JOU~I.M.

OF

ELSEVIER

~I ~ I G I N E E R I N G

Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 17 (1997) 237 246

Identification of flow units in shaly sand reservoirs

Kittiphong Jongkittinarukorn

l,

Djebbar Tiab

Unit~ersity of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019-0628, USA

Received 17 July 1995; accepted 21 June 1996

Abstract
The key to improving reservoir description and exploitation is to describe complex variations in pore geometry within
different lithofacies. Variations in shale properties, shale distribution and pore geometrical attributes define the existence of
distinct hydraulic (flow) units with similar fluid-flow characteristics in shaly sand reservoirs.
This study proposes a new method for identifying hydraulic flow units in shaly sand reservoirs. The proposed method is
based on the application of several shaly sand models, including the Coates-Dumanoir, and Waxman and Smits models, the
Coates and Denoo, and Morris and Biggs correlations, and the Simandoux model.
The developed equations indicate that for any flow unit, a log-log plot of a "reservoir quality index" (RQI) vs. porosity
should yield a straight line with a characteristic slope; 1.5 for sand reservoirs, 2.5 for laminated shale and structural shale,
and 3.5 for dispersed shale. The intercept of the straight line with 05 = 1, designed as the "shale zone indicator" (SZI), is a
unique parameter for each flow unit.
The proposed technique has been successfully tested in shaly and very shaly sand reservoirs from Texas. The examples
show that there are strong relationships between cation-exchange capacity, formation resistivity factor, permeability, and
reservoir quality index and shale zone indicator. This paper includes the theoretical development, validates and characterizes
the flow units to demonstrate the efficiency of the proposed technique.
Keywords: flow units: shaly sand reservoirs

1. Introduction
It is well recognized that improvements in reservoir description will reduce the amount oil and gas
left behind wells. The central element in improved
reservoir description is accurate determination of
p o r e - b o d y / t h r o a t attributes and fluid distribution
(Amaefule et al., 1993).
The relationships between saturation or porosity

Corresponding author.
i SPE member.

and measured physical quantities are well known for

clean sands. The presence of clay or shale minerals
greatly complicates log interpretation and considerably affects characterization of hydrocarbon-bearing
formations. The effects include:
reduction in the effective porosity;
reduction in the permeability;
alteration in the resistivity.
There are three broad categories of shale distribution
in a sand:
1. Laminated layers of shale within the sand;
2. Dispersed shale on the sand grains, or pore filling;

0920-4105/97/$17.00 Copyright 1997 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

PH S0920-4105(96)00046-0

238

K. Jongkittinarukorn. D. Tiab / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 17 (1997) 237-246

3. Structural sand-sized shale particles in loadbearing positions within the rock.

Waxman and Smits (1968) and Hill and Milbum
(1977) have shown that electrochemical behavior of
shaly sands is related to the cation-exchange capacity
(CEC) of the sediment and to the cation-exchange
capacity per unit pore volume of the rock, Qv. The
successful use of this parameter guides to predicting
possible relations between this parameter and other
petrophysical properties of shaly sands.
Amaefule et al. (1993) defined the reservoir quality index (RQI) as:
RQI (t~m) = 10 2w v / K&~

(1)

and proposed the new method for identification and

characterization of hydraulic units with mappable
geological units (facies) in sandstone reservoirs.
This study extends the work of Amaefule et al.
(1993) and Tiab (1993) to cover different types of
shale distribution - - laminated shale, dispersed shale
and structural shale - - and proposes a new method
for characterizing and identifying flow units in shaly
sand reservoirs. The proposed method is based on
the application of several shaly sand models, including the Coates and Dumanoir (1973) model, the
Waxman and Smits (1968) model, the Coates and
Denoo (1981) correlation, the Morris and Biggs
(1967) correlation, and the Simandoux (1963) model.

2. Method development
Coates and Denoo (1981) proposed the following
correlation:

4 4 [ 1 - Swi ]2

Morris and Biggs (1967) proposed the following

correlation:

where BVW = &~S,~.Both Eqs. 2 and 3 show that

permeability (k) is a function of ~b4 for clean sand
reservoirs.
This study includes five different shale models
which are Laminated Shale, Dispersed Shale, Structural Shale and Total Shale, and the shale model
based on the Coates-Dumanoir correlation. All shaly
sand models can be represented by:
log(RQI) = m log(qS) + log(SZI)

2.1. Laminated Shale Model

Thin shale laminations are interspersed with clean

sand. The overall porosity and permeability of the
averaged interval is reduced in proportion to the
fractional volume of shale since the effective porosity and the permeability of the shale are essentially
zero. The equation, which is derived in detail in
Appendix A, proposed by this study for laminated
shale is:
RQI = &~ 5SZ1,

lO(,0

Apply log on both sides of Eq. (4) as:

= log(RQI)

log(RQI) = 2.5 log + log(SZI,)

(2b)

(3)

This equation indicates that for any flow unit, a

log-log plot of RQI vs. porosity yields a straight line
with slope m. Samples with different SZI values will
lie on different parallel lines. The value of the constant SZI can be determined from the intercept of the
straight line at porosity (~b) = 1. Samples that lie on
the same straight line have similar resistivities, water
saturation, shale distribution, shale properties, pore
shape factor, and constitute a flow unit.

where &~ is the effective porosity.Apply log-log on

both sides of Eq. (2a) and rearrange as:

= 1.51og(&) + log['rr{(1 - Swi)/Swi}]

(2c)

(4)

(5)

This equation indicates that for any flow unit, a

log-log plot of RQI vs. porosity yields a straight line
with slope of 2.5 for the Laminated Shale Model.

K. Jongkittinarukorn, D. Tiab / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 17 (1997) 237-246

2.2. Dispersed Shale Model

pendix B, proposed by this study for dispersed shale

Clay replaces pore fluid and disseminates in the

pore space of the sand. A relatively small amount of
clay can plug pores and reduce effective porosity and
particularly permeability to nonproducible values.
Therefore, this type of distribution can cause severe
formation damage.
Neasham (1977) has proposed three different categories of dispersed clays:
( 1) Discrete particle clays reflect the typical mode
of occurrence of kaolinite in sandstones. Kaolinite
crystals that extensively fill pores have a random
arrangement with respect to one another and affect
rock petrophysical properties primarily by reducing
the intergranular pore volume and behaving as migrating fines in the pore system.
(2) Pore lining clays are attached to the pore
walls, often forming a rather continuous and thin
clay mineral coating. Illite, chlorite, and montmorillonites have been observed with pore lining morphologies.
(3) Pore bridging clays also include illite, chlorite, and montmorillonites. The extensive development of intergrown clay crystals within pore system
creates both microporosity and tortuous fluid flow
pathways.
Waxman and Smits (1968) considered the conductivity of clay to be due to cation exchange and
developed the model to calculate reliable water saturation calculations for reservoirs with different clay
contents and over a wide range of formation-water
salinities. They assumed that:
(1) A parallel conductance mechanism for free
electrolyte and clay-exchange cation components.
(2) An exchange cation mobility that increases to
a maximum and constant value with increasing equilibrating electrolyte concentration.
(3) Identical geometric conductivity constants applicable for the contributions of both the free electrolyte and the clay-exchange cation conductance to
the sand conductivity. Their well-known model is
given by:

R,~ F ~'
S ~ , = ( R , 1 + R~BQ'
IS~

239

(6)

The equation, which was derived in details in Ap-

is:

RQI = ~b~ 5SZId

(7)

Taking the logarithm on both sides of Eq. (7) gives:

log(RQI) = 3.5 log(~he) + log(SZId)

(8)

This equation indicates that for any flow unit, a

log-log plot of RQI vs. porosity yields a straight line
with slope of 3.5 for the Dispersed Shale Model.

2.3. Structural Shale Model

In this form clay grains take the place of sand
grains. Porosity and permeability of the sand are
affected very little. Since its properties are similar to
those of laminar shale, one can use the same equation as that for the Laminated Shale Model.

2.4. Total Shale Model

Simandoux (1963) proposed the general shale relationships which is independent of shale distribution. This model is also applicable to dispersed or
laminated shale. The relation is:
,b'"

,m--S?, +

Eh

~ S,,

R~h

1
-- = 0

RI

(9)

The equation, which was derived in details in Appendix C, proposed by this study for the Total Shale
Model is:
RQl = ~h)SSZIt

(10)

Apply log on both sides of Eq. (10) as:

log(RQl) = 3.5 log@ + Iog(SZl,)

(11)

This equation indicates that tot any flow unit, a

log-log plot of RQI vs. porosity yields a straight line
with slope of 3.5 for the Total Shale Model.

2.5. Shale model based on Coates and Dumanoir

correlation
Coates and Dumanoir (1973) proposed the following correlation for shaly sand reservoirs:
300& ~w
V'k -

R ,,

W 4 -( Rtiu. )adj

(12)

240

K. Jongkittinarukorn, D. Tiab / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 17 (1997) 237-246

where W = 2.0. Substituting Eq. (1) into Eq. (12)

and rearranging as:
log(RQI) = 3.5 log(~b) + log

and Dumanoir and Total Shale Models are not applicable for laminated shale reservoirs.

0.589Rtirr 1 - Vsh)
Rw

3. Geological significant of SZI

(13)
Let us define the shale zone indicator (SZI) as:
SZlca D =0.589

Rtirr

Rw

(1 - Vsh)

SZI is a unique parameter that incorporates the

geological attributes of texture and shale in the discrimination of different hydraulic units. In general,
rocks containing clays or shale as well as finegrained, poorly sorted sands tend to exhibit high
surface area and high tortuosity, hence low SZI. In
contrast, less shale, coarse-grained and well-sorted
sands exhibit lower surface areas, lower shape factor,
lower tortuosity, and higher SZI values. Depositional
environments and diagenetic processes control pore
geometry and SZI in shaly sand reservoirs.

(14)

Substitute Eqs. (1) and (14) into Eq. (13) and apply
log-log on both sides gives:
Iog(RQI) = 3.5 log(b) + log(SZlceD )

(15)

The equation indicates that for any flow unit, a

log-log plot of RQI vs. porosity yields a straight line
with slope of 3.5.
Table 1 summarizes SZIs for different reservoir
models. Different models yield different values of
SZI and different slopes. Clean sand reservoirs have
the lowest slope of 1.5. All of the shale models have
higher slopes. The Laminated Shale Model has the
lowest slope of 2.5 among shale models. The Dispersed Shale, Coates and Dumanoir, and Total Shale
Models yield the same slope of 3.5. Thus the Coates

4. Hydraulic (flow) unit zonation process

This process is discussed in details by Amaefule
et al. (1993), Tiab (1993)and Tiab and Donaldson
(1996). The procedure for this new method is:

Table 1
Summary of reservoir models
Model

Slope

SZI (intercept)

Clean Sand

1.5

zr

Laminated Shale

2.5

(1 - S,~i)

Sw~
1(1 - & i )

-t-- Rsh j
Dispersed Shale

irr
Iv(1 &i)

3.5

F* RwR t

Total Shale

3.5

4
-

F* RwR t

Coates and Dumanoir (1973)

3.5

) irr

r(l - Swi)

0.589

Rtirr
R~

(1 - V~h)

l) r

K. Jongkittinarukorn, D. Tiab / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 17 (1997) 237 246

241

0.1

(1) For each data point, calculate:

I QI ( m ) =

RQI

C~0,01

SZ1 (2) Construct the log-log plot of RQI vs. porosity.

(3) Draw a straight line passing through a group
of data points with the slope summarized in Table 1.
(4) Determine SZI for each straight line @ q5e = I.
(5) Determine the number of units by employing
statistical methods.
histogram
test for normality
cluster analysis
error analysis
(6) Establish the relationships between SZI and
the above variables.
(7) Develop the equation for permeability:
k = 1014(SZI2)@ ~
(8) Replot k vs. qS,
This process provides a unique parameter, SZI,
for delineating the number of hydraulic (flow) units
required as geological and petrophysical parameters
in reservoir simulation.

5. Field examples of shaly sand reservoirs

Two field examples from the Taylor and Wilcox
fields, Texas, U.S.A.. are presented to demonstrate
the applicability of the proposed method.

...................

o,oi:i:....

0.001
0.1
Porosily, fraction

Fig. 1. Plot o f RQI vs. porosity.

with increasing SZI. The relationship between Qv

and SZI is:
A
SZIB

Q,-

(16)

where A = 0.994 and B = 0.272. Since the difference between total porosity and effective porosity is
a linear function of CEC. Therefore the lower CEC,
the higher the ability of formation to transmit fluids
and the higher the value of SZL The existence of SZI
was further verified by plotting formation resistivity
factor and permeability vs. SZI (Figs. 3 and 4). The
relationship between F* and SZI is:
C
F ~-

(17)

SZI ~

where C = 21.14 and D = 0.244. The lower the

value of formation resistivity factor for shaly sand,
the less the tortuosity of the formation and the higher

10

5.1. Taylor Sand, Big Foot, Texas (cerv shalv sandstone)

c3 1
A log-log plot of RQI vs. &c for this data set
(Fig. 1; Waxman and Smits, 1968) shows the existence of three distinct hydraulic units (HU) within
the cored interval. Diagenesis has modified the original depositional parameters to give these multiple
flow units. Fig. 2 illustrates the excellent correlation
between Q~ and SZI. As expected Qv decreased

0.1
01

1
SZI
Fig. 2. C a t i o n - e x c h a n g e capacity vs. SZI.

10

K. Jongkininarukorn, D. Tiab / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 17 (1997) 237-246

242
100

iiliiioiiill

m~l

HL1 SZI 160

0.1

10
0.01

01
SZb

0.1
Porosity, fraction

Fig. 3. Formation resistivity factor vs. SZ1.

Fig. 6. Plot of RQI vs. porosity'.

100

where E = 0.04 and F = 2.486. Fig. 5 shows the

log-log plot of RQI and SZ1 which can be expressed

10

as:

"~ 0.1

+.

RQI = G * SZI"

m,

(19)

where G = 0 . 0 1 2 and H = 1.213. The higher the

permeability and the higher the reservoir quality
index, the higher the value of SZI.

0.01

0.001

0.0001

o.1

10

5.2.

Wilcox Sand, Sheridan, Texas

SZl
Fig. 4. P e r m e a b i l i t y vs. SZI.

the value of SZI. The relationship between k and

SZI can be represented mathematically by the following expression:
k = E*SZI

0.1

(18)

iiiiiiiiiii

001

0001

Fig. 6 shows a log-log plot of RQI and ~bc which

has two distinct hydraulic units (HU). The plots of
Q + , F ~ . k and RQI vs. SZI are shown in Figs. 7, 8,
9 and 10, respectively. They have the same trends of
relationship as those in the previous example but
different straight lines. The constants in Eqs. (16)-

+o.1

00001

0.01
01

1
SZl

Fig. 5. Reservoir quality' index vs. SZI.

10

10

100
SZI

Fig. 7. Cation-exchange capacity' vs. SZ1.

1000

K. Jongkittinarukorn, D. Tiab / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 17 (1997) 237 246
100 -

243

Figs. 7 - l 0 show the strong relationship between Qv,

F*, k, RQI, respectively, and the proposed parameter (SZI). It is evident from Fig. 7 that Qv decreases
with increasing SZI, thus manifesting the effect of
clay minerals on the reservoir's flow quality.

5_

6. Conclusions
10
10

100
SZl

1 O0 0

Fig. 8. Formation resistivity vs. SZI.

1E5
1E4
1E3
1E2
1E1
lEO

A new practical technique has been developed to

identify hydraulic (flow) units in shaly sand reservoirs. The technique is successfully applied to two
shaly sand reservoirs in Texas. This study introduces
a new unique parameter, the shale zone indicator
(SZI) for outlining the number of layers required for
reservoir development. Two examples show there are
strong relationships between cation-exchange capacity, formation resistivity factor, permeability, reservoir quality index and shale zone indicator.

1E-1
1E-2

7. Notation

1E-3
lO

loo
SZI

lOO,O

(/

Fig. 9. Permeability vs. SZI.

BVW
F*

(19) for this set (Waxman and Smits, 1968) of data

are:
A=2.20,
C=77.4,
E=3.3

B=0.60
D=0.23
10 6

G = 1.86 10 -4,

Fr~
hsh
h~
k
m

F=3.24

t/

H = 1.55

Q,
R ~d
Rsh

10-

gtirr
1

(~ 0.1

'

mm.

RQI
S~
SZIo

mr

SZI~

0.01

0.001
100
SZI

Fig. 10. Reservoir quality index vs. SZI.

1000

SZI t
V,h
W

equation coefficient associated with m

bulk volume of water
formation resistivity factor for shaly sand
formation resistivity factor for clean sand
shale thickness, ft
reservoir thickness, ft
permeability, mD
cementation exponent
saturation exponent
cation-exchange capacity
resistivity of sand, f~
resistivity of shale, ~~
formation resistivity at irreducible water
saturation, f~
reservoir quality index
water saturation
shale zone indicator lbr Dispersed Shale
Model
shale zone indicator for Laminated Shale
Model
shale zone indicator for Total Shale Model
shale volume, fraction
single textural exponent
effective porosity in shaly sand, fraction

244

K. Jongkittinarukorn, D. Tiab / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 17 (1997) 237-246

Appendix A. Development of Laminated Shale

Model

Let us define the shale zone indicator for laminated

shale as:

The total resistivity of a reservoir with laminated

shale is:

szl, :

Rt

/~t

1 - V,h
V~h
- - - + - -

Rsd

({[

~i

sw,2 )

~]Rw(l

(A-9)

- Vsh) irr

(A-l)

Rsh

Substitute Eq. (A-9) into Eq. (A-8) as:

where the laminated shale volume as a fraction is

V~h = ( ~ h ~ h ) / h ~

(A-2)

RQI = <@SSZI,

(4')

Apply log on both sides of Eq. (4) as:

log(RQI) = 2.5 log + log(SZIL)

(5')

The resistivity of the clean sand layer is:

Frd Rw

Rsd -- - - S n
w

(A-3)

Appendix
Model

B. Development

of Dispersed

Shale

The formation resistivity factor of clean sand is:

a
Frd --

(A-4)

sd

RwF*

and m = 2, n = 2, and a = 1Combining Eqs. A - l A-4 and rearranging gives:

s~= R,

R~.

(1-Eh)

(A-5)

In the irreducible water saturation zone, Eq. (A-5)

becomes:

S~"i = ~

The well-known Waxman and Smits model is

given by:

,{[,

Rsh

Rt

A6,

irr

Substitute Eq. (A-6) into Eq. (2a) and rearrange as:

10

k= d)' {[ lRt

S ~ = ( R t 1 + RwBQv)s~--

which can be rearranged as

.R~--s~ +

sw - ~ , = 0

(B-Z)

Q, is defined as the cation-exchange capacity (CEC)

per unit of total pore volume. Solving Eq. (B-2) for
water saturation:

S,,. = ~2 ~b,

F~

+ F , R w Rm

4(1--Swi)2

RshVSh]
Rw( 1 -

({[

(B-3)

'~sh)) irr

(A-7)

In the irreducible water saturation zone, Eq. (B-3)

becomes:

Substitute Eq. (l) into Eq. (A-7) and rearrange as:

RQI = ~b25

(B-l)

] ,2

Swi

6:

9.86( 1 - Swi

V~h Rw(1 _ Vsh) /

R~

R~h

F*RwR t

J irr
(A-S)

} irr
(B-4)

K. Jongkittinarukorn, D. Tiab/ Journal of Petroleum &'ience and Engineering 17 (1997) 237 246
Substitute Eq. (B-4) into Eq. (2a) as:

Solving for water saturation:

10acbs(1 _ S,,i)2

IaRv,

_ _ +

__

F*

245

2,:b'"

S,,

V[ R,h]

R,h

R,~,R~t

F*

F*R,,R t

In the irreducible water saturation zone, Eq. (C-l)

r

(B-5)

becomes:
1

Substitute Eq. (l) into Eq. (B-5) and rearrange as:

S,, i -

4~_~

RQI = @~5~( 1 - Swi )

{aR,~,

--+

jf-) 41}
+ _ _

F * R,, R t

- - +

ir,-

F * R wR t

F*

(C-Z)
irr

(B-6)
Let us define the shale zone indicator for dispersed
shale as:

Substitute Eq. (C-2) into Eq. (2a) as:

104(l

- Sw~):C

k_

SZl d = w(1 - S,~i )

t w- - +
F*

+ F*=w=~

(c-3)

~2-

F~ RwRt
Substitute Eq. (1) into Eq. (C-3) and rearrange as:

irr

(B-7)

RQI -

T r ( 1 - S,,i ) 4~ "5

Substitute Eq. (B-7) into Eq. (B-6) as:

x

RQI = ~ S ZI d

(7')

7Z

Taking the logarithm on both sides of Eq. (7) gives:

F~=w=,
irr

(C-4)

(s')

log(RQI) = 3.5 log(b) + log(SZId)

Let us define the shale zone indicator for the Total

Shale Model as:
Appendix

C. Development

of Total

Shale

Model

Simandoux (1963) proposed the following relationship:

&'" ~ V~h
-~S;'~S'~h
aR~

1
Rt - 0

(9')

SZI~ =
X

(.: [

R,,h

, R,,h ]

+ 411
F*RwRt

irr

(c-5)

246
Substitute

K. Jongkittinarukorn, D. Tiab / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 17 (1997) 237-246

Eq. (C-5) into Eq. (C-4)

Anal., 14th Annu. Logging Symp., Lafayette. LA, May 6-9,

as:

R Q I = ~b) 5SZIt

1973.
(10')

A p p l y log o n b o t h s i d e s o f E q . (10) as:

log(RQI)

= 3.5 l o g 0 , . + l o g ( S Z I t )

(1 1')

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