u.ska woyia jkafka .egf we;s m%odkhka(Input) yd m%;sodkhka(Output) yd
m%odkh$m%;sodkh w;r ish hq;= ls%hdj,sh(Process) ms<sn| j Yaf,aIKd;aul j .eUqka
fidhd ne,Su h'
fuhg WodyrKhla jYfhka RcqfldaKdi%hl j.M,h fidhk wdldrh Yaf,aIKh
lr n,uq' fuys"
m%odk $wdodk (Input)
RcqfldaKdi%fha os. yd m<, f'
ls%hdj,sh (Process)
os. x m<, f'
m%;sodkh (Output)
by; .=K lsfuka ,efnk m%;sM,h f'

2' .egj i|Su i|yd we,af.d;u (Algoritham) f.dvke.Su'

lsish .egjla i|Su i|yd .egf uq, isg i|Sf wjika wjia:dj olajd" is
l< hq;= mshjr ms<sfj<lg fm< .eiau fuhska woyia f' by; WodyrKhg wkqj tys
we,af.d;uh my; wdldrhg oelah yels h'

3'

RcqfldaKdi%fha os. ,nd .ekSu'

RcqfldaKdi%fha m<, ,nd .ekSu'
tys os. x m<, = j.M,h jYfhka ye|skau
j.M,h m%ldY lsu

f.dvke.+ we,af.d;u l%uf,aLhlg mj;kh lsu'

by;ska ilia lr .;a we,af.d;u lsish m.Kl NdIdjla yryd ksjeros j m.Kl
.; l< hq;= h' f i|yd fhdod .; yels tla m.Kl NdIdjla jYfhka VB ye|skah
yels h' f i|yd C, Fortran, Pascal jeks NdId Nd; l< yels f' kj;u NdIdjla jk
Phython NdIdj o f i|yd Nd; l< yels h'

232

Iqj,a fisla (Visual Basic)

m.Klh Nd; lrkakdg b;d myiqfjka Nd; lr w;a uDldx. ilid .; yels
m.Kl NdIdjla jYfhka Iqj,a fisla (VB) oelah yels h' fuh Microsoft iud.u
iska bosm;a lr we;s NdId ixjOk jevigykla jk w;r" fuu NdIdj fhdod f.k
ilia lrk m.Kl jevigyka l%shd;aul jkafka kafvdaia fufyhq moaO;sh iys;
m.Klj, muKs'
tfia u fuu NdId ixjOk jevigyk Nd;fhka ilia lrkq ,nk l%uf,aLh ;=<
iEu fohla u jia;=jlska (Object) oela f' jia;=jla hkq lsish rEmhla" kula " jkd
lula iy O l%shdjka islrk tlsfklska fjka fjka j ykd.; yels Wmdx. f'
fnd;a;" ljQ`:" mdG fldgq" ,ehsia;= fldgq wdosh fujeks jia;+ka f'

m.Klfha Visual Basic 6.0

ia:dmkh lr we;ak

Start
All Programme
Microsoft Visual Basic 6 f;dard la,sla l< g
my; wdldrhg VB w;=re uqyqK; (Interface) jD; ug wod< ;srh olakg ,ef'

Iqj,a fisla wdrN lsug fuu ;srh ,enqKq g rEmfha oelafjk mos O
jHmD;s j. ^Iqj,a fislaj,ska ilia lrk l%uf,aLhla jHdmD;shla f,i ieliSug ,la
f'& oelafjk w;r thska m<uq whslkfhka oelafjk Standard EXE jHdmD;sh f;dard
Open fnd;a;u la,sla l< hq;= f'

233

bkamiq Iqj,a fisla i|yd jk imQK ljq`:j olakg ,efnk w;r th jevigyka
ixjOk w;=re uqyK
q ; Ingergrated Development Environments (IDE) f,i ykajkq ,ef'
fuys my; olajd we;af;a VB IDE tll we;s O ljq`: (window) j.h'

1
4

2
6

by; rEm igyfka wxlj,ska oelafjk wdldrhg ljq`: j. lsysmhla k l< yels
h'
1'
2'
3'
4'
5'
6'
7'

m%Odk fukqj
f*da ie,iq ljq`:j
jHdmD;s .fIK ljq`:j
fuj, fmh
.=Kdx. ljq`:j
f*da ms ie,iqu
fla; ljq`:j

(Main Menu)
(form Design window)
(Project Explorer Window)
(Tool box)
(Properties window)
(form layout window)
(code window)

fYaIfhka u fuys fla; ljq`:j ,nd .ekSug form Design window tl u; fojrla
la,sla lsfuka ,nd .; yels h' tfia u toolbox fj;ska ,nd f.k form Design window
tl u; msysgqjd we;s kEu Wmdx.hl fla;h ,su i|yd tu Wmdx.h u; ujqih fojrla
tfuka thg wod< fla; ljq`:j ,nd .; yels h'
tfuka u fufia ,nd .kakd Wmdx.j, ,CIK fjkia lsu i|yd .=Kdx. lj`:j
Nd; lrhs' tfia u form tl u;g ,nd .kakd iuyr Wmdx.j, ls%hdld;ajh ,nd
.ekSug k tajd i|yd fla; (Code) ,su l< hq;= h' fuys ls%hdld;ajh wjfndaO lr
.ekSu i|yd wxl folla tlg tl;= lr tl;=j ,efnk wdldrfha l=vd jevigykla ilia
lr n,uq'

234

m<uqfjka u" VB form tl u;g WmlrK fmfhka jrlg Text box tl ne.ska
3 la f.k my; wdldrhg ia:dk .; lruq' miqj Command button tlla o f.k th o
ia:dk .; lruq' oeka fuh my; wdldrhg osia h hq;= h'
Text 1
Text 2
Text 3
Command
button
bka miqj kej;;a Tool box tl fj; f.dia tys we;s Lables 3la tlska tl f.k
my; oelafjk wdldrhg ia:dmkh lruq'
La-

Text 1

bel1 Label2
LaCommand
bel3
button

Text 2
Text 3

oeka f jHdmD;sh (Project) i|yd Wmdx. ia:dk .; lr we;' bka miqj l< hq;af;a
Wmdx. tlska tfla .=Kdx. ljq`:j fj; f.dia .=Kdx. fjkia lsu h' fuys oS tla tla
Wmdx.hg wh;a .=Kdx." .=Kdx. ljq`:j ;=<g ,nd .ekSug" tu tla tla WmlrKh u;
la,sla lrkak' tg .=Kdx. ljq`:f oelafjkafka ta wjia:df la,sla lfuka ils%h
we;s Wmdx.fha .=Kdx.hka f' tfia fmkajk g ta .=Kdx. fuys oelafjk mos fjkia
lr .kak'
1. Form Properties
Name
Caption

: Addform
: Add Two Number

2. Label 1
Name

: lblfirst

Caption

: First Number

Name

: lbl sec ond

Caption

: Seconed Number

3. Label 2

235

4. Label 3
Name
Caption

: lbltotal
: Total Number

Name
Text

: txtFirst
: ^tu wjia:df we;s jpkh uld oukak&

Name
Text

: txtSecond
: ^jpkh uld oukak&

Name
Text

: txtTotal
: ^jpkh uld oukak&

5. Text 1

6. Text 2

7. Text 3

8. Command button
Name
: cmdCalculate
Caption : Caculate
by; wdldrhg Wmdx.j, .=Kdx. fjkia l< miqj Calculate button (Command
button) tl u; fo jrla Tnd fla; ljq`:j (Code window) ,nd f.k tys my; oelafjk
wdldrhg" fla;h h;==re ,shkh (Type) l< hq;= h'
txttotal Text = Val (Textfirst.Text) + Val (Txtsecond.text)
bka miqj f jHdmD;sh add numbers.vbp jYfhka .nvd lrkak' (save)
kej; m%Odk fukqf we;s
wdldrfhka oelafjk fnd;a;u ;o lsfuka fyda
F5 h;=r ;o lsfuka fyda f jHdmD;sh ls%hd;aul (Run) l< hq;= h' bka miqj First number
i|yd w.hla o Second number i|yd w.hla o fhdod Calculate fnd;a;u ;o l< g Total
i|yka fldgqj u; by; ixLHd fofla tl;=j m%oYkh jk nj kslaIKh l< yels h'
by; wdldrhg wmg wjYH kEu .Kkh lsula i|yd fyda fjk;a ls%hdj,shla
i|yd VB fhdod .kska jevigyka ilia l< yels f'

236

fj msgq ksudKh
wka;cd,h ms<sn| j l;d lsf oS fj msgqj hkak tys yoj; n hehs lsj yels h'
tk" 1989 jIfha oS nkia ,S iska Yaj jHdma; huk (World wide web)
f,dj m%:u jrg ykajd oSfuka miqj" th wo jk g ish u wdldrfha o;a; yqjudre lr
.ekSf udOHh njg m;a we;' f,dj mqrd tl;djlg m;a jQ kshu$kS;s moaO;shlska
hq;a ksudKhla jYfhka fuh ye|skah yels h' f ksid f ls%hdj,shg (Protocol) tl
fjka f,dj mqrd m.Kl O wdldrfhka f cd,h iu inkaO we;' fuys oS
Nd;d flfrk m%Odk NdIdj HIML jYfhka (Hyper Text Markup Language) ye|skah
yels h'
fuu HTML NdIdj uska f;dr;=re ifma%IKfha oS" ta i|yd HTTP ;dlaIKh
(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) Nd; lrhs' HTMLys ;j;a fYaI;ajhla jkafka ta
NdIdfjka ,shejqKq jevigyka kEu m.Klhl ls%hd;aul l< yels uhs' tfia u f
NdIdj ,su i|yd fYaI uDldx. o wjYH fkd f' f i|yd wm idudkHfhka Nd;
lrkq ,nk ir, mdGl ixialrK (Text Editor) Nd; l< yels h' WodyrKhla f,i
NotePad, WordPad wdosh oelah yels h' tfy;a fuhg wu;r j kk uDldx. o f
i|yd ksmojd we;' fjdhska lsym
s hla f,i Ms front page, Note pad++, Dreamweaver wdosh
oelah yels h'
fuys my;ska olajd we;af;a idudkH fj msgqjla yd tys Source Code fyj;a th
Note Pad ;=< ,shd we;s wdldrhhs'

Web page

Source Code

237

Source uska m%Nj fla;h ,nd .; yels h' fj

kEu fj msgqjl View
,smshla ilia lsf oS ta i|yd weuqKq (Tags) rdYshla Nd; lrhs' fjd ish,a, Nd;
lr Text Editor u; ilia lrk fla;h m%Nj fla;h (Source Code) kka ye|skafjhs'
my; oelafjk WodyrKh ms<sn| j i,ld n,uq'
<HTML>
<Head>
<Title> Home Page </Title>
</Head>
<Body>
<H1> My First Web Page </H1>
<H2> Font Size Two </H2>
<H3> font Size Three </H3>
</Body>
</HTML>
by; fla;hg wkqj ksudKh jQ fj msgqj my; wdldrhg osia f'

fuu fj msgqj fyd|ska kslaIKh lsfuka yd Bg by;ska ,shd we;s fla;h fyd|ska
ii|d ne g" tla tla weuqKqj,g (Tags) we;s m%;sM,h oek .; yels h' fuys oS H ys w.h
je jk g wlaIrfha m%udKh wvq jk nj meyeos,s f'^H1 - Yd, u wlaIrh jk w;r
H6- l=vd u wlaIrhhs'&
fj msgqjla wdrN lrk iEu g oS u <HTML> f,i yd th wjidkfha oS</HTML>
hk weuqKq Nd; flfrk w;r ta uska th HTML wdldrhg ,shjqKq ,smshla nj ykd
.efka' iEu weuqKqula wjidkfha u th wjidk jQ nj oelau i|yd </ hkak Nd;
flfrhs' tfia u bfhka ,shd we;s weuqKq wjidkhg wjika l< hq;= h' WodyrKhla
f,i my; fhdod f.k we;s weuqKq fol kslaIKh lrkak'

238

<Head> <Title> Homepage </Head> </title>

jeros l%uh

<Head> <Title> Homepage </Title> </Head>

ksjeros l%uh

f wdldrhg iEu wdrNl weuqKqul u" wjika lsf weuqKqu" wjidkhg i|yka
l< hq;= h'
fujeks ,smshla .nvd lsf oS th html os.=j iys; j .nvd l< hq;= h' tk"
My web.html jYfhks'
fuys my; olajd we;af;a HTML i|yd fndfyda g Nd; flfrk weuqKq (Tags)
lsym
s hls'
<H1> - </H1>

wlaIr Yd, lrhs'

<H6> - </H6>

wlaIr l=vd lrhs'

<B> - </B>

wlaIr >k l`: (Bold) lrhs'

<I> - </I>

wlaIr we, (Italic) lrhs'

<HR>

;sria fLdjla ksrEmKh lrhs' fuys oS wjidk lsf

weuqKqula Nd; fkd lrhs'

<U> - </U>

wlaIr hka brla w|shs' (Underline)

<Marquee> - </Marquel>wlaIr ol=fKa isg jug os.ska os.g u .uka lrjhs'

<OL> - </OL>

Orderced list 1"2"3 wdoS jYfhka wxl ms<sfj<ska fhdod

.efkhs'

<UL> - </UL>

Unodered List f uska wxl ms<sfj<la fkdue;s j ;s;a

muKla Nd; lrhs'

<BlockQuote> - </Blockquote> fYaI m%ldY biau;= lr oelau i|yd Nd;

flfrhs'
<IMG>
rEm igyka we;=<;a lsu i|yd Nd; flfrhs'
fuh <IMG SRC = ''Kandy.Jpg"> wdldrhg wjYH mska;+rfha ku fyda ku iu.
msx;=rh we;s ia:dkh i|yka l< hq;= f'

239

<A> - </A>

,smsfha fjk;a fldgilg inkaO;djla we;s lsu i|yd

fuh fhdod .efka'
Wod #- <A NAME = "Dog">Animals </A> inkaO h hq;= ia:dkh

<A HREF = ...... - </A> fuh fjk;a fj msgqjla yd inkaO u i|yd Nd;
flf'
Wod ( <A HREF = "http//www.SHnet.lk </A>
fuf,i ,shd we;s HTML f.dkqjl we;s fla; lshjd" msgqjla f,i osia ug ie,eiau
i|yd fj n%ihla(Web Browser) fyj;a Wvu;= n,khla ;sh hq;= h' fjdg WodyrK
jYfhka Internet Explora, Netscape Nevigator, Mosilla firefox jeks uDldx. oelah yels h'
fj msgqjla by; i|yka lr we;s kEu n%irhla u; jD; (open) lr .; yels h'
h wdh;khla fyda h ldKavhla iska ;u wdh;kh ms<sn| f;dr;=re we;=<;a
lrka ilia lrk fj msgq lsysmhla" tlg tl;= lr fj wv ;khs'
fj wvhla m%isoaO lsf oS" ta i|yd fj ij (Server) fyj;a fj wv
mj;ajdf.k hk fiajdodhl m.Kl ;=<" fj wvh iEoS we;s fj msgq lsysmh ;ekam;a
l< hq;= h' fuu Web Server m.Kl" tla tla wdh;kj,g wh;a jk w;r ^Wod ( Sri
Lanka Telecome& tu wdh;kfha mQK wkque;sh ,nd f.k ndysr mqo.
a ,hkag yd wdh;kj,g
;u fj wvh fyda fj msgqj m%isoaO l< yels h' tfia u wka; cd,fha we;s iuyr
wdh;k uska" kEu flfkl=f.a fj msgqjla fkd,fha u m%isoahg m;a lsug
wjia:dj oS we;' tfy;a wjdishla jkafka" ta fj msgqj u; ta wdh;kfha fjf<| m%pdrl
oeka o m%pdrh lsuhs'

240

16' f;dr;=re moaO;s (Information Systems)

moaO;shla hkq lsih
s ldhhla b,lalhla imqrd .ekSu i|yd ksY
a ; jQ ldh lsym
s hl
tl;=jla f,i ie,lsh yels h' tfia u WmmoaO;s lsysmhl tl;=jla o moaO;shla jYfhka
ie,lsh yels h'
wm Yrfha we;s" wdydr K moaO;sh" Yajik moaO;sh" rer ixirK moaO;sh"iakdhq
moaO;sh" nysi%dh moaO;sh hk" moaO;s my u tl;= wm Yrh ksudKh we;' fuh
WmmoaO;s lsysmhl tl;=jla f,i o oelah yels h'
kEu moaO;shla uQ,sl jYfhka ls%hdj,s ;=klska iuka; jk nj oelsh yels h'
m%odkh$wdodkh (Input)
ieliqu (Process)

m%;sodkh (Output)
wdodkh uska lsish o;a;hla ,nd ka miq th lsish ls%hdj,shlg Ndckh fuka
miqj wmg wjYH m%;sodkh ,nd .; yels f' fuh my; i|yka wdldrhg le igyklska
oelah yels h'
wdodkh
Input

ieliSu
Process

m%;sodkh
Output

moaO;s ieliq ls%hdj,sfha oS iuyr moaO;shl m%;sodkh" ;j;a moaO;shlg wdodkh

jYfhka o Nd; jk wjia:d oelsh yels h' tfia u lsish moaO;shl wjidk m%;sM,h
ndysr f,dalhg uqod yeh hq;= iSudj o (Boundary) wjfndaO lr .ekSu fuys oS jvd;a jeo.;a
f'

f;dr;=re moaO;shla hkq

wuq o;a; lsysmhla moaO;shla ;=<ska lsish ls%hdj,shlg Ndckh lsfuka f;dr;=rla
,nd .; yels h'
wuq o;a;
Raw data

ieliq ls%hdj,sh
Process

f;dr;=re
Information

fuhg WodyrKhla jYfhka .;fyd;a mka;shl isiqkaf.a tla tla Ihhg ,nd
.kakd ,l=Kq o;a; jYfhka f.k th O l%shdj,Skag Ndckh lr" ,l=Kqj, idudkHh"
tla tla Ihka i|yd ,nd we;s m%K;dj" Tjqka O Ihkaj,g ,nd we;s l=i,;dj

241

wdoS f;dr;=re rdYshla f moaO;sfha m%;sodkh jYfhka ,nd .; yels h'

f;dr;=re moaO;s tajdfha ls%hdld;ajh yd ieliSug Ndckh lrk wdldrh wkqj
w;ska is lrk (Manual base) yd m.Kl u; mok jQ (Computer based) moaO;s
jYfhka l%u follg fjka l< yels h'
fuys f;dr;=re ksIamdokfha mqoa.,hka rdYshla" tys fldgia ieliSu w;ska is
lrkafka k th Manual jYfhka o" ta mqoa.,hka rdYsh u fjkqjg m.Klhla fhdod
.kafka k th m.Kl mdol jYfhka o yekah yels h'
f;dr;=re moaO;s tajdfha fhu wkqj j.SlrKh l< yels h'
1'
2'
3'
4'

.kqfokq ieliq moaO;s

mmd,k f;dr;=re moaO;s
;SrK iyfhda.S moaO;s
fYaI{ moaO;s

(Transaction Processing System / TPS)

(Management Information System / MIS)
(Decission Support System / DSS)
(Expert System / ES)

nexl=jl is jk f." ;ekam;= jeks .kqfokq i|yd .kqfokq ieliq moaO;shla

(TPS) Nd; l< yels h' lsish wdh;khl l<ukdlrKh i|yd wjYH jk fiajl"
jegqma" wdodh ho jeks f;dr;=re ilia lr .ekSu i|yd mmd,k f;dr;=re moaO;s
(MIS) Nd; l< yels w;r ;SrK iyfhda.S moaO;s (DSS) uska wdh;khl ;SrK .ekSu
f;dr;=re Nd; lrk lafIa;%j,g wod< f;dr;=re ,nd u jeks ta wdh;khg wod< kS;s;s"
fr.=,dis mj;ajd f.k hdu i|yd fuu f;dr;=re moaO;s Nd; l< yels h' oekq
iNdrhla m.Kl .; lsfuka fYaI{ moaO;s (ES) ilia lr we;' WodyrKhla f,i
kk jdykj, mlaIdj o .; yels h' fuys wod< fYaI{ f;dr;=re /ila m.Kl
.; lr we;s w;r jdykhg inkaO lrkq ,nk WmlrKfha we;s O ixfol (Sensors)
uska wjYH o;a; ,nd fuka miqj ta jdykfha ;;a;ajh kslaIKh lr m%;sM, m.Klh
uska ,nd u is f'
by; i|yka wdldrhg f;dr;=re ;dlaIKh ;=<k
s "a ldhka myiq lr u ksid" f;dr;=re
ksmou" ifma%IKh yd Nd;h wjYH;dj wkqj fhdod .; yels h'

m.Kl cd, (Computer Networks)

m.Kl folla fyda lsysmhla tlsfklg inkaO lrka ilia lrkq ,nk m.Kl
moaO;sh m.Kl cd,hla jYfhka ykajkq ,ef' m.Kl cd,hla ilia lsu ;=<ska
tajd w;r im;a yqjudre lr .ekSug yelshdj we;s f' m.Kl cd, .; lsu i|yd
O j.fha WmlrK lsysmhla Nd; flfrhs' m.Kl cd,hla ilia lsfuka th
Nd; lrkakdg fYaI jdis lsysmhla ie,fia' tu jdis my; m f'

242

m.Klfha f.h (Speed) je f'

fuys tla tla m.Klh w;r o;a; yqjudre lsf f.h fndfyda fihska
je f' f ksid fjk;a wdldrhl o;a; yqjudrejlg jvd jdisodhl f'

hou (Cost)
m.Kl uDldx. .ek i,ld ne,Sf m.Kl cd,h Nd;h ksid tla
tla m.Klhg fjka fjka jYfhka wjYH jk uDldx. yjqf,a Nd; flfrk
ksid wvq uqo,la jeh f'

wdrlaIdj (Security)
m.Kl cd, .; lsfuka ta cd,hg wkjirfhka msiS kj;d .; yels h'

uOH.; uDldx. l<ukdlrKh (Centrelized Software Management)

m.Kl cd,hla ;=< m.Klj, ia:dmkh lr we;s jO uDldx. tla
ia:dkhl isg yeisrf yelshdj we;'

im;a fmdf Nd;h (Sharing of resources)

, wl oDVdx. ^uqK hka;% wdosh& m.Kl cd,h ;=< iEu flkl=g u
tl yd iudk j N=la;s f yelshdj we;s f' tk" im;a fmdf ;nd .ekSf
yelshdj ,ef'

oHq;a ;emE, (E - mail)

oHq;a ;emE, u.ska f.fhka mKsv yqjudre lr .ekSug yels h' fuys os
,nkakdf.a oHq;a ,smskhg CIKhlska ,smsh heh yels h'

cd, ia:, oHdj (Network Topology)

m.Kl cd, .; lsf tajd fN!;sl jYfhka tlsfkl yd i lrkq
,nk wdldrh cd, ia:,lh (Network Topology) jYfhka yekafjhs' ta hgf;a
my; oelafjk wdldrj, m.Kl cd, ielish yels h'

243

nia ia:,lh (Bus Topology)

uq ia:,lh (Ring Topology)

wh ia:,lh (Star Topology)

rela ia:,lh (Tree Topology)

m.Kl cd,h me;s we;s m%foaYfha m%udKh u; j. lsu

LAN (Local Area Network)
f.dvke.s,,
a la ;=< jeks l=vd m%foaYhla ;=< msyg
s d
we;s m.Kl cd,hla LAN fyj;a ia:dkSh
m.Kl cd,hla f,i yekafjhs'

MAN (Metropoliton Area Network)

k.rhla jeks ;rula Yd, m%foaYhla mqrd me;sreKq m.Kl cd,hla
fyj;a m%dfoaYSh m.Kl cd,hla f,i yekaf'

MAN

WAN (Wide Area Network)

f,dalh mqrd u me;sr .sh m.Kl cd,hla
fuf,i yekafjhs' wksl;
= a m.Kl cd, tlg
tl;= fuka fuu f,dal jHdma; cd,h ieliS
we;' fuhg fyd| u WodyrKh wka;cd,h
f'

244

fiajdodhl m.Kl (Server Computers)

m.Kl cd,hla ;=< we;s o;a; wksl;
= a m.Klj,g fnod yeu i|yd o;a;" f;dr;=re
yd O m.Kl jevigyka ;ekam;a lr we;s" cd,h ;=< we;s je yelshdjla iys;
m.Kl fiajdodhl m.Kl f,i yekafjhs'
kdNsh (HUB)
m.Kl follg je m%udKhla cd, .;
lsf ta m.Kl tlsfkl inkaO lsug
uq,a ld,fha Nd; l< WmlrKhls'

fuys tla m.Klhlska ;j;a m.Klhla fj; heu i|yd kdNsh (HUB) fj;
mefKk o;a;h" cd,hg inkaO lr we;s ish u m.Kl fj; heu kdNsh uska is
flfrhs' kuq;a cd,h ;=<ska mefKk o;a; ish m.Kl ,nd fkd .kakd w;r th ,nd
.ekSug iQodk m.Klh muKla ,nd .kS'
ta wkqj fuys " o;a;h wjYH fkd jk cd, ud. Tiafia o o;a; .,d hdu ksid we;s
jk o;a; ud.j, ;onoh fya;=fjka o;a; .uka lrk f.h wvq u" f kdNsh (HUB)
WmlrKfha we;s fodaIhhs'
iah (Switch)
fuh o m.Kl follg je m%udKhla cd,.;
lsf m.Kl tlsfkl inkaO lsug fhdod
.kakd kj WmlrKhls' fuys HUB WmlrKfha
;snQ fodaIh bj;a lr we;' tk" fjk;a m.Klhla
fj; heu i|yd h m.Klhlska o;a;hla Switch
WmlrKhg tjQ g" ia ph u.s k a " wod< u
m.Klhg muKla jQ ud.h Tiafia o;a; heu
is flfrhs' tneka m.Kl inkaO lrk wksl;
= a
cd, ud. Tiafia o;a; .uka lsula is fkdf'
tg cd, ud.j, o;a; ;onohla fkdue;s neka
cd,h ;=< o;a; .uka lrk f.h je h'
fuu WmlrKfha we;s fYaI;ajhla jkafka" Switch uska cd,hg inkaO ish
m.Klj, ,smskhka u;l ;nd .kakd neka ksh; ud.h Tiafia muKla o;a; heug
yels uhs'

245

fudvu (MODEM)
f WmlrKh Nd; jkafka wka;cd,h yd inkaO f h' h ldhd,hlg
fyda ksjilg fyda wka;cd,h yd inkaO ug wjYH jQ g wka;cd, inkaO;dj
,nd fok wdh;khla uska th ,nd .; hq;= h'
fuu wka;cd, inkaO;dj ,nd fok wdh;k wka;cd, fiajd iemhqlrejka
(ISP - Internet Service Providers) f,i ye|skafjhs' fndfyda g wka;cd, fiajd
iemhqlrejka jkafka rl:k iud. h'
ksoiqkla f,i wm rf Sri Lanka Telecome, Dialog, Mobitel jeks wdh;k iska
wka;cd, inkaO;djka mdfNda.slhkag ,ndfoa' fuys tu iud. iska wka;cd,h
iu mdfNda.slhka inkaO lrkafka rl:k ikaksfok ud. Tiafia h'

fuys rl:k ud. Tiafia .uka lrkafka m%;siu ix{d (Analog Signal) jk
w;r' tfia rl:k ud. ;=<ska m%;siu ix{d f,i mefKk wka;cd, f;dr;=re
fiajd,dNshdf.a m.Klhg f;are .; yels mos" ixLHdxl ix{d (Digital Signal) njg
m;a lsu is l< hq;= h' tfia u fiajd ,dNshd ke;fyd;a wka;cd,h iu inkaO
lghq;= lrk mqoa.,hd ;u m.Klh uska ixLHdxl ix{d (Digital Signal) f,i
wka;cd,h ;=<g uqod yk f;dr;=re kej; rl:k ud. ;=<ska .uka lsug m%;siu
ix{d njg m;a l< hq;= h'
fuu m%;siu yd ixLHdxl ix{d tllska wksslg mj;kh lrk WmlrKh
ykajkafka fudvuh MODEM (Modulater Demoduclater) kks'

246