Re St el ees eC ee el ete ele ero aol LLU tele ol THE BLACK VAULT Lee See Re steel laa oad ae Pao eoameto sgh RECORD CLEARING HOUSE IN THE WORLD. THE RESEARCH EFFORTS HERE ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE DECLASSIFICATION OF THOUSANDS OF DOCUMENTS THROUGHOUT THE U.S. GOVERNMENT, AND ALL CAN BE DOWNLOADED BY VISITING: RIALS ate eh a7 Ueto) YOU ARE ENCOURAGED TO FORWARD THIS DOCUMENT TO YOUR FRIENDS, BUT PLEASE KEEP THIS IDENTIFYING IMAGE AT THE TOP OF THE PDF SO OTHERS CAN DOWNLOAD MORE!—_ ‘ ' CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY navman tm. ye nepabtt Vo * OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR 25 APR IS MEMORANDUM FOR: ‘The Honorable J. Edgar Hoover tor, Federal Bureau of In SUBJECT 2XBrainwashing hte ssemormnaniy ea — ‘The attached study on brainwashing was prepared by my staff in reeponse to the increasingly acute interest in the subject throughout the intelligence and security components of the Government. I feel you will find it well worth your personal attention. It represents the thinking of leading pay- chologists, psychiatrists and intelligence specialists, based ~ in turn on interviews with many individuals who have had personal experience with Communist brainwashing, and on extensive research and testing. While individual specialists hold divergent views on various aspects of this most complex subject, I believe the study reflects a synthesis of majority expert opinion. Iwill, of course, appreciate any comments ‘on it that you or your staff may have, c.-— elude pa#3a928.The Accwmlation of Bridence . . - The Detention Prigom - eee ee te tt + The Beginen Withia the Detention Prison . - The Effects of the Reginen in the Isclation Otber Aspects of the Isolation Regimen . « he Interrogator «eee ee et te Fe Pressures Applied ty the Interrogator fhe “Friendly Approach" . "he Course of the Interrogation. s+ - - he Tnterrogster's Point of View snl Objectives... eee ee eet F BY ¢SRBERE ERE Bw we em‘The Reaction of the Prisoner to the Interrogation . «cosanestX Braioveshing, as © term, vas originated by & reporter woo was intevvieving Chinese refugees. It has gained worid- wide currency and has been applied to a vide range of tech~ nigues--mase education of a Cammsistic country or citirens, thoughtcontrol in Soviet and satellite coumtries, techniques of eliciting information, es well es the intensive indi vidualised re-equcation of beliefs of a fev selected individuals. uch uneriticel use of the ters hes dove nothing to reduce the impact ox the public and offieialdon generally of the confessions of su-h men as Cardinal Mindsrenty and especially of the remults of tresteent of prismers-of-wr ‘by the Chinese Commmists.. ‘The term iteclf is amxiety producing. Its connotetion of special oriental Knoviedge of drugs, hypnosis, and other exotic and devious means of controlling human behavior creates credulity smong the uninformed. A more prosaic view is that the techsiques used in producing confessions amd “conversions” are reedily wierstandsble in terms of ordinary psychological principles and have been used, especially ty police states, for centuries. ‘Tt is now clear that Russien methods ofseri obtaining information and confessions have byen developed ty MVD and earlier versions of this organisation over the centuries, ‘wut capecially curing the past 35 youre of systemtic effort to elicit informtion or confessions. ‘The Chinese have their own tradition of tolerusce for brutality. They are influenced by te Fussians, but place more exphasis on converting the priscaey to Commmistic beliefs, at times behaving as typical “eager | beaver” revolutioaaries. In vam, the methods are police methods developed by trial asd error to suit the needs of thi police state. Mo scientists, mo drugs, no hypaosis, no new psychological. principles have as yet been involved. ' Barly in the review of the diverse information catalogued | under the term "braimwashing”, even in serious scientific | crete, it boom evident ere wes need for Wttar soodiat- ‘than of the vork on this topic end mare vork directed at. specific problems and issues. It was, therefore, concluted thet this | sisted aftort wes bert devoted to (1) clarifying the conrerts cousoted by the term braimashing; (2) relating thase to fuck ‘yasic payebological principles es learning, perception, and motivation; snd (3) specifically discussing the brainwashed pereon ss an involuntarily re-educated person. AX1 people are being re-stucated coutimously. Hew taformstioa changes one's beliefs. Breryona hes experienced toroe some degret the conflict that enwers vhen new inforsetion is not consistent with « prior belief, especially « basic one concerned With ouch problems as religion, sex mores, and political ideclosy. aus 18 8 noni] experience. Most tadividuals are sble to resolve the comflict by one mens or another; many do so by integrating the sew with the oid. ‘The experience of the breinvesbed (im our sense) Qiffers in that the inconsistent iaformetion is forced upon him ender relatively controlled conditions after the possibility of critical judgeent has been reduced or removed by such measures a9 Production of excessive fatigue isolation, deprivation of various verte, and sometimes aysical torture, When redoced to extreme dependency end confusion, the individual is reedy to react fevorebly to azy person oF idea which promiess to ond his painfully confused state, At this point, the re-ednestion begins, as described in the ANALYSIS OF CONTROL FREARIRES, How individuals ¥ill react to attempts to elicit information, to confess falsely, to braimmshing as ve have defined 1% depends oa the intelligence, persouality and experieace of the ‘ndividual and on the Imoviedge and willingness of captors to persist in techniques aimed at aaa Samepenta deliberately destroying the integration of « pereomality. ‘With such willingsess, there appears Little doubt thet em individ) can be brought psychologically to the point where involustary re-education vill take place. Up ta nov, police methods developed ty trial and error have mot fully expleited ‘the peychological basis for results thus far obtained; nor have all restraiuts in trestusmt of prisoners been cast aside. Jote, too, that the restraints referred to need not concerm direct physical torture. It 1s no+ necessary to use direct shynical means to reduce = person to a state vhere involuntary re-tdncation cam teke plece. Braiawashing conceived as involustary re-eduestion, them, represents cue extreme of a continuum of treatsent by, and resistance to, captors. At the other end of this scale is active voluntary collaboration with the enesy. In between are varying degrees of brutality and subtlety of treateent and degrees of resistance thereto. Clearly, policies concerning treatarct of repatriated captives will depend on Where the individwsl is placed on this scale. at cae ond, ‘there te the legal jurisdiction for treason; at the other, The view prosented berein hes several implications. First, the public should be given inforsstion vhich willawe" dispel the syevery which appears to have surrounded the concept of brainveshing. | ‘Second, those responsible for esteblishing policy for | Feturned priscners here aa & first problem the determination | seers ou thn vesie ween iaveimty reetuetion oa Voluntary collaboration « particular intivigeal stands. ‘Taird, the bean organiom need not be a complete pavn of bis environmext until extreme confitions are created. Maa 16 adaptive, and with oor: knowledge of wnat to expect from iis captors and aa understanding of his om reactions, he can develop means of resisting. le can be helped in this by Prior knowledge of the treatment ba can expect and his om reactions to it. Fourth, the traly brainwashed is « peychiatric, not a | legal problem. Mis treatment should be therapeutic, mot ‘ | Pumstive. Recovery can be anticipated since the braimashed " person plased in iis normal exviroumext will tand to revart to his prior beliefs. Firth, traimeshing can be successfully accomplished oo ‘tha basis of present knowledge by aayome sufficiently interested 18 acquiring an understanding of the psychological Principles imvolved. : Scat, dt Le pomeible thet the best long reage defenseageinst teaimwashing is to mike it pilitically diewtventageous for a country to pirait its use. ‘While this paper foruses its attention om breiaweshing as defined, the political asture of its effects mbes it necessary to corsider the effects of military ani other policy. Where certain possibilities occur naturally in ‘the psychological context, thay are mextioned. ‘the major porpose, however, is to Glecuas braimvesting from = pry- chological point of view. It is not preswmed that this view takes inte secount all the factors needed in detersi- ming policy.Scope snd Aim me purpose of this stoly is to incrosse unlerstanding of the "praimvashing process”. there are probably well over 1000 classified ant unclassified documents, articles and books directly related ‘to Boviet and Satellite techniques of interrogstion ant ‘raimwashing. Approximately one-third of the evailaple Classified and wmelassified sources were examined to provide ‘the findings of this study. “By far the greatest proportion of thin mterial has come from prisoner-of-war sources of World War II and the Korean locnfLict’, Considerable sifitional material ia come from " petagecs, intelligence sources, 6nd civilian nationals who have been releesed from incarceration ber‘ai the Curtain. A number of research studies hare - 1 completed or ere now in process by Various agencies of t.18 Goverment snd | other friendly goverments. ‘The obtainable findings of al) | euearen station of immediate relevance ware weslived. A considerable body of professional research dealing with conditions that result in changes in the percepvanl emi L aaome intellectual orgasieation of the individual personality has emanated from universities and other private resoarch insti- tutions during the past decade. Appropriate selections fram ‘thin material eve been applied to understanding braimvashing. Generel Orientation ‘This stuly has been written as a general analysis of the avatlanle material. It is recoguized that agencies engaged dn intelLigeace collection have unique operational vulner= abilities in dealing with Soviet interrogation and brain- washing. Individuals forced to confess to having engaged in asplouage or sabotage eabarress national policy planners. ‘While thase problems are recognized, no attempt has been mde fn this study te provide specific practical guidance. ais staty is written from the viewoint of professional peyenology. As ® systenatic approach, this bes not beca doue before, although many previous analyses have, of course, made some use cf peychological ideas. ‘The present ayprosch attengte to make full use of current peychological principles 4m explaining the process of brainveshing. ‘Tt in reesousble to expect that the Boviets will comtiaue ‘to refine their sethods, and thet we shall continue to secure wore knowledge about the subject. ‘There should, therefore, be Periodic reappreieals of braimvashing in the future.Sr As ve shall show later im this chepter, the term “brain washing” Mas & very useful meaning from the standpoint of whet gves on inside tht parece who is brainwasbed. If the process ‘ad been viewed in this light from the beginning, uo dowkt we ‘would by nov have achieved a greater and more widespread under- standing of it. Actually, it bas not been confronted im #0 | simple « maner as that. It has been used by the Soviets and the Chinese on quite differemt kinds of people and for quite @ variety of reseons. It hes had e wide range of consequences, some intended and perhaps some unintended. | ‘Te has faced intelligence, military and political leaders with @ remakably wide range of problems with which each such group had to cope. AL} these variations of objectives, con- sequences, and probleas have wide for coafusion in cur efforts ‘to understand whet was really going oa. Western usage of the term brainwashing has caused 1t to be applied from time to tine to each of the following situnticas: (1) Individual or group indoctrination of the . “masses” bebind the Iron Curtain. \ (2) Indoctrination of key persounel inside Commmist- comtrolled cowitries to maintain their political reliability. | 3 oon”(3) The interregntica process by which positive information of imtelligescs value is cbteined tron individuals. 48) Group indoctrination of prisoners-of-mr, Berties em attempt to obtain defections and desoralize military Perscunel, this process eppears to have teen used as a selective device to ascertain viich "progressives" or “cppertunists" might subsequently be amsiable to = more intensive process as defined in (5) below. (5) ‘The intensive individual process during vnien individuals are deprived of their critical faculties and fubsoquently come to belicve as true that witch, prior to ‘the braimashing, they would heve degignated as false. ‘The Zact that the term "braicvishing" hes been applied to sc many situations has censed s great deal of confusion ta attempting to learn more sbout it and in attempting to dawslop sound prections en policies for coping with 1¢, Ae we ahald emplain more fully in this study, we find the term “prein~ ‘wwahting" to be most useful wien it ts applied strictly to Aenote She tnvolmetary re-education of on indtvideal durtag 4 Sbich & change 1s developed in the perceptual and intellectual Stipnisetion of Mis personality ea that be wili:ao CQ) Accept as true certain ideclogical principles whieh be would mot bave accepted as trae prior to the change, antfer (2) atest that certain events heve a tras and factual veais Which be Would aot bave admitted formerly. Tuess false beliefs may se transitory. In fact, there is goud reason to beliew: that the falee beliefs resulting from ‘brainwashing Will breek dom spontaneously vnen the individual has Leen removed for « period of time from tha oppressive controls. Tt should be noted thet braiavashing, so defined, does not euphasize whet happens to the tadividual, but whet happens | Nitkin bin. Te change represents a more or less complete re-education of his value-system. ‘ais change is throught about am a rigidly controlled eayirumment wing jessures designed 22 sreate and sharper internal comflict withis the individual. ‘The individual is forced to resort to problem-sclving be- havior, and tha set effect 1s the bratumshed state. two ‘Simjtasscus processes are presemt. ‘The first 1s characterized Wy © rrogressive deteriortion anf demobilization of the indivi tral 'weritical aad Judging capecitios, Dn a trun sense the ‘ndiviteal loses all sanse of persyective, ‘The second, ‘Frocess is the learning of beliefs he would previously haveerrer rejected, aa be soeka to gain some structare for his ormbling parscaslity, be criteria of success of bratamabing are: I (2) ‘tae observed conviction and sincerity with | wach toe tndivideed, expresses hie changed ideology and beliefs concerning palpable evests. (2) ‘Tho length of time his changed beliefs are maintained after the individual hes bees removed from i the control emvircoment. ; (3) The amount of surprise and confusion that accompanies his “discovery" that he has been brain- i washed during bis subsequent recovery. | ‘Indoctrination, and eves education, can lead to false ' ‘veliefe. These processes are most effective when the in- ‘dividoal had gaps in bis knovledge, or his understending of \ the meaning of certain events is sufficiently tenuous that | he bas little difficulty in accepting a new and different interpretation. Brainvashing, however, involves the re- education of well-established beliefs; and implies that the Andivigual resisted the re-education. Tt is this wry Tesistance with its concomitant internal conflict, we main- tain, which is the very core of braimmashing. In the process of securing informtion of intelligence ‘Value, the procedures used by the Commmists, althoughae adaittedly harsh, do not eppear to differ substantisily from ‘noe customarily used i eliciting military informticn. ‘De syrtenatic demeralization of captives dots not appeer to be a major objective. dn understanding of braimvashing 1s important in several contexts, axon which ere the following: (1) nteLLigence might be sare fully protected if military and other personnel eubject +o cspture could understand brainmahing and could be trained as well oe possible to cope with it. (2) Dealing properly with braimasied individuals depends hoartly on understanding their condition. For the traly braimmshed, peychiatric treataent is in onder; for the deliberate defector, legal processes are eppropriste. (3) Tae propagenda-value of false confessions has een great, and the fear-producing impact of “breine washing” in the public mind is 4 matter worth cousidersble concern. Public understanding of the process should help considerably. (ls) A clear understanding of the process is important Lf governmental agencies are to make rapid progress toward further research and understending, aodsae to develop consistent policies to mact the problems ef ‘bredmveshing. ech of these objectives of greater unterstenting 1s iaportans. ‘The propeganda-valor of falee confessions and the public amxiety emeerning traimeshing loom, hovever, as major wrecceupations. Statements of braimwshed indivitecls have ‘boon & sharp-edged tool in the Commmist propaganda Bit. Rvexything from tha parges of the bratmesbed “old revo- Intionaries* tm the late "30's to the Korean germ warfare Aduiesions bes advanced the Soviet strategy line. Possibly one of the greatest adventages for the Commmists in the Far Hast has been to lower Cancasian prestige. Another and even more effective propagands gosl may be the creation of = state of fear within the populsce of western-bloc mations. The concept of braimeshing is frightesing. Mothers of sons, who em into military service agaiast the Soviets or Chinese, mut comoera themselves with the fact, uot only thet their sous imay be Killed or wounded, but that their mental processes may be distorted 1f thay are captured. Just os movledge that the Soviets have thermonuclear veapons bas dampened the ational feeling of security, so braimashing bas created the belief that our cppenents are aysteriously formidable. ‘Tae “man-in-the-street" is not #9 removed from pre-scientifiec 1 aSane Deliefe thet meh processes as brainwashing fail to arouse emotions tortering on superstitions ave. We turn now to a more detailed explanation of just whet happens to the mind and body of the demoralized and dis- organized person vho can properly be described as brein- washed, and to = consideration of Koy this state can be ‘brought about, We shall describe the general processes fuvolved in changing the behavior and the beliefs of an inéividwal vhem his enviroment can be fully controlled. ‘These processes are complex and they involve the basic Principles of leaming, perception, motivation, and paysio- logical deprivation. Inplicstions of these findings for policy and practice in various azeas Will not be spelled out in detail. Some such implications, of course, vould need to be integrated with other considerations in arriving at @ final policy. Some, on the other hand, appear ta point overvbelmingly ‘toward certain specific policies and practices. Por czaaple, ‘the trentaent of bratmmabed repatriates should clearly be =) - © rather than mmitive. ‘This study should provide useful guidance ead helpful pointe of view in a ousber of important areas.Ee COMMIS COMEROL TECHNIQUES Ublerstanding breinmshing as a phanomencs =~ 9 Bhesomenca Which culminates in « false confession, delivered With conviction and busility, to antisocial intent and epecific criminal acts -- requires both « movledge of Commint control techniques and an analysie of their impact upon the normal personality. ‘his section deseribes the battery of pressures applied to the prisoner ani bis ‘Vehavicral reactions to these control pressures. In the following section an attempt 1s made to analyze the paycho- logical impart of these assaults upon the personality during ‘the course of the braiovasbing. : ‘Bee Suopect ‘Those vho fall under the suspicion of the MVD usually have some xessca for exciting its suspicion, Although the suspect may aot know why be is 9 Ly ‘the MVD bas some Feason for singling kim out. Because of the broad nature of Soviet lave, and the free manser in hich the MVD can interpret these, any “suspect” has comitted some “crise against the state” as the MWD defines the terms. ‘The implications of this statemert are significant. a © nation in which the state cts all property, vhere everyone 20 Sear,eee works for the state, and vhere only approved opinions may ba ‘eld, a person who hes accidentally brokes or lost some of ‘the "people's property”, who bas made a mistake, vho has not worked. hard enough, who hes talked to a foreigner, or who has merely expressed vbat be inferred vas an innocent opinion, may be ipso facto guilty of a "crime against the state.” In Practice, this means that almost anyote within the Soviet Union may be suspected by the MVD at any time, and thet vben~ ever be is suspected the MVD is alwys able to assign & specific reason for its suspicions. Be _Accumiation of Evidence According to Commumist ideclogy, no ane may be arrested wmless there is evidence that he is a criminal, According to the practice of the MVD this means that Vien an individusl falls under the suspicion of an HYD officer, this officer must accumiate “evidence” that the Andividesl ise “criminal” and take this evidence to the state Prosecutor, who mst then issue a warrant before the arrest can be carried out, the investigating officer accumlates evidence showing thet the victim had « reason to be « criminal (it., that be was mesber of suspect group) ty ecoumilating the statements of spice and informats vith regard to him. If ‘this evidesce is uct sufficient to satisfy the officer be places n saeeee the suspect and his friends end esecciates under surveillance. ‘These friends and associates may be arrested and beld for ‘wterrogation is order to sepply evidence against the suspect, ‘the reason for their arrest being that they are associates of @ suspect, and therefore suspect thenselves. Covert surveillance and the arrest of associates are carried out carefully, but they cennot always be concealed from ‘the suspect. He may become aware of it or bis friends may tell bin, As be becomes a marked man in the eyes of his friends, ‘they begin to avoid him. ‘Their demeanor scuetimes indicates to hin that be is under suspicion. ‘The movledge that be vill be arrested, «thous knovledge of vien this will occur, obriowsly creates anxiety in the intended victim. Although MVD officers imow about the payebologioal effect viieh surveillance bs wom suspects, and make use of it, they probably do not use it vith ‘the calculated coming thet the victim eometines supposes. The poorly concealed surveillance and the arrest of frients ‘aad associates, folloved by an indefinite period before the arrest of the main suspect, are uct necessarily stage meneuvers to frighten the victim. They are often evidences of rather alow and clumsy police activities. Members of the YD compete vith each other in trying to yarn wp suspects and secure their couviction. To a certain Jeeextent, ct icers are judged by the mmber of arrests which they obtain. Since Commnist theory demands thet no person be arrested except wien it is clear that be is = crixtoal, officers vho arrest wen vio must later te relessed are subject to censure. They have sada a mistake, because they have arrested @ man woo ds not 0 criminal. ‘The consequences are important from the point of view of the victim. ih effect, any man who is wrested 18 automatically in the position of being guilty- Anyone arrested by the M¥D must know that in the eyes of the Soviet state, and in the eyes of those who have arrested him, be is criminal". ‘The only question to be settled after the arrest is the exteat of his criminal activity and the precise mature of bis crimes. the officers ia charge of bis case, both those who have made the arrest and those vho will carry out the interrogation, hare & perscoal interest in seeing that the arrested man makae & Prompt and extensive confession, for their om reputations are ot stake. ‘The Arrest Procedure Acecréing to Communist theory, men should be arrested in such mamer au not to canse them esbarrasmment, and the police should carry out arrests in « manner voich does not widuly Qaeturt the population. For more thai tventy years it bas beeneee ‘the praction of the Russian State Fulies to seize their sumpects in the middle of the night. he "midnight Imock on the door” has become « standard episode in fiction about Tussin. ‘The police are well aware of the fact that the intented victim, forewarned ty his previous surveillance and tht changing attitale of his friends, 16 further terrified by the thought that he may be avakened from his sleep alucct any night and taken avay. Tt is customary for the arresting officer to be accompanied ty several other men. Ss usuelly reads to the priscner the arrest warrant if there is one, Tt dias not, of course, specify the dwtadls of the erines committed. ‘he prisoner 1s then taken ‘promptly to @ detention prison. the Detention Prison In mort of the large cities of the Goviet Union the AND ‘operates detention prisons. ‘These prisons contain only persons under “iavertigetion", whose cases bave uct yet been settled. ‘The most modera of these prisons are separate institutions, well built ead spotiessiy clean. In addition to the cells for ‘the prisoners, they contain offices for the WWD waits, roms ta whieh daterrogetions are carried owt, asf other roms, usually in the basement, in which prisoners are executed when. euch Punisiment 1s decided upon. There are atteched medical facilities, sad rooms for the care of the sick detainees. én exrretes yard is standard fectiity. a. are”Saar ‘he typical cell im a muall cubicle, about 10 fect long ty 6 feet wide, containing a single bunk ands alop Jar. Tt usally has no other furnishings, Its walls ere barren, and it is Lighted by a single electric lamp in the ceiling. ne wall ususlly conteins @ mall window above eye level, from witel the priscoer can aes nothing of hie outside environment. The door contains & peephole through witch the guard in the corridor outside may observe the prisoner at will without the prisoner's knovledge. Such typical cells will not, of course, be found in all prisons and especially not in those which are old oF improvieed, but the general aspect of berresness and complete lack of access to the cuteide world is characteristic. ‘Dee _Eeginen Within the Detention Prisca the exresting officers uswilly do not ‘give the prisceer ‘the reason for his arrest beyond thet in the varrant vhich they reed to him. They usually search him and alec search the place 4m which be Lives. They then take him directly to the prison. Here he is asked a few questions about his identity, and personel valubles anf bis outer clothing are taken from him. These are carefully catalogued and put avay. Be my or my not be given & prison uniform, He is usually examined ty « prison physician shortly after his incarceration.eee the cattre introduction to the detention prison is Urisf and ie carried on without explanation. Within « few hours after his arrest the priscoer finds himself locked up within # cell Prlscaere vithin dstemtion cells follow & rigid regimen. With some variations this regimen is standart throughont the soviet Uniew, and has been adopted by nearly all Commmi.st comtvien, The rigidity of the regimen may be relaxed oF tigitened by the direction of the interrogstar. im elmost invariable feature of the management of 27 important sespect under detention is « perfod of total isolation in a detemtion cell. ‘the prisoner is placed vithin his cell, ‘the door ia shut, and for ab indefinite period be is totally incoated from Iman comtact except by the specific direction of ‘the officer im charge of hia case. Be is not allowed to talk to tue quenis or to commmicate with other prisoners in any MAREE. when be 1s taken from kis cell for any reason be is scoompanied ty 0 guards Ie another priscoer approaches through the corrider ‘pe turns kis face to the val witil the other prisoner bas paseed. . the hours and rovtine of the prisoner are rigidly organized. He in avekercd carly in the woraing and given a short period im weich to wash hinsel?. His food is brought to him. 3s has © short und fixed tine in witch to est it; the standard diet isee just adequate to maintain nutrition. Se‘must clean himself asd police bis om cell; but be i9 not allowed enough tise to keep 4% epotlessly clean. At some tine in the morning be usually bas an exercise period. ‘ypically, bis exercise consista of walking alone in the axercise yard. If be is in rigid isolation, be my mot te alloved to exercise at all. Hs is wally ellowed a slop Jar in bis cell which he can utilize for defecation and urination, ‘out sometimes thie is taken away. ‘Then be wtist call the guard und perhaps weit for bours to be taken to the latrines. ‘At ell times except vhen he 18 esting, sleeping, smerciring, or being interrogated, the prisenar 1a left strictly alone in his cell. Be has nothing to a, nothing to read, and no one to talk to. Under the strictest regimen he may bave to sit or stand in his call in 6 fixed position all day. Be my sleep only at hours prescribed for aleep. Thea be must go to bed promptly when told and must lie in a fixed position upon bis back with bis bands cuteite the blanket. If be deviates from this position, the guard outside vill avaken hin ant make him resme it. The Light in his cell burns constantly. He aust sleep vith his face constantly toward it. ‘If the prisoner becomes il), be is taken to e prison physician by vom be is treated with the best medical care avail- able accomting to the prectices common to Soviet medicina. Ifnecessary, he may be placed under hospital care; but as soon os he bas recovered the regiita will be resumed. Prisoners are sot allowed to comit suicide. ‘Those who attempt to Go so are thearted and carefully cured until they recover; then the regimen is reswoed. Deviations from the preveribed regimen are promptly noticed vy the guards and are punished. Disturbed bebavior is punished alec. If this bebavior persists and the officer in change of the ence is convinced that the priscuer tas become mentally 111, the man may be placed undar medical care util bis ‘bealth bas returned; then the reginen is reoimed. This reginen within the detention Gell is in itself a most potent wapen in the bande of the MVD. It bas bean developed and refined over & period of many years and used on literally ‘thousands of priscosre. It ie highly effective in "bresking the vill" of prisqers -- so mch eo that many MVD officers are convinest thet there is 1iterslly no mas who cannot be brought to do their bidding. The Rifects of the Riginen in the Teslation Celt ‘The effects of this regimen upon prisoners are striking. It has been mentioned that the man who has been arrested ty the MVD 1s wally intensely apprehensive. Often he bas known for vieks ‘thet bo would-be srvested Pet has hed.n0 clear Xeewledge of whenae or for woet reason. He has been seized in the middle of the night and teken without explanation to prison. Be Kaows that no friend can belp Bim and that the MVD my do with bir vet they Please. ‘A major aspect of his prison experience 1s isolation. Man ia social animal; be does not live alone. Prom tirth to death, he Lives in the company of his fellow uan., His relations with other people and, especially with those closest to him, are almost a8 important to him as food or érink. When s man is ‘totally (eclated, he is renoved from all of the interpersonal relations viich are so important to him and taken out of the social role vhieh sustains bin. His internal as vell as his external life is disrupted. Exposed for the first time to totel feoletion in an MVD prison, be develops a predictable group of symptoms, vhich might almost be called « "disease syntrome". ‘The guards abd MVD officers are quite femiliar with this syodrome. ‘Thay wate ech new prisoner with technical interest as his symptoms develop. The initial appearance of an arrested prisoner is one of bevilderment. For a few hours, be may sit quietly in his cell ooking confused and dejected. But within « short time most prisoners became alert and begin to take an interest in thelr euvircoment. ‘They react with expectancy when anyons appronches 1g awe | |oer” the door to the cell. ‘They show interest and anxiety as they ere exposed to each new feature of the prison routine. ‘They my ask questions or begin conversations. Scbe mike demands} they demand to mow why they are being held, and protest that they are innocent, If they are foreign nationals, they may insist upon seeing their conmlar officers. sone take a "you can't do this to me” attitude. Some pass through a brief period of shouting, threstening, and demanding. All of this 1¢ alvays stersly repressed. If need be, the officer in charge of the casa will soo the prisoner, remind him of the routine, threaten him vith. Punishment, and punish him if be doce not subside. Dering this period the prisoner bas not yet appreciated the fault iaport of ‘his situation, He tries te fraternize vith the guards. Be ‘Leaves yert of bis food if be does not like it. Be tries to speak to prisoners vhon he passes in the corridors and reaches ‘back to close the door behind him vhen he is taken to the lstrine. ‘the guards refer to this as the period of getting “accLimatised" to the prison routine. After a few days 1t becomes apparent to the prisoner thet his activity avails him cothing apd thet be will be punished or reprimanded. for even the smallest treaches af the routine. lie wonders when he will be released or questioned. lis requests have been listened to wat never acted upon. le becomes eet,dooility of « trained animal. ‘Indeed, the guarés ony that priscoere are "reduced to animls". It is entimted that im ‘the average case it takes from four to six weeks of rigid, total {solation to produce this phencsenon. (the man vio first experiences isolation in prison is, of course, experiencing fer more than simple isolation. He usually i feels profoundly anxious, helpless, frustrated, dejected, end J entirely uncertain about his future. His first resetion to the isolation procedure is indeed one of bevilderment and some mubnese at the calamity vhich has befallen bis. ‘This is folloved vy @ period of interest and apprehension shout every detail of the prison regimen, sccompaniod by hope that he can explain everything as soon os be gets a chance, or an expecta- tion that be will be released vhen the proper authorities hear bout bis plight. Such hopes last but a few days, but they meep ‘him alert and interested during that time. ¥ As hope disappears, = reaction of ansious waiting super veces. In this period, the profound boredom and complete loneliness of his situation gradually overvhelm the prisooer. mere ie nothing for him to do except ruminate. Because be has so much to vorry about, his ruminstiontare oeléom pleasant. Prequentiy, they tabe the form of going over end over sll the possitle causes for his svrest. His mood become one of deSra Aejection, His sleep is disturbed ty nightaares. Be ultimately vearhas a stage of depression in which be ceases to care shout ‘ie perecual eppeerence ad bebsvior ani pays Little attention to bis surroundings. In this stege the prisoner may beve ilinsory experiences. A distant sound in the corrider sounds like someone calling his nats. ‘The rattle of « footetep my be interpreted as a key tn the lock opening the cell. God my seem to speak to ‘him in his prayers. Is may see his vite standing beside him. His need for humm companionship and bis desire to talk to anyone about 1, thing becomes 8 gnaving appetite like the hmger of « starving mn. Other Aspects of the Isclation Regimen Wot all of the reaction to this impriscment experience can be attrivuted to iecletion alone. Other potent forces are scting ‘upon the seviy imprisoned man. The prisoner's anxiety stout ‘Bimself ie compounded by worry shout whet may happen to bis frieods and associates, and, in the case of those whe possess iaformtion vhich they wish to hide, apprebensioa ebout bow mach the YD knows or will find out. Byen in the ateence of ieolation profound and mecutrolled anxiety is disorganizing. Uncertainty adia to bis enxicty. ‘The sevly arrested prisoner does not know how Long be will be confined, bow be will be punished, or with what he will be charged. Ba does know that hia punisheent may | j | : i 4 le mt a es ust cur eo a. ee haae ‘be anything up to death or permanent imprisoument. Many Driswers say thet uncertainty is the most wibearable aspect of ‘the whole axperieace. ' Sleep disturbexces sad nightmares Teed to further fear ani fatigue. Mee effects of ieclation, weertainty anf anriety are uemlly sufficient to make thea eager te talk to their interro~ (ptor, to ser™ scae method of escape from = situation which hes Desome intclershle. If these alone are not enough to produce tim desired effects, the officer in charge bas additional mingle and highly effective ways of spplying pressure. Tro of tan nowt effective of these are creating fatigue and preventing the prisoner adequate sleep. ‘The constant light in the cell aad the necessity of mistaiaing & rigid position in ted produce ‘alesp disturtentes; and the guards can avaken the prisoner at “Aatarvala. ‘Tits is eapectaliy effective if the prisceer is ‘emabened Just an be drope off to slew. Continsed loss of Aleep produces clowding of conscicumess anf s loss of slert- ness, both of vhich impair the victim's ability to sustain dscletion. 4 daother simple and effective type of pressure is that of maintaining the temperature of the cell at a level which is | either too bot or too cold for comfort. Continuous beat, ab o Level ob which constant eveating 16 necessary tn andar to maintain ee es a Sao a ern oe Es aaSee ‘body temperature, te cuarvating and fatigue proiucing. ‘Sustained cold is uncomfortable and poorly tolerated. meni another prenmure 1s to reduce the food. retion to the point te which the prisoner experiences constant HEMET, peprivation of food produces lasestade, loss cf qmarel sxterees mere is usually 0 loss of weight, ‘preakiowa of courage. reccme profoundly depressed when deprived of food. Both $2 prison camps and in humex experiments, it hes been observed that exrgaically bmgry people can be indueed to break down their qciture-bound tnhititions oa carry out antisocial acts tm onler to relieve their hunger me efferte of isolation, eniety, fetigua, lack af sleep, umeonfortabie tesperatires, and chronic linger produce distart- ances of mood, attitaies, anf behavior in nearly all prisoners me Living orgenion cannot eutirely withetant such ascaalts- me Commmints do not look wpa these assenite as “torture”. Undowitedly, they use the methods which they do in crder to conform, in & typical iegalistic mumer, to Commmist eueoey which demands that “no force of tartare be used 18 extracting infaraation from prisoners." ‘Bat these methods do constitute torture snd physical coercion amd should naver be considered. otharvise- Ail of them lead to serious Gisturtancesae of may bolily processes and to demobilization of the the MWD off!.cer who bas charge of a case during the period: of waspicion, surveillance end arrest is now sopplaated ty another officer who is charged with the interrogation of the priser and the preparstion of the deyosition. Within the WD, assignments to interrogstics.. are act highly regarded. Buch work is not Looked upon as glamorous or exciting. Yery often 1% involves assignment te outlying and relatively dull regions of the goviet Union, and umally it is herd and thankless. The interrogation of prisoners is & tiring and an emotionally ‘trying procedure. It can be assused that « majority af those involved in the investigetion and interrogation of unimportant priscners are men of average sbility with no great exthmsism for their job. However, the MID does also posseas highly skilled, well-educated, extresely knowledgestle, experienced and able interrogstors who are devoted to their profesrion and prowl of their shilities. ‘he interrogator assigned to am important prisceer can be expected to be a man of such high caliber. Scme of those vho go into political police ectivity receive only © scrt of “on-the-job” training wider the guidance of more senior and experienced men; but a fair propartion of these police 6 oe ag es ab aofficers are especially trained st an WWD school near Moscow. ‘This sehool has Deen in existence for st least 15 years. Tt gives @ course of ‘two years duration. ‘Trainees are allowed to observe & demonstration interrogation but do not ectually interrogations themselves. No forml training in peychology, payekiatry, pharmacology or physiology is incluied im the curriculum. ‘There are no representatives of sity of thene sciences oa the fasulty and, as far as can be secertained, there never have teen. ‘Trainees de receive information fram experi- enced police officers on bow to prepare = dossier, how to 4 “sise-up" 6 man, and how to estimate what sort of methods to i use in “tresking™ him; but the instructors drew entirely wom police experience. ‘hey have e comtespt for thearetical peychiatry and. paychalogy. a Txterrogation 4 ‘han the prisoner bas been arrested and incarcersted in bis 4 eel) the officer in charge of bis case submits to his superiors . @ Plan for the interrogation of the prisoner, This plan 1s drat up on the basis of vbat is alresdy known about the prisoner. Tt describes the methods to be used upon him, the @ttituies to be taken toward him, the type of information witch it is expected that be will reveal, and the type of crimes which be 1s Delieved to have committed and the assumed motivation for them. at aaaomer The purpose of this plan appears to be primarily that of making the interrogator spproach the priser vith a definite conception of viat be wants to do, apd how be 4a going to proceed. in doing st. Soviet law specifies that, if min 16 detained on suspicion, the first protocol of bis isterrogation must be given to the state prosecutor within ten days so that an arrest warrant may be iesued, or the man may be released. In general, interrogators are con- strained to comply with this regulation, and they try to produce eaough evidence to obtain an érrest within ten days. Because they bave Little except suspicion to guide their questioning, they are necessarily vague in deacribing the prisoner's crimes to bin, ‘They must te ceutious lest the prisoner get wind of vbat they want Mim to say ond refuse to say it. It is probably this more ‘than any calculated cunning which ceuses them to make to the prisoner such enigaatic statements as: "It is not up to me to tell you vast your crimes are; it is up to you to tell me” -- statements Which lead the perplexed prisoner to rack his brain for aa answer. ‘Tas promecutor is not hard to extisty, end the interrogator marly alvays obtains enough evidence to meke an "arrest". If not, be can apply for an extension of the detention period. The law provides no resi protection for the prisuoer. Tt has been, estimated that more than 99$ of those vho are seised axe ultimately convicted and yunisbed. 2ae Interrogations, cece begun, are ccutimued until the cuss is complete, but im some cirousstances they are intentioually Geleyet- Tt appeare thet this délay is imposed vien the prisoner i¢ defisnt, vaen be ie thought to be withholding information, when the KYB is seeking © confeesion to crimea other than those for which it bas evidence, and especially vbea it wants to use the prisoner for & yublic trial or to obtain a propaganda confession from him. Ia wach cases, the interrogation begins vben the officer in charge feels thet the prisoner is ripe for it. ‘This is umally when be observes thet the prisoner has becomes docile and compliagt and shows evidence of deterioration in his mood azd personel appearance. Interrogations are almost uniformly cirried out at night. It ds seid thet this practice of might interrogation originated not from any preconceived ides of ite effectiveness, but because the early Chekista were 40 crerturdened with police duties during the day that they could find time for interrogations only at night. Yor cms reason or another, 1 hes become standard procedure, poamibly because the physical and psychological effect of night interrogetions preduces sfde@ pressure upon the prisoner. Me 1s deprived of sleep and placed in « state of added uncertainty Uy never knowing vbem be will be svakened. and questioned. ‘typically, be vill be avekened suidenly by the guard shortly after he hes dropped off to sleep. Without explasation be 13 2owe taken from bis cell and down several corridors to © swell and Darren interrogation room equipped with « desk and cheir for the interrogator and @ stool for the prisoner. The lighting in | Srranged #0 that the priscuer can be placed in a bright light | Vile the interrogator sits in relative darkness. Somctimes a j wtenogrepher is present fn one corner of the room to take notes. 4 More often thi interrogator mikes his ovn notes, writing as the { prisoner speaks. Usually only ons interrogator is present but ooansionally other officers are introduced. Susetines interro- 1 extore altermite, for paychological reasons, one being “friendly” and tha other "hostile". If his work is successful, the Griginal interrogator may carry ‘the case through to a conclusion, Wat Lf he does not achieve the desired goal, be my be replaced. The atmosphere of the interrogation rocei generally hes some degree of formality about it. The interrogator may be dressed 4p full uniform. If be wishes to impress the prisoner, be amy take out a pistol, cock it, amd lay it on the desk before him; Wut this psychological gambit does not seem to be a required part of the protocol. The interrogator adjusts his attitude toward the prismer eccorting to his estimste of the kind of man he is facing. If the dossier indicates thet the prisooer is a timid and fearful mm, ‘the interrogator may adopt a fierce and threstening demeanor. romer ‘tbe prisoner is thought to be proud and sensitive, the interrogatar may be insulting and degréding. If the prisoner has been & man of prestige and importance in private life, the Anterrogstor my call bim by bis first name, treat him as an inferior and remind bim that he bas lost all reak and privilege. Tf it 1s known that the prisoner has been unfaithful to his wife or has committed ame crime such es embezzlement, the interrogator may blackmail him by threatening exposure or punishsent unless be cooperates. ALL these and many other tricks may be exployed. ‘They are not based upon & scientific theory of human bebavior; thay are tricks of the trade, ao to speak, developed out of police experience and applicd on a "rule of thumb", common sense basis. Almost invariably the interrogator takes the attitude that ‘the prisoner is guilty and acts as though ali of bis crimes are imown. Almost invariably be pointe out to the prisoner that be “1s completely helpless, and thet there 1a no hope for him unless he cooperates fully and confesses his crimes comlstely. Almost ever does the interrogstar state specifically vhet the prisoner's crimes actually are. This is left up to the prisoner vho is told, im effect, that be knows the extent of his ow crimes, and need only to make & complete statement of them. Almost invariably the interrogator does uct accept the early statements of the priscser. ‘Wo matter vint crimes he confesses, the interrogetor forces the 31 eeePe prisoner to repest his statements agein and sgain, and to elaborate oo them endlessly. Almost alvays he usee any discrepancies as indications of lying and questions the prisoner at length about ‘them. The First interrogation sessions are nearly alvays concerned with 6 complete review of the antire life experience of the Prisoner. The interrogator vishes to know about the prisoner's ‘background, his class origin, his parents, brothers and sisters, his friends and associates and everything that he has done ‘throughout bis life. Tf the case ic of any importance, no detail is overlooked, and every puriod of the prisoner’s life must be accounted for. ‘This review of the prisoner's life may occupy several interrogation sessions. It hes several purposes. Its first purpose is to complete the priscuer's dossier. It gives the interrogator a thorough picture of the type of man be is dealing with and further guides him to the man's weaknesses vhich cam be: exploited. Furthermore, requiring a man to eccumt for every detail of nf* Lite produces such « voluminous and involved story ‘that the prisumer can scarcely avoid being trapped into inconsist- encies if he 1s concealing anything. The information obtained from the life history can also be compared vith that alresdy im ‘the police files, which 1s usually extensive. Prom the policeeat point of view, it is also important to imov the associates of the prisoner because this may reveal bis "accomplices", ho then become suspects mod can be interrogated. Most important, it reveals many “criminal” features of the prisoner such as reection- ary class origin, membership in reactionary organizetions and association vith enemies of the state which are by Commnist éefinition “crimes” no matter hoy long ago they vere committed. The prisoner, taken frou his coll after a long period of ‘eolation, anxiety and despair, usually looks upon the first interrogation as a welcone break. ‘The mere opportunity to talk ‘to someone is intensely gratifying. Many prisoners have reported ‘hat after long Feriods of isolation they eagerly anticipate interrogetion sessices and try to prolong thea simply for the companionship which they efford. Mot infrequently, the prisoner aio regants interrogation as an opportunity to justify himself and feels false aseurance thet he cen explain everything if given & chance. Usually be is much taken aback by the fact that his crimes. are not specified, and thet his guilt is assumed. Be is further istressed vhen his protestations of innocence are greeted as Lies, But the opportunity to talk about his life experiences is generally Looked upom, especially ty @ person, from Western society, ax an opportunity to justify hie behavior. Many men willingly divulgeaa ‘@11 they can remember sbout themselves because they feel quite sure ‘that they bave dcte aothing which may be regirded os criminal. Taey are unaware that, from the point of view of Commmist theory and of the MVE, much of their past behavior undoubtedly will be construed as "criminal". If the interrogator offars then the opportunity to have paper and pencil in their cells and to vrite cut their biographies, they seise upon this svidly as 8 means of relieving the boredom of the tedious, lonely routine to which they are exposed. Pressures ea. by the Inte: As the iuterrogation procesds, the interrogator changes his : behavior according to his previous plan and the development of the case. If the prisoner is cooperating and teiking freely, the Aimterrogator continues to show a relatively friendly attitale. { But sooner or later he invariably expresses dissatisfaction vith the information vhich the prisoner has given, no matter how complete 1¢ my be. He demands new details, and shows an expecially great interest in the accomplices of the prisoner ant ‘the “organization” to which he is supposed to have been attached. Whew the prisoner protests that he bas told all, and denies exy othar crimes cr accomplices, the interrogator becomes hostile and begins t apply pressure.opeeinn. Some of the pressures vhich can be applied simply ty altering ‘the routine within the cell have been deacrited. The interrogator has many others at his commend. Continuous and re,~titive interrogation 1@ an effective and very common form of pressure. Another which is widely used is that of requiring the priscser to stand throughout the interrogation session or to maintain some if other phys.cal position vhich becomes painful, ‘bie, like other features of the M\L procedure, is a form of physical torture, in epite of the fact that the prisoners and MVD officers alike do u net ordinarily perceive it as such. Any fixed position which is maintained over s long period of tims ultimately produces es oe, excruciating pain. Certain positions, of vhich the standing Position 1s ose, aleo produce impairment of the circulation. Many men can withstzod the pain of long standing, but @ooner or later all men succumb to the circulatory failure it Siac produces. After 18 to 2k hours of continuous standing, there is df an accumlation of fluid in the tissuns of the lege- This dependent "edema" is produced by the extravasation of fluid from ‘vos blood versele- TBe ankles and feet of the prisoner swell to es a twice their normal ciremference. The edema may rise up the legs as high es the middle of the thighs. The skin becomes tense and intensely painful. Large blisters develop vhich break asd exude vatery serm. ‘Toe accumulation of the boly fluid in the lege xB Sepa produces an impairment of the circulation. The heart rate inereases and fainting may cceur. Eventually there {aa renal, abutdown, and urine production ceases. Urea and other metabolites accumulate in the blood. fhe prisoner becomes thirsty, and may Grink = good deel of water, which is not excreted, but addé to the edeme of bis legs. Men have been know to remain ‘standing for periods as long es several days. Ultimately they usually develop @ delirious state, characterized by disorientation, fear, delusions, and visual hallucinations. This psychosis is produced. by @ combination of circulatory impairment, lack of sleep, and uremia. Periods of long standing are umully interrupted from time to 4 time by imterregatioc periods during waich the interrogator demands and threatens, vbile pointing out to the prisoner that tt would be easy for him to end bis misery merely by cooperating. ‘The MVD pardly ever uses manacles or chains, and rerely resorts to physical beatings. The ectual physical beating s¢, of ‘course, contrary to MVD regulations, The ostensible reasoa for ‘these regulations is that they are contrary to Commnist theory. ‘The practical renson for them is the fact that the MVD looks upon direct physical brutality as an ineffective m thod of obtaining the compliance of the prisoner. Its opinion in this regard is shared by police in other parts of the vorld. In generel, direct physicalae Drutality creates caly resentaent, hostility and further defiance. Tt 4 @ genera) policy thet the interrogator must obtain the written permission of his superiors before using extreme ‘soereive meneurva of any sort upon prisoners. In eetusl practice such permission 1a sought only if the officer ia charge of # case feele that there is @ need for # direct brutal esseult. The MVD recognises thet sone nen vho are intensely afraid of physical seeoult may break dova if besten once or twice, and it does use ‘hie procedure deliberately, though uncommonly. Generally speaking, when en interrogator strikes a prisoner in anger he does so “mofficially". The act ie usally an expression of his eansperation and evidence that be, himself, is under exotional strain. Tt can be taken for granted that scse period of intense presmure aod coercion VELL be applied to every priser, 80 matter bov cooperative be tries to be at first. This period of presmure Will be accompanied uy expressions of displeasure and hostility fron the interrogator, and sometimes from the guards ales. ‘ Bae "Fetendly approese” ‘Tee interrogator Will contigue this pressure wtil be reels ‘that the prisoner is nearly at the end of his rope. At this point be introduces s psychological geabit which is probably the most EL] | i tn ne te SBso successful of any of the tricks at his command. He suddenly changes bis demeanor. The prisouer, returned once again to an interrogation session that be expects vill be « repetition of torture end vilification, suddenly finds thet the entire scene hes changed. The interrogation room is brightly lighted. ‘The interrogator 1s seated bebind bis desk, relaxed and amiling. ‘Tea and cigerettes are waiting on the table. He is usbered to @ comfortable chair. The guard 1s sent avay and sometimes the secretary also, The interrogator renarks about his appearance. Be iu sympathetic about the discomfort which he has been quffericg. He is sorry that the priconer bas had guch a diffi- cult time. She interrogator himself vould not have wished to tions require this trestment, becmuse of the prisoner's ows etukbormess. “put let us relax and be friends. Let us not tak any more about crimes. Tell me about your faaily" -- and so on. The usual line is to the effect thet, "After all, T am “ @ reasonable men. I vant to get this business over as much as | 4 | 4 8 @o this to the prisoner -~ it is only that the prison regula- 4 4 you do. This is as tiresome to meas it is to you. We already ‘mow about your crimes; it is a mere formlity for you to write ‘out your confession. Why don't we get it over vith so that ‘everything can be settled and you can be released?”ae Prieoners find this sudden friendship aed relesse of pressure almost irresistible. Nearly all of them avidly seize the oppor tunity to talk about themselves and their feclings, and then go on to talk about their families. Most of thes proceed from this Simost automatically to giving the information vaieh the tuterro- gator seeks. Bren if they do not provide everything the interro— @ator wants at this tise, be my contisue his friendly demeanor and the relamtion of pressure for several more sessions before Femming the old regimen of torture. But if the prisoner does Feveal significant informstion and cooperates fully, the revards are prompt and gratifying. The interrogator smiles and congrata- lates him. Cigarettes are forthcoming. ‘There is a lange mel, often excellently prepared and served; and after this the Prisoner retums to his cell and sleeps as long aa be likes, in any position that he chooses. The Course of the Interrogation Such friendly and revarding behavior vill coutinue for several days -- usually as long as the interrogator feels that & significant amount of new information 1s beizig produced. At this point the prisoner may conclude that his ordeal is overs bat invariably he is disappointed. For as soom as the interrogator decides that no new information is being yielded, the regimen of constant presgure and hostile interrogation is resumed. Again it. » iil a, EA cot figue 1s carried to the poimt at vhich the prisoner is near treekiow. Again it is relared, and again the prisoner is revarded if be cooperates. In this manner, proceeding with regular steps, elternating punishnent with revard, the prisoner is constantly { Preseed to revise and rewrite the protocol until it contains all. ‘the statements viich the interrogator desires, and is ine final 4 form vhich meets vith his approval. When it hss at last been agreed upon and signed, the pressure is relaxed "for good", but the prisoner continues to live in his cell and continues under 4 the threst of renewed pressure until such tise as be bas been * taken before @ court, bas confessed, and bas been sentenced. ‘Throwghout the entire interrogation period, the pricover is ‘under some form of medical surveillance. Prison physicians ere femiliar with 411 the effects produced by MVD procedures, and evidently they are skilled at judging Just how far the various procedures can be carried without killing or permanently damaging the priemer. Prisouars vho have been besten bave their 4 wounds carefully dressed. Those who are forced to stand for long ‘Sometimes the physician intervenes to call « halt if be feels the Prisoner is in danger. The unintended death of « prisoner during ‘the interrogation procedure is regarded a6 4 serious error on the wert of the prison officials.ener ‘The_Iaterrogetor's Point of View and Objectives ‘Tt bas been maid that the interrogator approaches the princeer vith the semmption that be is guilty. It is isportent- ‘that ve defing-this statenent precisely. It doce not mean that the interrogstor 1s not avare of the “tras facts” of the situ- ‘Hon but thet he interprets them in the light of Commmist ideology. Tee KYB officer ins Commnist. He has selected this prisoner from cue of the groupe of suspects Gescribed earlier. The ma ves arrested because the HYD, viich represents the Commmint State, regarded him ss 4 menace to the Party or its ‘progres. Amyoue vho is a menace to the Party is, by definition, guilty of threatening the security of the Commist State. Ergo, from the Commmist point of Tiav, the man Sa "gaiity*. In other words, the AYP bas decided that this man must be dealt vita in some mumer, “for the good of the tate." Oace the mn ius been arrested this point is no longer open te question. This is the tree though esoteric meaning of the frequently repented Commmist statement that, "Ze a Commmist state, tanocent people are never arrested." If oma accepts their definition of "guilt" aad “inmocenoe", thie $e indeed a fact. Jowsver, the interrogator does uct know Just vant specific “crimes” the mandy have committed. In fast, it in quite clear , that moat of the-people arrested ty the HVE have not really a 5ome’ committed any specific erricus crimes st all. But the police do kor thet tha prisoner has comitted some acts wiich are contrary to the broad Soviet laws against political crimes, as well es minor “actual” crimes. Furthermore, experience nas teught then that if they put enough pressure upon the prisoner, socper OF later they vill get him to confess to acts wistch cen be inter preted as a "mejor crim". (nee this confession bas been obtained, the MVD con depand from the court a pmishnent equivalent to thet wich 4% intended that the prisoner should receive when 1¢ arrested bin. wach of the activity of the interrogator can be iodked upon as 0 process of permmsion. ‘The primary vork of an interrogator fa to convince the prisonars that vhat they did vas © cris. Having gotten evidence frou his inforuers snd from the prisoner, At te up to the interrogator to permade the prisoner thet certain actions vhich he bas carried out constitute © crime. The prisoner 18 usually prepared to aéuit thet the acts bare berm carried out, Often as not, he revesied then freely because be id pot consider thea to be criminal. It is up to the interrogetor to woke the prisoner see that these acts do constitute & series crime, tnd acknoviedge this by signing deposition and maxing = confession in court if necessary. ‘The Commmist legal syrven requires that this be dose before « ease cen be settled.pein ‘Hoe fact that the interrogator 1s a dedicated Communist makes his task of persuasion amevhet easier. ‘The tuterrogator approtches ‘the prisoner with the knovledge that the man is actually a crimtaal ‘by Commnist definition; and he has a large body of convenient Commmint Safinitions and rationalizations to belp bis im coo- jvineing his victim of this. For example, according to Communist theory, act mre Judged by their “objective effects” rather than Uy the motives of those who comitted them. ‘Thus, if 8 prisocer, \enrough an honest aiatake, has damged a piece of machinery tonging to the State, be isa "wrecker". Objectively, be hes vrecked on important piece of property belonging to the State. ‘The fact that he did this with innocent motives is not & considers ‘tion. Thus s "Aisteke", and “sccident" and a "crime" all become the same thing. | Lskavise, according to Commmint theory, | thoughts are Judged “consequentially*. Thur, if « prisoner is |mnova to have said that the MID vas too powerful, the fact that Ine nes eatd this my make hin « “traitor” and “eaboteur". ‘The Communist reasoning is that a man who says that the MVD 1s too powerful, believes that it is too powerful and will ultimately act upon this belief. This ultimate act will constitute sabotage and treason; therefore, the man ts a saboteur and « traitor. Similarly, | maa vbo bas friendly association with foreign ABCal nationale mest have some friendly feeling toward them; foreign governments axe capitalist ont imperialist; © man vio 16 friendly ‘to foreign mationals is giving help to the agents of capitalist imperialion; therefore, the mun 16 spy whether he realises it or not. ‘Such peculiar twists of Communist logic are difficult for Wentern prismers to accept at first. Usually they object streauously to these definitions of “treason”, "wrecking", and “sabotage”; but ultimately, ander constant pressure and persus— sion, & prisoer usually agrees to some statement to the effect thet, "By Commmist lavy I ama ayy." Thereafter, there follows further argment and persuasion to the effect that = perech 1s guiged ty the lave of the country in which the crimes are comitted. Utimately the quilifying phrase is omitted, and the fina depouttion contains the staple statement, "Tama ayy." Many MVD officers impress the prisoner by the sincerity of their dedication to Commmion and its ostensible idesls. ‘The interrogator often displays © patient sympathy which becomes spparent to the priser. Mis attitude that, "this is something ve mast go through vith and neither you nor I can stop uatil you have cooperated and signed a proper confession", im to some extent 2 gesuine attitade. ‘The MYB aystes allove of no other solution from the imterrogator's point of view. It 1s im fact he aeEE | quar true that the interrogations vill have to go on until a proper depcaition hae been signed, The prisoner often comes to recogsise ‘this sincerity. Many see that indeed the interrogator must follow the sywtem, ond there is nothing “hich he can do ebout it. Thus, the prisoner, in bis need for companionship, may dieplace his hostility from the interrogator to the “aystem™. Many interro- gators genuinely plead vith the prisoner to learn to ses the truth, to think correctly, and to cooperate. Peection of the Prisoner to the Interrogation The woy in which 6 prisoser reacts to the whole procesa of interrogation 19 to a great extent dependent upon the saminer of mon be is, bis pre-existing attitudes and beliefs, and the cireumstances surrounding his arrest and imprisoument. ALL prisoners bave this in common: ‘They have been isolated and have een under urenitting presmire in au atmosphere of hostility sn uncertainty. They all find themselves in « dilemm at the tise ‘that the interrogation begins. Tbe regimen of pressure and isolation bas created en oversll discomfort which is well nigh intolerable. Te prisoner iovariahly feels thet something must be dome to find a vay out. Death is denied him. Ultimately, be finds binself faced vith the choice of coutinuing interminably under the intolerable pressures of his captora or accepting the way out which the interrogator offers. The way out 1s & ASgaat | retionalisation, Tt allovs the prisoner to meet the demands of hie interrogator by degrees, while at the came time retaining within himself some shred of belief that by his om standards he | ‘bas hot capitulated. ‘The rationalization my be -- and very often is «= 60 patently absurd and untrue that the victim, in his "right mind", would be utterly incapable of accepting it. But he is not in bis right mind. Mis capacity to distinguish true from false, | oe good tres ted, bas been deliberately uterine’, With rare exceptions prisoners accept this way out, provided the pressures: are prolonged and intense and the interrogator can effectively adjust his persuasivences. Various categories of priscoers respond to different types of 4 Persuasion. Persons who have been lifelong members of the Communist j Party are familiar with the Communist concept of “crime” and the fmetions cf the MD. Furthamore, they have all been trained in the ritual of self-criticim, confession, punishaent ant rebabili- ‘tation Viich ins been part of Communist procedure since before the wevolution, Many Commmicts can rationalize a belief that they are actually criminals as specified by the MVD and com to see these pundabeent a6 necessary for the good of the State and the ' Party. To the true Party mesber, such martyrdom carries with it an afr of triwph.esl Noo-Commmist prisoners of idealistic beliefs or socialist ayepathies apparvatiy make ready tergets for the logic of the interrogator. Such persons are uranily compelled to agree thet the ostensible and idealistic motives of the Commmist Party ar sigood", and. tet those who oppose these ideals are "sad". The raticonLization in this ease takos the form of getting the priser to say that the Commniet Party bas the tear value ysten that be does; something viich the prisoner agrees 1s “bed” by bis own definition. From this point the prisoner proceeds ‘through the usual steps to the ultimate signing of the deposition. Persone vho carry vith them strong feelings of guilt associated with highly organized systems of sorel values Likewise pecoms reedy targets for the pormasion of the interrogator. Very few people are entirely free of guilt feelings, Put, inappropriate as dt seems, such feelings often are found in the highest deeree jn those vbose objectives and beharior are beyond reproach FOr example, meng stroagly religious people have a profound sense of ain. ‘They feel guilty of shortcomings of their ows vaich are och muller than those found in wost of their fellow men- Tay constantly see themscives a4 tranagressing their ovo sorel code ‘and in the need of forgiveness for Going so. Skilled interro- gators make use of this.Tobtvidunla vith eo-called sociopathic or peychopathic perscuslitics vio ave fev moral scruples are valnersble because they can be tried, im a sense, to take the easy way out~ Obriouly, individvals actually “eaught with the goods" receive short shrift at the bands of the WD interrogator. tee mace in vhich any prisoner finds himself has so many ramifications that it is alsost impossible for him to escape from 4% without sigaing # protocol and beisg convicted. Anything he has done may be a crime. Be has been adjudged guilty before his arrest. Be 9 put in « situation of intolerable preseure. Tt 4a wade clear to him that bis only way out of this eituation is to cooperate vith the interrogator. He is offered = reasonable vetionalization for doing so. Sooser or later, under these circumstances, the prisoner and the interrogator almost inevitably come 10 an agreement: upon # deposition vhich satieries both of thea. ‘Tee Triad Ven tue prisoner has finally reached the point of admitting his crimes and be and the interrogator have agreed upon @ protocol satisfactory to boih of them, be experieaces & profound sense of relief. Bren though his crimes aay be serious and the punishment for them severe, be velcames « surcease from tha unrelenting pressures and miseries of the interrogation protedure. Whatever 8 Sees| oni ee ‘the fwcure may hold for hin, he has for the moment fowl « way out Of an intolereble situation. When & satisfactory deposition has been prepared and signed, the prearures upon the priscmer are customirily relamd. ie is lloved to sleep as long an he vishes; he may have roading and veriting material in bis room. Sometimes be can joa vith other Prisoners in periods of exercise. His meals improve and his guards become friendly or even eolicitous. This easy treatucnt tm contimed wotil he is thoroughly rested and bis bealth bas been restored, Then, in most cases, be is taken before the court. ‘The state prosecutor presents the court with the signed protocol. ana questions the prisoner about bis crimes. Sometimes = defense attorney is assigned; this man fnvarishly Limite himself to wequesting leaiency from the court. The viole procedure is usually brief and formal. There are no verdicts of “nat guilty". ‘The function of the judge is solely thet of presiding over the ‘win and passing upon the prisoner a sentence vhich has usually ‘been agreed upon beforehand by the prosecutor and the HYD officer 4a charge of the case. Tt is this aspect of the proceedings vhich is most bevilder- ing to Westen. observers. It is easy to understand hov prisoners can be tortured into signing confessions of orines which they did not commit, but 1% is C.tficult te understand way the prisoners, do sot renounce these confessions later at the public trials. ig sosae Beginning vith the Purge Trials of the 1930's, ita successors unk offepring in Tuseia, the Eastern Beropean estellites, ant Chime bave preseuted the world vith © series of poblie trials at viich the prisooers calmly and seemingly withoct coarcion make outrageous confessions of wibelievanle crimes, preter their captors, anf ask for the acet sever puitahment for theneslves- cmeee priscoare neve included important Commnist offisials, goreer HIND officers, noa-Commnist citizens of various categories, the IVD ent en foreigners of the most diverse backgroumda. Al] of these prisoners apparently vere insocent; some faced certain death; enit mony vere profoundly anti-Commist, Men of the Bighest celiber and integrity Like Cardinal Kindezenty scesed to have the strongest posnsbie motivations to resist; but nooe of them stood up in cour’ anf denomced the confession spd his ceptors. ‘This phenomeacn Qemends an explésation. ‘the explanation 19 available but it is not simple. Tris necessary 0 examine the proposition in detail in order to view it in its proper Light - Firat, 4t is vy no wemns tras that “all prisosere confess freely at o public trial." Only « very small minority of priscosrs of the Commins state police ever appear at © TbliC trial. te proportion of thee tried publicly 1s exceedingly qual. ‘The HOD vill uot expose # priscoer to a public trial 50en woless it is convinced that be will go through with his confession as planned. If thre ie any doubt about this, no public trial is bela. But even vith this precaution the MPD is not infallible. ‘At the Parge Trials several of the prisoner tried to recent parte of their confessions. When 6 prisoner tried to recent, the prosecutor halted the examination of that person. Usually, when be returned from hia cell several days later ha was again docile ‘and cooperative. Some of the so-called "public trials" bave mot actually been public. ‘They have been carried cut in the presence of a seleet audience vhile movies and recordings are mde of the prisoner's words vhich are later trensmitted to the public. ‘The majority cf prisoners do come to trial, but these triats are not public. They are beld in comera. The state police are comeerned only with political crimes and espionage. Their prisoners are tried before "Hilitary Tribunals", vhich are aot public courts. Those present are only the interrogator, the state prosecutor, the prisuoer, the judges, a few stencgrephers, and perhaps 0 fev officers of the court. At such a trial there te mo opportunity for public protest, and any protest which is made can be resdily expunged from the record. So far as the prisoner 1s concerned, this so-called trial appears as nothing more than the next step in bis proceas of imprisoument. Be bas remained extirely in the bands of his interrogators amd guards~— d With access to po one elec. When %» finally comes before the court he wees no one new except the state prosecutor, the julge, tid the court officials. ‘The defense attorney, if one is assigned, shove not the slightest interest in refuting eny of the evidence 1m the confession or in establishing a plee of “not guilty". Be never questions the fact that the prisoner is guilty as charged. Sometimes be asite thé judge for lentence; but not infrequently be informa the court thet be is convinced the prisoner is just as big fs master as tbe prosecution says be is and thet be camot tring himself to ask the court for leniency. The judge Libevise shows no interest in the question of guilt or innocence. He limite himself to maintaining order in the court and passing sentence. ‘Tf the prisoner has ony illusions that the prosecutor, the Judge, and the defense attorney are going to allow lim any opportunity to disprte the facts in the case these are soon dispelled. By 20 meens do oll prisoners receive a trial of aay sort. Those who are stubborn or repeatedly recant their confessions during the interrogation procedure will mot be trusted even at Frivate trials. Uocooperative and stubborn prisoners and those who might make ember sing statements are “dealt vith administratively." For many years the state police have had the right to carry out aduivistrative trials for any priscoers vhom they do not wish to expose to the ustal trial procedure. These c3ae administrative trials consist of simply presenting the priscser to = group of threr senior police officers (the “Proika”) who pass sentence immdiately ami have it carried out forthwith. These administrative trials take plece within the detention prison, fometines tha prisoner is not even present at them; sentence 18 passed by the Troika merely upon the basis of the signed protocol. 3 Sometines the elieged records of these trials have been mide public, but generally the fact thet such » trial bed taken place 4s never revealed. For every doviet citizen who has appeared et a public trial there have been thousands vbo have been tried only at private trials by wilitary tribunels or bave been dealt with administratively by the police themselves. Thus, 6 great number of high Commmist officials, captured Germn officers, and similar prisooers who fell into the hands of the Russian secret police were aot tried at all. So far as the public vas concerned, ‘they merely disappesred. It ie eaid thet since the death of Beria and the dissolution of the MOB, the right of adsinistrative trial hes been withdrew from tha WYD. ‘The Bistory of past attempts to reform the secret police suggest ‘that it will be quietly restored within « few years, if it has not been alresdy. Public Confessions ‘If we exclude from consideretion all those prisoners vbo are dealt with aduiniecratively, tvo questions remin: Why do all ofout those prisoners vho are tried in privete ccafess almost without exception? Way do some priscuers confess at public trials where there is setwally sume opportunity to make an open denial of gailer In response to the question of why prisoners at private trials confess almost vithout exception the following ansvers can be given: (1) ‘The setting of the private trial as we have just described it mikes it apparent to the prisoner thet any attempt et recantation is useless. (2) ‘te prisoner at a private trial is alvays under actual threat by the WWD. The officer in charge of his case hes clearly indicated to him thet any attempt to alter or recent any part of his confession will lead to an immediate resumption of the interrogation-torture regimen. This threat 1a as poigeant aa cocked pistol. (3) Warm and positive feelings between prisozers and their interrogating officers often develop during the interrogation process, and many prisoners come to trial with ‘the feeling thet, if they attempt to alter their tastinony, ‘they Will be Gishonoring an egreement with their interrogators. (+) Finally, it is to be emphasized that in spite of all of these deterrents, some prinouers do recant et their privete trials. The court then decides that these prisoners have not aoa ii it sos tenn ann se il ane nn name et ane yet reached a full avareness of their crimes. They ere sext ‘ack to the detention prison, snd osce again put through the ‘torture-interrogation regimn. Sooner or later, they learn ‘that pleas of “not guilty" are not acceptable in Soviet courts, and that they must behave themselves at their triale. Othervise, they are indefinitely detained or executed. Jn answering the question of vhy some prisoners cnfess. publicly when there is some opportunity for them to renowce their Confessions and therety eubérrass their captors, one must consider ‘the various categories of those vho have been tried in public. Widely publicised trials are staged by the Commmists only under esceptionsl circumstances and alvays for propaganda purposes. ory are carefully managed “set pieces" in vaich every performer must play his role exectly as preseribed. The MVD and other Cammmist police organizations select the priscotre for these shows with grest care. Tha Cirst category of those who have made public confessions are prominent Bolsheviks vho have fallen from grace; Zinoviev, Kemenev, Rykov, Bukharin, Radek and their associates at the time Of the great purges; more recently, Luse, Rajk in Hungary, treicks Kostov in .ulgarie, Glansky, Clementis, and others in Crechoalovakia, China, etc. The list is extensive, but not nearly eo extensive as the list of crominent Communist officials who vere LiguidatedQe adainistretively, probably because they could not be trusted at © wublic trial. Dut vay did these confesé, who did so? ‘Tar old Bolsheviks “confessed” primarily because they vere lifelong, dedicated Commmists. They hed comitted their lives to the belief that notizing is sacred but the Party, and the Party is alvays right. If there is a central point in the Commmist creed, it is this. hase men ali subscribed to the belief that opposition to the Party lame, #8 expressed by the Party leaders, is a crime. Woatever else ‘they vere, thay vere “chronic opjositionists", and kev themselves to be eo. ‘They all subscribed to the Communist ritual of public aelf-critician and punisheent. Bearly all of them bed at one time or another publicly criticized theaselves and had been punished. Several hed been expelled from the Party, not once but several ‘times. They all knew themselves to be in opposition to the Party leadership, and they all felt guilty about this. In spite of this, they still considered themselves to be Bolsheviks and were pre- pared in principle to accept any demand vhich the Party might make up them, even to the point of death. Another category of those who bave confessed publicly is that group of intellectually or idealistically motivated people vbo vere thought to be opposed to Commaism, or at least to be noa- Commmist, prior to their arrest. Most prominent in this group isaa t : Cardinal Hindsseaty; also included in this are other Roman . Catholic prisete from the satellite countries such as Bishop Crussi. ig Still another category of thove who bave confessed publicly are various foreign vusinesmen, nevepapermen and military men vbo ware arrested or captured in the course of their routine duties; i; Robert Vogeler in Zmgary and William Ostis in Ceachoslovakia are | examples. In all of these cases, the folloving factors are evident: | (1) The confessions msde ty the prisoners were “actually true” in the sense that the specific acts described in the confessions actually occurred. (2) ‘The interpretation put “pon these acts was the Commu ist interpretation. 3} The pri~oer bad been bre ht to agree that in the country in which he vas arrested the Commnist laws applied And, therefore, these acts constituted crime. ‘The prisoner, therefore, pleaded guilty to "crimes" which were “crimes” by Communist definition, but which he had not intended s@ crimes OF considared to be crimes st toe time that he carried then out. ‘This qualification, hoverer, ws missing from the state- weonte tide ty the prisoners at the trialr. (S) ALL of these prisoners vere under the threat of Fenewed torture-interrogation regimen if they recanted or changed their confessions. STour, (5) Many of them bed the actual or implied promise as well as the firm belief that they would be released if they ' cooperated with the police. (6) Furthermore, all of them vere able to rationalise that their confessions would not be believed by outsiders in 1 | any case. ‘This rationalization was in part 9 correct one -- | ‘their confessions vere widely disbelieved in the United States; ‘but in some other areas of the world their confessions are accepted as fectual. (7) Finally, st mast be emphasized that in all these 4 i | { cases, though provebly to varying degrees, the brainmshing process -~ the disintegretion of personality ascoapanted ty some shift in valus-aystem -» had taken place. In the case Of devoted Commmists, 1t 18 possible thet fanatic loyalty to the Party played & large part in bringing about the confes- sions, without the necessity of extensive brainwashing. Oa ‘the other hand, mjor shifts in their thinking processes must have isfluenced the public confessions of Cardinal Mindsrenty, Yogeler and Ostis. When absurd, events and imereditle logic are apparent in comvincinzly sincere state- weute by men of wach intelligence, no other explanation is Sufficient. These men vere reduced to & state in which their conceptual processes vere no longer encusbered by processes of critical Judgeent. . xsSe Punishment The period of interrogation and detention, no matter bov long and terrible {t my be, is not considered imprisonment. ‘Toe punishment begins only after the sentence has been passed. some times a lenient judge will allow the prisoner to count hie period of detention as a part of a prison sentence, but often this period ie @iscounted altogether. According to Communist tbeary, the purpose of priecn systems in to rehabilitate criminals through wholesome work, productive activity, snd education. For this ‘purpose prisoners are transported to Siberia or the Arctic where most of them spend their terms vorking im mines and construction Projecta under bruted and primitive conditions, hose vho are fortunate enough to receive any education during this procedure are educated by further indoctrination vith Commmist ideas. Comparison, of Russian ond Chinese Communist Prectices ‘From tha standpoint of understanding the tecniques of bratiwashing, the practices of the Chinese edd little to the Russias procedures just described. ‘There are, however, some general differences, a few of which may be mentioned. (1) tn Chine, at the moment at least, the period of detention is greatly prolonged. Whereas in the Soviet Union ‘trial and sentencing take place fairly soon after the comple- tion of the interrogstion and the preparation of a suitahle » Ceey Qo Rrotocol, in China the preparation of a first confession is only « prelude to « long period of indoctrination and re-education, vhich my go on for years. Tt is not terminated ‘atl those in charge of the prisoner believe that he has Tisally adopted s “correct” attitule ani tebavior. Tt ie only ‘then that the trial, the sentencing and the formal term cf imprisoment or other punishment begins. (2) Unlike the MVD, the Chinese make extensive use of roup interaction among prisoners, in obtaining informatica, in applying pressures, snd in carrying out indoctrination. (3) The goal of the WD detention and interrogation. Procedure is the preparation of @ protocol upoa vhich « ‘Sulteicle punishment can be based, so that the MYD can then deal vith the prisoner according to ite preconceived iden Of what must be done for the good of the Party and the Soviet State. In a minority of cases, this incluies s Pablic trial for propaganda purposes. ‘The MVD does not appear to be greatly concerned about the future attitules end behavior of the priscmer, 46 long as be behaves properly during the period of trial and sentencing. The goal of the Chinese detention and interrogation procedure, on the other hand, ie primarily thet of insuring thet the prisoner will Mavelop = relatively long lasting change in his attituies i &cpnentitt and overt behavior thet will be sustained after his release, eo that he will not again constitute a danger to the Communist state. The securing of informstion by interroga- tica, the preparation of proper protocals and "confessions", aod the participation of the prisoners in public propaganda ‘trials, are secondary to this primary goal. (h) ‘Weerens in the Soviet Union and the satellites the Pitan) of public self-criticiaa, confession, self-degredation, punistment, and rehebilitetion is 8 party procedmre confined ‘to Communists, the Chinese have extended this prectice to the won-party population, and to the prison population in particular, and bave made it an important feature of their indoctrination procedure. (5) Physical torture of the traditional sort is mare common. Menacles and leg chains are frequently used. (6) Procedures are less standardizes. (7) Detention facilities are wore primitive. The essential differences appear to be in those of emplesis and objective, as indicated in (1) through (4) above. ‘The Soviet objective is one of securing a confession in # relatively sbart ‘time, ‘The Chinese objective is thet of indoctrination, of com- verting the victim to Commmisn; aid the process my be prolonged ; for years. Traiumsking 1s but ose of many techniques used. al sap ‘Frequent iectures and ccustant and intensive social pressures are dike also Trowinsnt eleaants. 4 Seme perscas who hove emerged from Chinese prisons have bean characterized by amazingly altered political beliefs and imediate loyalty to Commmisa. ‘They bave, indeed, been described as the most thoroughly brainwashed of all! While the story of Chinese Andoctrination 1s an interesting and impressive one, we believe that it 4s in the interest of elear thinking to confine our use of the term "braimashing" to that systematic breakdown of the personality vhich is deliberately brought about for the purpose of securing false confessions. Conclusions ‘From this general description it is possible to drew two general conclusions aboyt Commmist comtrol techniques. First, ‘there ie little that is new in their repertoire of controls. few pages of Malleus Meleficarm®, for exsmple, will couviaes any reader of the amzing sisilarity between present-day Communist brainwashing methods and those used for obtaining confessions of witchcraft three and four centuries ago. ima eemtecepeainnieaibensi 1 ailbaaadonin itemise. Communist control of the individual end the mnses is little different from controls exercised ty virtually all abeclute forma i © SORE, HK. Malleus Maleficarm. Lootoa Pushkin Press, 198. 278 pp.ae of government, past and present. 18 the extent of application and the unsurpassed organization in adainistration of control techniques. Moat is new with the Commmistes The secoud general conclusion is thet the Commmists bare developed a highly systematic use of techniques for controlling ‘the individual. ‘This eystemization apparently has been developed ragaatically by trial and error, rather than from the best svadletle theoretical principles. There is evidence that no elentists have participated in the actual traimvashing proces: hod considering vat is known of the brainwashing process, more systematic application of established psychological principles ‘sould probably increase the efficacy of braimvasbing. Both the Soviets and Chinese are flexibie in developing “tadlor-made* contol pressures for specific individuals. ‘this ‘tailoring of treatuent is dependent upon come ability to diagnose vat combination of pressures will be most effective in | manipulating a particular personality. Finally, it may be worth re-caphasizing at this poixt that many Kinds cf people vho have been in the hands of the Comemists have done many different things for many different reasons -- to ll of which the term "brainwashing" bas at some tine been applied. Loyal Communists have confessed falsely “for the good of the Party", no doubt in some cases with little imediatecoercion, Some wueduested or rootless persons bave been easy. merks for conversion to Comsminiem. It seems wise, bovever, to reserve the term “brainwashing” for thet asesult on the perecn- ality whieh is a clew and prominent result of the Soviet reginen dust described. It is that asseult on the perscuality to which we shall nov turn our attention,(AD ABALYSIS OF COMTROL TORING BRATHWAGEING Having gotten the "feel" of the Commist prison ond interrogation procedures which culminte in the false confeasion, ve should now organize our thinking with respect to just wnat ie accomplished end hov this objective is ‘brought about. ‘The objective is to procure a plausible, detailed, reasonably consistent confession of crimes. A major characteristic of this confession ia that nearly all of it ix felse. Some of the epecific acts or utterances ascrived to the victim may, to be sure, be true. But the criminal meaning of the acta, the criminal intent of the victim in performing them, many exbellishments aod elaborations of the acts, the victin's quilt with regard to them, and his DeLief that he should be punished-- all these ere distortions, and quite at variance vith the fects. A second end most essential characteristic of the brein- washed, confessing individual is that he appears to have developed & conviction that what he confesses Se true. This 16 indeed the most startling clement in the vhole picture; and this ia the element which demnds explanation. 6 eetae Am SLlustration may wake this clear. If a prisoner hes ‘been chosen for brainwashing, he eamnot escape going through, ‘the entire process simply by indicating & willingness to Sign enything he is asked to sign. In publie trial, such confessions would be wccnvincingly supported by the victia, ot night be denied. ‘The whole process aust be curried through te the point vhere the victin literally evinces belief in his confession. ‘The key figure in the brainweshing process is the interrogstor. He is the protagonist around vhom the priscuer develops his conflict, and upon vhom the prisoner comes to depend as he seeks @ solution for that conflict. Be provides the general outline, though not the details, of the great fabrication whieh the victim must construct, Gefend, and come to believe before the process is culminated, Me initiates the pressures vhich are applied to the victim, ‘and readily adspts his om behevior to provide additions] Pressure. His role is predominant. ‘The process of brainvashing is essentially one in which i ‘two paths are being folloved. One is the demoralizing pro- : tose, the rewult of which 1s to reduce the victia's critical | faculties to the point viere ha no longer discriminates | Clearly between trut aod false, logical and illogical. ‘Theae other is the re-orgenizing process, in vhieh be is requized to construct his confession, elaborate it, defend it, and believe ik. These tve processes are actually going on ail the time, ‘though en initial softening-up uswilly precedes the intensive Auterrogation and the initial construct of the confession. ‘The previous section deseribed in some detail the control pressures exerted by the Commmists. Recognition of the pey- chological effects of these pressures within the individual im necessary to an understanding of breimmshing. It should ‘be noted that this is a theoretical analysis. As indicated im the last section, the Communists did not design their pressures to satisfy « particular need to achieve these effects. ‘ A Rypothetical Schedule of Brainwsshing In the period mediately folloving capture or arrest, Bis captors are fared with the problem of how to exploit ‘the prisoner maximeliy. When, as in the case of arrested ' Soviet citizens, the arrest and interrogation plan already developed {e suitable, Little further need be done to carry out the asseult upon the prisoner. When the priscmer is not = citizen of the Communist country, or be 1s & prisoner of wer, a plan must be developed from scratch, Therefore,Clear amd intact to permit a coherent, undistorted revelstioa of the desired informtion; vbereas in braiovashing the initial esepult is upon the clarity of the thought processes. Concurrently with preliminary administrative contects ‘the prisoner undergoes & physical and psychological softening- ‘Up process. This softening-up includes limited, unpalatable food, regimented exercive and use of toflet facilities, withholding of reading msterials, deprivation of tobacco, end strict regniation of the conditions and position of sleep. As previously indicated, the most important mechanies of the braimashing process ie the interrogation. Diring ‘the course of the interrogition the interrogator may attempt ‘tO elicit information (especially in the ease of captured military personnel), to indoctrinate his victim te the Come munist point of view, to attack his value-system and bis , ‘Uhought processes, and to lead him through the demoralisstionAd reintegration that cbarncterizes the traimashed state, % achieving bis objective the interrogeter controle the sdainistration of all the other pressures, ‘The Following emotions) states are crested vithin the individosl during the systematic course of the bratavashing: (a) A feeling cf helplessness in attespting to deel with the tuperscnal machinery of couteol, (2) aa inttind reaction of “surprise” (3) of hin, 4 feeling of wicertainty about vhat 1s required (4) a devetoping feeling of depentance pon the interrogator. 6) A sense of doubt and a loss of objectivity. (6) Feelings of guiit. (7) & questioning attitade ‘townnd bis om value- aysten., (8) 4 feeling of potential “tremniow” » ioe., that be might go insane. :

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