Eccs Manual

i — Eccs EUROPEAN CONVENTION FOR CONSTRUCTIONAL STEELWORK CECM CONVENTION EUROPEENNE DE LA CONSTRUCTION METALLIQUE EKS EUROPAISCHE KONVENTION FUR STAHLBAU ECCS - TC 13 Seismic Design ECCS Manual on Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones FIRST EDITION 1994 N°76All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Copyright owns ECCS General Secretariat CECM — Avenue des Ombrages, 32/36 bte 20 EKS B'-1200 BRUSSELS (Belgium) ECCS assumes no fi with respect to the use for any application of the material and information contained in this publication.PREFACE 1. DESIGN CRITERIA AND CODIFICATION - Committee TC13 - ECCS Recommendations - General principles - Rules for structural analysis - Rules for structural design - Steel structures in seismic areas - Serviceability limit state - Collapse limit state - Collapse definitionI F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso - Principal strategies - q-factor - Regularity - Connections - Collapse mechanism - Assessment of local ductility 1.4, Th - Structural components - Foundations - Framework ~ Floor structures - Bracing systems - Seismic characterization - Concentrically braced frames - Moment-resisting frames - Eccentrically braced frames 2. SEISMIC ACTION 2,2, Dynamic behaviour ~ Interpretation of the motion - Elastic response spectrum - Soil profile influence - Earthquake input energy ECCS Manual on «Design of Stee! Structures in Seismic Zones»F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso pile 2.3 Di - Energy dissipation capacity - Design response spectra 8 of the - Power spectrum - Time history 3. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS - Principal design methods - Basic assumptions 3,2, Equivalent static analysis 37 - Main features - Range of applicability - Analytical developments - Main features - Analytical developments - Range of applicability - Main features ~ Choice of accelerograms ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»IV F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso 4. MATERIAL PROPERTIES 4.1 General definitions 47 - Characteristic values - Consequences on global ductility - Nominal and design values 4.2 Structural steels 49 - Classification of steels - Non-alloy steels - Alloy steels - Mechanical property definitions - Yield stress and ultimate strength - Strain-hardening - Bauschinger effect - Requirements for plastic analysis - Notch-toughness requirement - Material properties independent of the steel grade - Requirements for bolts in seismic-resistant structures - Requirements for welds in seismic-resistant structures 5. BEHAVIOUR OF CONNECTIONS - Dissipation modes - Ductile behaviour ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso v - Frame system definition - Difference between joint and connection - Type of joints - According to elastic design - According to plastic design - Type of cycles - Seismic requirements of connections - Behaviour parameters - Ultimate limit state interpretation 5.5, Pre ion of joint behaviour 15 - Methodology - Mathematical expressions - Analytical models - Mechanical models - Finite element analysis 6. LOCAL DUCTILITY - Ductility - Rotation capacity ~ Flexural-torsional instability ~ Local buckling - Brittle fracture ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»VI F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso - Geometrical requirements - Cross-section behavioural classes - bit ratio - Rotation capacity evaluation - Available methods - Cross-section idealization - Moment-curvature relationship - Evaluation of ultimate rotation - Calculation of rotation capacity - Bases of the method - Local buckling formulations - Effective width of the web - Evaluation of nondimensional local buckling stress - Lateral-torsional buckling - Comparison with experimental data 6.5 Sedlacek-Spangemacher empirical method 108, ~ Features of the method - Relations for evaluating rotation capacity - Definition - Limit values ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso VoL 7. GLOBAL DUCTILITY 7.1, General definitions 1s - Global ductility - Available and required ductility - Structural ductility - Damage functionals - Evaluation of global ductility - Alternative definitions 7.2, Response under monotonic loads 120 - Behavioural « — 5 curve - Increasing branch - Softening branch - Inelastic behavioural parameters - Limitation of global ductility - Influence of collapse mechanism - Slope of softening branch - Collapse mechanism requirement - Codified methods - Available results - Theoretical background - Basic hypotesis - Kinematically admissible multipliers - Global type mechanism - Type 1 mechanism - Type 2 mechanism ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»vill * F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso - Type 3 mechanism - Design global mechanism - Conditions to avoid type 1 mechanisms - Conditions to avoid type 2 mechanisms - Conditions to avoid type 3 mechanisms - Technological conditions - Evaluation of axial load in columns at the collapse state alge - Fulfilment of conditions - Operational steps 8. EVALUATION OF THE q-FACTOR - Design requirements - Simplified methods - Different approaches - Classification of methods - Methods based on ductility factor theory - Methods based on SDOF systems - Energy methods - Comparison among the methods ~ Range of applicability - Total energy input ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso Ix - Dissipation condition - Plastic work - Optimum damage distribution - Damage distribution - Damage concentration index ~ Structural factor - Damage partition coefficients - Advantages of the method - The original procedure - The generalization proposed by Sedlacek and Kuck .L CONFIGURATION 9. INFLUENCE OF STRUCT! 159 - Damage concentration - Structural regularity - Degree of regularity ~ Vertical regularity - Plan regularity - Uniform damagement - Geometrical regularity 9.2 Vertical regularity - Regular and irregular configurations - Expansion joints - Type of foundation 9.3 Code provisions for vertical regularity - Definition of vertical irregularity ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»x F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso - Limitation of provisions 9.4 Seismic behaviour of steel frames with set-backs 168 - Study cases - Irregularity index - q-factor evaluation - Presentation of results - Conclusive remarks 9,5, Plan regulari 176 - Regular and irregular configurations - Expansion joints 6 Code fe - Definition of plan irregularity - Combination of seismic actions - Structural analysis - Accidental eccentricity - Design methods - Torsional effects - Comparison among different codes 9.7 A simplified model for torsionally coupled systems. 183 - Definition of the model - Translational stiffness - Torsional stiffness - Motion equations - Parameters for analysing inelastic response - Inelastic response of one-storey buildings designed according to seismic codes - Presentation of results ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso XI 10. DESIGN OF BRACED STRUCTURES 10.1, Main behavioural aspects 195 - Fulfilment of design requirements - Seismic features of the main structural typologies 10.2, Concentrically braced frames 197 - Beam-to-column connections - Location of bracing elements - Frames with one bracing element only - X-braced frames - V-braced and inverted V-braced frames - K-braced frames - Use of concentrically braced frames in seismic zones - Undesired effects due to bracing buckling fe ic bracings 202 - Influence of slenderness on brace cyclic behaviour - Cyclic model for slender braces - Cyclic model for slender X-braces - Damage concentration index for X-braced frames - Cyclic model for V-braced frames - Behaviour of V-braced frames - The «link» element - Behavioural features - Location of bracing diagonals - Geometrical parameters - Mechanical parameters - Frame relative stiffness ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»XI F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso - Influence of geometrical configuration - Influence of column-to-beam stiffness ratio - Influence of shear deformability 10.5 Inelastic behaviour of eccentric bracings 214 - Energy dissipation mechanism - Member ductility demand - Design criterion - Link beam behaviour - Short links - Intermediate and long links - Plastic capacities of link beams - Stiffener spacing and link plastic rotation capacity - Stiffener detailing - Link-to-column connections - Beam and brace design - Column design 11. WORKED EXAMPLES ESSENTIAL REFERENCES ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»PREFACE In 1988 the ECCS Committee TC13 «Seismic Design» published its first proposal of codification, the European Recommendations for Steel Structures in Seismic Zones (ERSSSZ). This first edition was not completely exhaustive due to the very short time devoted to its preparation. Neverthless, this issue was incorporated in the section «Steel» (Chapter 3 of Part 1.3) of Eurocode n.8 (edition 1988). The contents of this volume intend to provide to the designers and practicians the basic principles which the new generation of seismic codes are based upon, with particular reference, of course, to the ECCS-ERSSSZ provisions. But the volume is much more than a simple background document, because it gives also some recent results which can be used in the improvement of the present codification under revision. The new edition of Eurocode n.8 is now under approval within Committee CEN/TC250/SC8 and the main changes respect to the previous edition of 1988 have been taken into account in the last revision of this volume.XIV F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso ‘These changes are mainly concemed with the general Parts 1.1 and 1.2, rather than with the «Steel» Chapter in Part. 1.3, which practically keeps the same feature as in the previous edition. This volume is composed by 11 Chapters. First of all, the design criteria for steel structures in seismic zones are given, together with the main features of the seismic codes of new generation, such as ECCS and EC8 (Chapter 1). The design procedure is described from the definition of seismic actions to the structural analysis methods (Chapter 2 and 3). Special requirements for material properties of basic steel, bolts and welds are also pointed out (Chapter 4). The design of connections and details plays a capital role in the ductile performance of seismic resistant steel structures, so their behaviour is examined with particular emphasis (Chapter 5). But not only connections, also members and structural schemes require particular attention from the ductility point of view and so this very important problem is examined in both local and global aspects (Chapters 6 and 7). Again the ductility of structures is synthetically expressed by the behaviour factor, the so-called q-factor, which values the modem codes are based upon; its evaluation is therefore an important item to be deeply examined (Chapter 8). As far as the structural regularity is concemed, the problem of the influence of the structural configuration is faced from the point of view of both plan and vertical schemes (Chapter 9). ‘The most popular typologies for seismic resistant steel structures are the braced frames, but the degree of ductility of them depends whether they have concentric or eccentric bracings; the advantages of each type are emphasized according to their cyclic behaviour (Chapter 10). Finally, practical examples for some typical seismic problems are developed in the last Chapter of this volume, in order to clarify also the numerical aspects of calculations. ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso XV This initiative has been possible thanks to the priceless cooperation of dr. Vincenzo Piluso, co-author of this volume, who contributed in very active way to the elaboration of the matter and its development. The final draft of this volume has been submitted to the examination of TC members. Comments and suggestions came from Aribert (F), Ballio (), Dalban (RO), Elnashai (UK), Plumier (B) and Sedlacek (D). 1am very grateful to them for their contributions, which have been introduced in this final version. Prof. Dr. Ing. Federico MMMAZZOLANI Chairman ECCS-TC13 Naples, November 1993 ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»XVI F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»CHAPTER 1 DESIGN CRITERIA AND CODIFICATION 1.1 - THE ECCS ACTIVITY Committee TC 13 The interest of the European Convention for Constructional Steelwork (ECCS) in the problem of earthquake engineering has by now an established tradition of more than twenty years. In the last years the ECCS-Committee TC 13 «Seismic Design» honoured this tradition by carrying out extended research on the behaviour of the steel structures and their components under seismic actions [1]. With the publication of the European Recommendations for Steel Structu- res in Seimic Zones [2], the already existing «seismic culture»reached a very significant stage which merits to be emphasized from the scientific and technical point of view [3,4,5]. The eighties will be remembered by historians as the «golden years» of Eurocodes and now the unification at European level is a driving necessity. This climate influenced the last period of activity of the ECCS-Committee TC 13, which developed the main part of its work as a consulting body of thePag.2 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso drafting panel of EC8 «Structures in Seismic Regions» [6], with particular reference to its chapter 3, which is directly devoted to steel structures. The pressing deadlines for the issue of EC8 forced the ECCS-Committee to accelerate in a very short time the preparation of its Recommendations (ERSSSZ). ECCS Recommendations The ECCS Recommendations [2] are basically subdivided into three parts: Part 1: General principles and seismic actions. Part 2: Rules for structural analysis. Part 3: Rules for structural design General principles The first part has a general character, because it contains the safety principles for designing steel structures in seismic zones. Seismic actions and their combinations with the design load are given here in qualitative way, on the hypothesis that each national territory is subdivided into three areas of different seismicity. The task to quantify the seismic parameters is left to the national Authorities of each Country. (see chapter 2). Rules for structural analysis ‘The second part deals with the calculation methods (direct dynamic analysis, response spectrum modal analysis, equivalent static analysis) (see chapter 3). The safety verifications against collapse are given together with the limitations of damage and of unforeseen behaviour. Particular attention is paid to the definition of the structural regularity and to the effect of non structural elements on the seismic behaviour. (see chapter 9). ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 1: «Design Criteria and Codification» Pag.3 Rules for structural design The third part is completely devoted to the design criteria and safety checks of seismic-resistant structures made of steel. They are classified in different types from the seismic point of view, which mainly subdivide them into dissipative or non dissipative structures. Appropriate behaviour factors (so called q-factors) are assessed for each typology. Particular requirements are imposed for materials and connections belonging to dissipative zones. The design rules are strictly correlated to EC3, which gives the basic references. ‘The safety checks are provided for the structural elements in the main typologies. (see chapters 4 to 10). 1.2 - LIMIT STATE REQUIREMENTS Steel structures in seismic areas Steel structures are more and more extensively used in regions of high seismic risk because of their excellent performance in term of strength and ductility. Itis due to the mechanical behaviour of materials, structural elements and non-structural components, which is determinant in the fulfilment of the design requirements. They correspond to the imposition of two given limit states, so-called: serviceability and collapse which are included in the new generation of seismic codes, such as the ECCS Recommendations for Steel Structures in Seismic Zones and the Eurocode n.8. Serviceability limit state The serviceability limit state corresponds to minor frequent earthquakes; it imposes that the structure together with the non- structural components should suffer no damage and that disconfort to the inhabitants should be minimal. ‘The first requirement (to avoid structural damage) is fulfilled by designing the ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.4 FM. Mazzolani, V. Piluso structure in elastic range. The second requirement (to avoid non-structural damage and inhabitants disconfort) is obtained by providing sufficient stiffness to prevent significant deformations. Collapse limit state ‘The collapse limit state is referred to very infrequent severe earthquake ground motions, under which both structural and non-structural damages are expected, but the safety of the inhabitants has to be guaranteed. The structure must be able to absorb and dissipate large amounts of energy. Different ways can be followed in absorbing and dissipating energy under very strong ground motions in order to prevent collapse. Collapse definition In research activities, different criteria have been adopted in order to define the structural collapse under seismic loading. The most widely used criterion is the one based on the required maximum plastic deformation. According to this criterion, the collapse condition is attained when the required local ductility is greater than the available one. As an alternative, the energy criterion can be adopted. In this case, the collapse condition is governed by the cumulated plastic deformation which members have to withstand. Collapse occurs, during seismic cyclic loading, when the cumulated plastic deformation in one direction, positive ornegative, is greater than the one which the member is able to sustain under monotonic loading [7]. - A great research effort has been spent in the last few years in order to develop new collapse criteria able to take into account the number of plastic excursions and the plastic deformation required in each excursion [8,9,10,11,12,13,140,141]. In particular, these efforts are mainly devoted to the possibility to interpret collapse by means of low cycle fatigue curves and of the Miner linear damage accumulation model [8,12,13,140,141]. ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 1: «Design Criteria and Codification» Pag.S 1.3 - DESIGN CRITERIA ACCORDING TO ECCS Principal strategies As far as the collapse limit state is concerned, the design methods for seismic resistant structures are mainly based on two principal strategies, which lead to two categories of structures [2]: a. ductile structures; b. isolated structures. In the second alternative, the structure is prevented to enter into plastic range by using special devices acting as a filter which can provide both the absorption of the in-coming energy and the shifting of the natural period of the structure in more favourable zones [14]. The first way leads to design the so-called dissipative structures. Contrary tonon-dissipative structures, which must resist the most severe seismic event in elastic range, the dissipative structures are designed by allowing the yielding of some zones of its members. During a catastrophic earthquake these zones, so-called dissipative zones, dissipate the kinetic in-come energy by means of hysteretic ductile behaviour in plastic range. The formation of appropriate dissipative mechanisms is related to the structural typology [15]. q-factor According to the new generation of seismic codes, the ability of a structural system to resist seismic loads in the post-elastic range is allowed for by means of the parameter so-called q-factor, which takes into account the energy dissipation capacity of a ductile response. This approach is used in the evaluation of the normalized design spectrum given by: R&T) ay R = ‘aT ) ad ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.6 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso being: - Rq(T) the ordinate of the normalized inelastic design response spectrum; - Re(T) the ordinate of the normalized elastic design response spectrum; - qd the design value of the q-factor. The design value (qa) of the q-factor is provided by the seismic codes through the value of the so-called behaviour factor q (see chapter 2). The normalized elastic design response spectra proposed in the ECCS Recommendations are for three types of soil: A (rock), B (stable deposits), C (soft to medium stiff deposits) (see chapter 2). As it appears from the above formula, as higher is the design value qq of the q-factor as lower are the design forces. The case qd=1 means that the structure must remain elastic even during a very strong earthquake; it is necessary for non-dissipative structures. For dissipative structures qq is always greater than one according to the ductility of the structure. As a common definition, the actual value of the q-factor is given by the ratio (13,16,17,18]: ay (1.2) gay being: - ay the peak ground acceleration causing the collapse of the structure; - ay is the peak ground acceleration causing the attainment of the elastic limit of the structure. Following this definition, the exact evaluation of the q-factor must be done by means of non linear dynamic analyses. As an alternative, many authors proposed approximated methods for the evaluation of the q-factor for design purposes, but the corresponding results are very often different and sometime contradictory [19]. A detailed description of some simplified methods for evaluating the q-factor is given in [19,20]. ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 1: «Design Criteria and Codification» Pag.7 The feature of the new generation seismic codes is to relieve the designers from very arduous calculations, by assessing given values of q for the main structural typologies. According to the ECCS Recommendations for Steel Structures in Seismic Zones, the behaviour factor values are given as a function of the ratio %ay, being (fig.1.1): - Gy the multiplier of horizontal seismic actions, by keeping constant the other design loads, which corresponds to the point where the structure reaches its elastic limit in one section; - Gy the multiplier of the horizontal seismic actions, by keeping constant the other design loads, which corresponds to the point where the structure reaches its maximum load bearing capacity due to the formation of plastic hinges in the assumed dissipative zones ina sufficient number to transform the structure into a mechanism and/or due to the presence of some element which becomes unstable. 188, ak @ He =} buax Once tw Fig.1.1 - Multiplier of horizontal forces versus top sway displacement behavioural curve ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.8 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso The values of q given in the above-mentioned Recommendations are valid provided that: a) appropriate regularity requirements are strictly respected in the buildin; b) appropriate detailing rules for connections assure sufficient local ductility; ¢) appropriate design rules guarantee the formation of a global collapse mechanism; 4d) appropriate limitations of the b/t ratios of the cross-sections are fulfilled. Relating to the above points, the following considerations can be pointed out: Regularity The standard regularity requirements are given in EC8. In case the building is irregular, the simplified rule is to multiply the given values of the q-factor by 0.75. But we observe that the definition of the parameters which characterize the differentkinds of irregularities (in plane and in vertical configurations) is still far from a complete resolution [21] (see chapter 9). Connections Connections in dissipative zones must have sufficient over-strength to allow for yielding of the connected parts. Connections made by means of butt-welds or full-penetration groove welds do not require any particular check. For fillet-welds or bolted connections the resistance of the connection R must be 1.2 times the resistance of the connected member Ra, by considering the upper value of its yield strength. The evaluation of the inelastic behaviour of connections requires ad hoc experiments, which lead to interpret the connection as semi-rigid [22] (see chapter 5). Collapse mechanism The condition that the collapse mechanism should be of global type is very severe (fig.1.2). The new codes agreed in introducing the so-called method of ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 1: «Design Criteria and Codification» Pag.9 ee ep +e ee . : KS oe sie sie “oh ht te h 1- C ; sugeswar @ ® ® MECHANISM Fig.1.2 - Global type mechanism (beam sidesway) and other typical collapse mechanisms the amplification factor (see chapter 7). More sophisticated design methods lead to define suitable solutions not necessarily of global mechanism type [23]. The influence of the collapse mechanism on the slope of the softening branch of restoring force versus displacement relation-ship is due to the effects of vertical loads, often not negligible in the seismic design of steel frames [20,24]. Assessment of local ductility Sufficient local ductility is assured by limiting the width-thickness ratio b/t in compressed parts of the cross-sections (see chapter 6). In non-dissipative zones the b/t ratios should respect the limits given in the Eurocode n.3. In dissipative zones of structures, three ductility classes have been proposed, depending on the chosen values of the behaviour factor: class A q<6 class B q<4 class C q<2 Class A-values are necessary where large rotation capacity of plastic zones is required. They correspond to class 1 (plastic sections) of EC3. ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.10 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso Class B-values must be reached where plastic resistance shall be attained. They correspond to class 2 (compact sections) of EC3. Class C-values are necessary where the resistance is limited by the yielding of extreme fibres. They are intermediate between class 2 and class 3 (compact and semi-compact sections) of EC3. For q>6 the b/t ratios of class A can be used, provided we 08 H<1 a3) xs where do = mV E/fy (4) being Ny the squash load of the member. In order to check the assumed b/t values, numerical [25] and experimental [26] investigations are now in progress on cold-formed sections. 1.4 - THE STRUCTURAL SCHEME Structural components Steel buildings are constituted by a combination of structural components, which basically are: - foundations - framework - floor structures Foundations Foundations are made of reinforced concrete according to different types which are suggested by the geotechnical features of the ground. ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 1: «Design Criteria and Codification» Pag.11 Framework The framework is the steel skeleton which provides the load bearing capacity of the structure as a whole. All external loads, both vertical and horizontal, are trasmitted to the foundations by means of the steel framework. The steel framework is a three-dimensional frame which, according to the degree of restraint of the beam-to-column joints, can be considered as rigid, semi-rigid or pin-ended. In the first two cases all plane frames, which compose the three-dimensional steel skeleton, are able to trasmit to the foundations vertical loads as well as horizontal forces providing the vertical bracing function. In the last case, the plane frames are able to trasmit to the foundation vertical loads only;therefore, they have to be integrated by bracing elements. Floor structures The floor structures have the function to resist the vertical loads directly acting on it and to trasmit them to the supporting floor beams. They also provide the transfer of the horizontal loads to appropriate points of the framework. Bracing systems In order to allow any horizontal loads however directed to be balanced, it is necessary to locate a sufficient number of vertical bracings (fig.1.3). To this purpose, the following requirements have to be satisfied: a) it has to be possible to consider any floor system as a plane structure, restrained by the vertical bracing systems; b) vertical bracing systems, as external restraints of the floor system, have to provide a system of at least three degree of restraints; ) the floor system has to be able to elastically resist the internal forces due to the applied horizontal loads. ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.12 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso UNCORRECT CORRECT TRANSLATION | ROTATION | DETERMINATE [UNDETERMINATE| Fig.1.3 - Location of vertical bracings In order to fulfil requirement (a), diagonal bracings have to be introduced in the plane of the floor, thus trasforming the floor system itself into an horizontal truss. As an alternative, the slab in prefabricated concrete elements of the floor system can be assumed to directly resist the horizontal forces as a plane plate structure, being its deformability normally negligible. Incase of concrete slabs, the erection of the steel skeleton requires particular care, because it is unstable until the floor elements are placed. Temporary bracings are therefore necessary during this provisional phase. In order to fulfil requirement (b), the vertical steel bracing systems are active in their own plane only and, therefore, they represent a simple restraint for the floor system (fig.1.4). When reinforced concrete bracings are used, they can have one, two or three degrees of restraint for the floor system ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 1: «Design Criteria and Codification» Pag.13 © fe. SANAAAAAAAW N Yl MAXX nd a x ac = XXXEXXXEKRXG |: i a ome L 1 Fig.1.4 - Bracing system depending upon their resistance to one plane bending (wall), bi-axial bending or bi-axial bending and torsion (core), respectively. Finally, requirement (c) is fulfilled by evaluating internal forces in the floor elements due to the maximum horizontal forces that the vertical bracing systems are able to trasmit. Also vertical bracing system location has to be consided. ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.14 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso 1.5 - STRUCTURAL TYPOLOGIES Seismic characterization As the horizontal bracings have to be designed in order to elastically resist to the maximum horizontal forces, it means that, during earthquakes, they do not provide any dissipative action. As a consequence, the dissipation of the earthquake input energy is exclusively entrusted to the vertical bracing systems. Thus, we can state that, from the seismic behaviour point of view, the different structural typologies are identified by means of the different typologies of vertical bracing systems. Traditionally, two families of structural systems have been used for multi- story buildings in seismic regions: the concentrically braced frames and the moment-resisting frames. A more advanced typology is represented by the eccentrically braced frames, which provide a suitable compromise between the properties of the previous systems. Concentrically braced frames The concentrically braced frame system is widely used both for normal and seismic resistant steel structures. Vertical cantilever trusses are formed by diagonal bracing elements with coincident centerlines. They resist lateral forces (both winds and horizontal quakes) by means of axial forces in bracing elements, leading to a large stiffness in elastic range. In these structures the dissipative zones are mainly located in the tensile diagonals, because we usually assume that the compression diagonals are buckled. The inelastic cyclic performance of concentric bracings is rather unsatisfactory due to the repeated buckling of diagonal bars. This produces a progressive reduction of the area of the hysteresis loops, which corresponds to a significant decreasing in the capability of the structure to absorb and dissipate energy. It clearly appears from the shape of the ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 1: «Design Criteria and Codification» Pag.15 Fig.1.5 - Cyclic behaviour of X-bracings hysteresis loops of a concentric bracing (fig.1.5) Different behaviours are performed according to the type of bracings, which can be classified into three categories: diagonal bracings (fig.1.6 a,b,c), V-bracings (fig.1.6 d.e,f) and K-bracings (fig.1.6 g). The X-bracing (fig.1.6 a) dissipates energy by means of the plasticization of both compression and tension diagonals and the degradation is due to the out-of-plane buckling, which interacts with local buckling of the cross-section. From this point of view, symmetrical sections (double C, hollow sections) exhibit a better performance than the unsymmetrical ones (back-to-back angles). According to ECCS Recommendations, the behaviour factor for X and diagonal bracings is taken equal to 4°. In the V-bracings, the horizontal forces are resisted by both tension and compression diagonals, the last being necessary for the equilibrium. From the cyclic point of view, we can observe that only the compression diagonal dissipates energy, whereas the tension diagonal remains elastic. For this reason a lower value of q is assessed in ECCS Recommendations for V-bracings (q = 2%). The K-bracings (fig.1.6 g), on the contrary, cannot be considered as dissipative because the diagonals intersect the column in an intermediate ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.16 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso a) b) c) a) a) A 9) Fig.1.6 - Concentrically braced frames point, by producing the participation of the column to the yielding mechanism, so q=1. Summing up, all types of concentrically braced frames due to the failure of bracings can lead to unacceptably large interstory drifts catising non-structural damage. Moment-resisting frames The moment-resisting frames have large number of dissipative zones which are located near to the beam-to-column connections. They resist the horizontal ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 1: «Design Criteria and Codification» Pag.17 forces in an essentially bending manner and energy can be dissipated by means of cyclic bending behaviour. Beam-to-column connections are usually designed following the main four solutions which differ from the type of joint [27,28] (fig.1.7): type A where three plate splices are welded to the column and bolted to the flanges and to the web of the beam; type B where the angle splices are bolted both to the column and to the beam; type C with end plate joint with symmetrical extension; type D which is fully welded joint. From the testing performance all of them exhibit largely sufficient ductility. The energy absorption capacity is very different from one type to another, as we can see from the observation of their hysteresis loops (fig.1.7). Type D gives the largest amount of hysteretic area and its behaviour is very close to the one of rigid joint. Type C shows a continuous degradation of the stiffness mainly due to the axial deformation of bolts and to the flexural deformation of the end plate. Type A is characterized by a progressive reduction of the hysteretic area because of the slipping in the plate joint due to bolt-hole clearance. Type B performes in the worst way from all points of view, because in addition to the previous degradation reasons the permanent deformation of angles also arises. The ECCS design criteria for rigid frames are based on the formation of a global collapse mechanism in which plastic hinges must lie in the beams rather than in the columns except at the base of the frame. In order to avoid the formation of local mechanisms appropriated amplification factors are introduced in the code. ‘The design value for bending moments in the columns are given by the sum of bending moments Mc,s due to horizontal seismic actions multiplied by the amplification factor o: plus bending moments Mc, due to the other design loads: Md = Mco+ & Mos (1.5) where the amplification factor 0. is given by ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.18 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso Fig.1.7 - Cyclic behaviour of typical beam-to-column connections ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 1: «Design Criteria and Codification» Pag.19 EMR b-2Mco (6) being - 2 MR» the sum of the resisting moments of the beams connected to the column; - EMc,o the sum of the bending moments in the column due to non seismic loads; - £Mc,s the sum of the bending moments in the column due to seismic loads. At the top floor of multistorey frames o=1 is assumed, whereas at the base of the frame the o factor must be set equal to 1.2. According to ECCS Recommendations rigid-frame structures have the highest behaviour factor, equal to 5%, but less than 8, provided that regularity and local ductility requirements are fulfilled. This system is widely used for low-rise buildings, but it is generally more expensive than the concentrically braced system for a given height. For medium and high-rise buildings (from 6 to 40 stories the framed structure exhibit too large elastic deformations under the action of low quakes or wind, which can produce damage to non-structural elements. Enough stiffness can be obtained by adding diagonal bracings to the rigid frame. From the comparison between the behaviour of concentrically braced and moment-resisting frames, we can conclude that for opposite reasons neither of these two traditional systems fulfil contemporary the requirements for the three given limit states: serviceability, damageability an collapse. Eccentrically braced frames A suitable harmonization between the lateral rigidity of bracings and the ductility of frames can be obtained in the hybrid framing system of eccentrically braced frames (fig.1.8). In this case the horizontal forces are mainly resisted by axially loaded members, but the eccentricity of the layout allows the energy dissipation by means of a cyclic bending and shear behaviour in an element known as an active link. ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.20 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso WS I. SASS WX AL iS iS D-braced frame K-braced frame V-braced frame Fig.1.8 - Eccentrically braced frames The common type of eccentrically braced frame, according to the shape of diagonal elements can be classified as D-brace, K-brace and V-brace (fig.1.8). They belong to the group of dissipative structures and their level of energy absorption is similar to the moment-resisting frame systems. For this reason, ECCS Recommendations give to both systems the same value of the behaviour factor as for moment-resisting frames. In addition, the eccentrically braced frame system has advantages in term of drift control and represents an economic solution also in the range of medium and high-rise buildings. The active link is the main energy dissipator in the structural system. Itmust be designed in order to obtain that its bending and shear limit strength precedes the attainment of the tension and compressiom limit strength of other bars. According to ECCS Recommendations the amplification factor is used in the check of columns and diagonal members, in order to guarantee such behaviour. Once the beams have been verified, the value of © to be used for checking columns and diagonal members is given by: ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 1: «Design Criteria and Codification» Pag.21 : Vri Mr (L.7) ce min, {Fe Mal) where: Vx,i and Vj are the resisting shear and the corresponding computed shear present in the i-th beam; Mr,jand Mjare the resisting moment and the corresponding computed bending moment present in the j-th beam respectively. The length of the active link is responsible of the collapse mechanism which dissipate energy. The short links dissipate energy mainly by inelastic shear deformation in the web (shear link), the long links dissipate energy mainly by inelastic normal strains in the flanges (moment links). A careful design of these links can lead to very satisfactory hysteresis loops which perform large rigidity and energy absorption (fig.1.9) The eccentrically braced frames match the requirements of all three limit states which the seismic design of steel structures is based upon. In particular they perform an excellent strength and rigidity in elastic range to avoid 200 100 SHEAR (K) ° -100 “200 Ltt tt “30-20 -10 0 LO 20 30 DISPLACEMENT (IN) Fig.1.9 - Cyclic behaviour of short links ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.22 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso non-structural damage and occupant disconfort; they are also able to give enough ductility to dissipate large amounts of energy in the inelastic range. ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»CHAPTER 2 SEISMIC ACTION 2.1 - SEISMIC ZONE SUBDIVISION National territories are usually classified into different «seismic zones» depending on the degree of local seismic activity. The evaluation of the local seismic activity has to take into account general tectonic features of the region and seismic activity in the past. Seismic codes usually consider three seismic zones: - high seismicity zone; - medium seismicity zone; - low seismicity zone. The above mentioned seismic zones are identified by means of seismic hazard maps which are based on a given annual probability of exceedance of the quantity (in general, the peak ground acceleration or the design seismic intensity) represented in the map. The three seismic zones are defined by means of a limit value of the quantity represented in the seismic hazard map. Incase of buildings located out of these three zones, the effects of the seismic actions can be considered negligible.Pag.24 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso Referring to Europe, we can recognize two main areas: the mediterranean area which is characterized by medium and high seismicity zones and the continental area in which the seismic activity is usually very low. Special structures associated with increased risk for the population, such as nuclear power plants, large dams, structures for the processing or the storage of particularly dangerous materials etc. are outside the scope of the ECCS Recommendations as well as of the Eurocode 8. As a consequence, in such cases seismic hazard analysis have to be specifically developed. 2.2 - DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR Interpretation of the motion Up to now, the most common type of dynamic analysis for the seismic design of buildings is the response spectrum approach. Threfore, elastic freefield acceleration response spectra are the basic seismic input description in ECCS Recommendations as well as in Eurocode 8. As a consequence, the seismic action is defined by means of a normalized linear elastic design response spectrum (LEDRS) and a standard value A of the peak ground acceleration (PGA). The peak ground acceleration defines the intensity of the earthquake; its value has to be specified by the competent national authority on the base of the corresponding seismic hazard maps. As a guideline, the possible values of the paek ground acceleration suggested in ECCS Recommendations are 0.15, 0.25g and 0.35g for low, medium and high seismicity zones respectively (being g the gravity acceleration) [2]. The normalized linear elastic response spectrum synthetizes the dynamic behaviour of the linear elastic simple degree of freedom (SDOF) system, for which the corresponding equation of the motion is given by: mi+bx+kx=-ma(t) (2.1) ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 2: «Seismic action» Pag.25 being: -m the mass of the system; - bthe damping coefficient; -k the stiffness; - a(t) the ground acceleration expressed as a function of the time t. The normalized linear elastic design response spectrum Re(T) provides, for each value of the period T of the system T=2n/w =2 n(m/k)'”, the ratio between the maximum acceleration of the system and the peak ground acceleration. As a consequence, the maximum acceleration that the system has to withstand is given by: Sa(T) = A Re(T) (2.2) Elastic response spectrum According to the ECCS Recommendations [2], the elastic response spectrum, normalized to the peak ground acceleration, corresponding toa damping ratio C=5% (C=b/2{mk]!) can be expressed by means of the following relations: Re(T)= 14+ F (R=) for T 0.8: 1 AV tyS 72e Wty s33e ty £ 396e/(13c-1) when o < 0,5: Wy $3806 when @> 0.5: 2 Wty s8e Wty sae ty $ 455e/(120.-1) when a < 0,5: Wh, $41.50 Stress - T distsbution inelemen | 7 {compression rer positive) | when y> 12 3 wt, ss2e Wt, < 42e(0.67 = 0.33) when ys: Cy £ S2e(1-w) OA) === | == es | css ee © [| + | os | om Tab.6.1 - Maximum width-to-thickness ratios for compression elements according to Eurocode 3 ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 6: «Local ductility» Pag.87 Maximum wicth-to-thickness ratios for compression elements, (©) Invern: ements: (internal elements al to axis ct bering! Axis of, Benging Section in ‘Section in Type ending compression ‘Stress distribution + iy by in element and —=— = . acress section rn = bs (compression woo a pesitive) noon u nooTy esd) beau _tz 1 |Fottes Hollow Section way, <33e (o2yn, (12 (fig.6.4), p< (s-1)A (fig.6.5) and p=0. Moreover it is useful to note that by assuming x, th = Ky in the relations provided in table 6.7, the moment versus curvature relationship for the case of elastic-strain hardening behaviour is obtained. Evaluation of ultimate rotation By using the moment-curvature relationships previously derived and by assuming the attainment of the critical bending moment (s — p) Mp asultimate condition, it is easy to compute the ultimate rotation of the cantilever beam or of the centrally loaded beam (fig.6.2) by integrating the curvature diagram. ‘The relations for the evaluation of the ultimate rotation are thus derived: sol Case: p > 7 ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.96 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso CASE: p os M = Ye M = (-p)My M = (1 p)My+ E, Lg (X= (1-20) y~ %) being: 4 =20-p2, 7-H % DM, Toy = SM + C2 + le CASE:p < 1 M = Ele M = (-p)Mp M = (= p)Mys E, 1, (1 (1-20) ty~ yl M = (1+) Mp M = Mp + EqleQ-2%)) being: X= 20-ex, = 0-21, * Hy 2pM, %, = Bee (1-20) t+ Xp, M, x = Fete 1-20) + 2 ay - ty _ (pI) Mp Yor = ET, tO , M = XEle rt M = Mp + Eyle(t-2%,) being: =2 uy hy Wy hy (1) My, for XS% for 4 S%5% for ty SX 5 Nop for 45% for % S45 % for % S45 %3 for x3 45 %q for 4 SX 5 Ney for 4S % for 4 S45 % for 19 £45 hey Tab.6.7 - Moment versus curvature relationship ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 6: «Local ductility» Pag.97 Fig.6.4 - Moment versus curvature relationship for p> (s-1)/2 Xr Xe Xs Xa Xer %X Fig.6.5 - Moment versus curvature relationship for p<(s-1)/2 ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.98 FM. Mazzolani, V. Piluso ed XY Fig.6.6 - Evaluation of the ultimate rotation for p> (s-1)/2 By integrating the curvature diagram, the ultimate rotation is obtained (fig.6.6): =~ fap (s-1) Mp (6.6) Ou = la PY ty + | o-29% +n + FE Te I} Case: p < an ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 6: «Local ductility» Pag.99 COMP Mp. om : S-p)Mip Fig.6.7 - Evaluation of the ultimate rotation for p2(s-I)/2 By integrating the curvature diagram, the following ultimate rotation is obtained (fig.6.7): yap Me (s-2p- 1° Mp| 6.2 w= Afra Pp > 2 D1x,+ 2x, (-e- D+ Br 2PeP-D+ 261, ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.100 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso Case: p = 0 The relation for evaluating the ultimate rotation of beams is obtained by means of equation (6.7) with the condition p = 0 which provides: 2 (6.8) aL (= 1) Mp! Ou = Ef ye 2m 3B, I, | Calculation of rotation capacity In the previous section the relations for evaluating the ultimate rotation of beams and beam-columns have been provided for the ideal two-flange section. In order to compute the rotation capacity, the first yielding rotation is now obtained with reference to the actual section, by means of the following relations: By = d-pyLo Ue) and: (6.10) ®y = (I- p) Met we where h and / are the depth and the moment of inertia of the actual section. ‘The rotation capacity (see fig.6.1): (6.11) can be now obtained for all the three considered behavioural cases. Case: p 2 aoe r= fa oe + EEL oer eh ener} 6.12) Case:p < = ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 6: «Local ductility» Pag.101 uh atl eptpg- pte rte EL. 1+ 2p pL) (6.13) R= rp (see DIRS AT em De ET Melee Ns 3p seth Case:p = 0 ‘The equations for evaluating the rotation capacity of beams are obtained by assuming p = 0 in relation (6.13). Finally it is useful to point out the general validity of the above equations, from which in particular the case of elastic-strain hardening behaviour can be obtained by assuming xj, = %y and the case of rigid-strain-hardening behaviour by assuming xp, = 0. 6.4 - INFLUENCE OF STABILITY PHENOMENA. Bases of the method In the previous sections the relations for evaluating the rotational capacity of beams and beam-columns have been provided. The use of such relations Tequires the computation of the ratio s between the critical stress leading to buckling and the first yielding stress. The computation of the buckling stress ratio s can be performed by means of theoretical relations or by considering the experimental evidence. In the first case the corresponding method for evaluating the rotation capacity is a pure theoretical method while, in the second case, it can be defined a semi-empirical method because experimental relations for evaluating the buckling stress ratio s are combined with theoretical expressions, as the ones derived in the previous sections. The method of Mazzolani and Piluso [79,80,81] is based on this second approach. ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.102 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso Local buckling formulations The theoretical prediction of the critical stress leading to the local buckling of the compressed flange is particularly difficult [79]. An alternative is represented by the use of empirical relations based upon experimental evidence. By using data of a great number of stub column tests, B. Kato [72,73] has proposed the following relations for the nondimensional local buckling stress s; they have been derived by means of multiple regression analysis: - for H-section members ple = 0.6003 + 1:00 1.600 | 0.1535, (6.14) 5 Oy - for welded square hollow sections (welded SHS) 1 _ ono 4 2167 one (6.15) - for cold-formed square hollow sections (cold-formed SHS) 1 = 0.778 + 213 0.13, (6.16) - for cold-formed circular hollow sections (cold-formed CHS) = 0.777 + 118 6m a ols being: t 2 Oy = (Ga the slendemess parameter of the flange; VF ty -a, == (z Jime slendemess parameter of the web (dy is the depth of Ww the web); ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 6: «Local ductility» Pag.103 E({t E(t -O= = [é i and o= =| — J the slendemess parameters for SHS and 5, D CHS sections respectively (B is the side of the SHS section, D is the diameter of the CHS section and t is the thickness). The above relations can be adopted independently from the grade of steel. Moreover, more accurate relations which take into account the effects due to the mechanical properties of steel, are given by the same Author for H-sections and with reference to steel grades currently adopted in Japan [74]. Effective width of the web It has to be pointed out that the experimental relations for evaluating the critical stress leading to the local buckling of the compressed flange can be based upon the stub column test in which webs are uniformly compressed, while webs in beams and beam-columns have a stress gradient. This difference can be taken into account by introducing the «effective width» of the web dye, which represents the compressed part of the web when the section is fully Wes Fig.6.8 - Definition of the effective width of the section ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.104 FM. Mazzolani, V. Piluso yielded. With reference to fig.6.8, as the total axial load N = p A oy is sustained by the web (N=Nw), it results: pAo,= (1-28) Aw G, 6.18) being Aw the web area, therefore: B Aw- pA (6.19) 2 Aw and: Ane 6.20) dy, = a(t i °} dy Sdy Evaluation of nondimensional local buckling stress The main difficulties in the theoretical evaluation of the rotation capacity arise from the necessity to compute the critical stress leading to the local buckling of the compressed flange. The value of this critical stress is influenced by the restraining action exerted by the web which depends upon the stress state (elastic or plastic) in the web itself and is very difficult to evaluate. Moreover, theoretical analyses available in technical literature don’t take into account the effects due to the stress gradient in the buckled zone, which derives from the longitudinal variation of the bending moment. In particular, the dependence of the critical stress from the stress gradient, which has been pointed out by the experimental results of U.Kuhlmann [85], is not included in theoretical formulations as well as in empirical relations, such as the ones proposed by B. Kato [72,73,74]. On the base of experimental evidence, it can be stated that the average length of the zone where local buckling of the compressed flange occurs is approximately 1.20 bg [85]. Therefore, the influence of the stress gradient on the critical stress which produces the local buckling of the compressed flange depends upon the bi/L ratio (being, in general, L the distance between the section in which the bending moment is zero and the one in which it assumes ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 6: «Local ductility» Pag.105 its maximum value). The analysis of the experimental data collected in (73,84,85] has led, by means of a multiple regression analysis, to the following empirical relation: > asaesar + 1.632533 4+ 0.062124, 0.602125 % + ooo1471 Et 007766 2 621) being: b =f (6.22) 42 EG dy, 1, = ae (623) wy The proposed relation (6.21) is more complete than the ones provided by B.Kato [72,73,74], because it includes the influence of the slenderness of the flange (Ay) and of the web (Aw) as well as the effects due to the stress gradient (b#/L) and the influence of the mechanical properties of the material (en/ey, E/En). Moreover, it seems that the simplified model (ideal two flange section), which has been assumed for-evaluating the ultimate rotation, has to be rationally kept also in the computation of the first yielding rotation. ‘The Mazzolani-Piluso method is based upon the use of equations (6.12) and (6.13) for evaluating rotation capacity and, obviously, upon the computation of the critical stress leading to the local buckling of the compressed flange by means of equation (6.21). The control of the conditions leading to the lateral- torsional buckling of the member is made according to the following section. Lateral-torsional buckling The buckling stress ratio s can be computed by means of the relations presented in the previous section if local buckling occurs before flexural-torsional buckling. This condition is verified when the distance between torsional restraints is sufficiently small in order to prevent the lateral displacement of ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.106 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso the compressed flange. In the opposite case, the buckling stress ratio has to be computed as the minimum value between the one leading to local buckling and the one leading to lateral-torsional buckling. This last value can be computed, taking into account moment-gradient, by means of the relations [48] which provide the ultimate equivalent uniform bending moment for lateral-torsional buckling and the relations correlating end moments to the equivalent uniform bending moment. Comparison with experimental data In the previous paragraphs a procedure for evaluating the rotation capacity of beams and beam-columns has been introduced. The comparison between the experimental results and the rotation capacity values predicted by means of the method previously described is given in the figure 6.9. The relationship between predicted and experimental values is given with reference to beams and beam-columns under moment gradient for which rotation capacity has been computed by assuming as ultimate rotation the one corresponding to the maximum bending moment in the moment versus rotation curve. The same figure gives also the «scatter areas», characterized by a £20% or a +30% difference between predicted and experimental values (see dotted lines). The method of Mazzolani and Piluso (fig.6.9), including both the influence of the part of the member which remains in elastic range and the influence of the stress gradient and of the mechanical properties of the material, seems to be able to provide a considerable reduction of the scatters together with sufficiently conservative results. Taking into account the complexity of the phenomenon and the advantages due to the use of an equation in «closed form», the approximation obtained by means of this method can be considered satisfactory. Regarding to the obtained degree of approximation, we can remember that some researchers [86] have performed a numerical simulation of the experimental tests of Lukey and Adams [87], by using the finite element method and adopting nine node ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 6: «Local ductility» Pag.107 MAZZOLANI & PILUSO METHOD UNSAFE 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 EXPERIMENTAL VALUE Fig.6.9 - Comparison between predicted and experimental values of the rotation capacity Lagrangian shell finite elements with 2x2 Gauss integration and a bounding surface model based on the linear flow theory; but the obtained scatters between predicted and experimental values of the rotation capacity varied from -40% to +60%. Finally, it is useful to point out that none of the available simplified procedures nor the definition itself of the rotation capacity are able to take into account that, in the actual case of members belonging to a real structure, the distance between the inflection point and the location of the maximum bending moment changes during the process of loading. ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.108 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso 6.5 - SEDLACEK-SPANGEMACHER EMPIRICAL METHOD Features of the method This method is mainly based on the results obtained by means of numerical simulations using the finite element method. In particular, these simulations have been divided in different series in which a single parameter affecting rotation capacity has been varied keeping constant all the others [78]. Moreo- ver, the empirical approach allows to include in the evaluation of the deformation capacity also the postbuckling behaviour which can provide a significant contribution. Therefore, the rotation capacity provided by Sedlacek and Spangemacher is defined as (see fig.6.1): _ Smax (624) R ey Relations for evaluating rotation capacity The extensive numerical analysis has led the Authors to propose the following relation: R= Ro (f) + AR) + a?) + af) ~ ance) ©) of Ay bf being: (6.26) AR) = [ass é) 263] a (15 - yf) (627) fy a@=10 for 4< 15 mm (6.28) ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 6: «Local ductility» Pag.109 a= 05 for tf 215 mm (6.29) art} = |2.91 (] — 274] { 20 - 2 630) ef “ (h " f L (fu (6.31) ARI | = | 2.70 || - 2.70] | 5 - te) )-21 (0-4) and: AR(Ke) = Ske AKo (6.32) _ oa (uP — Gr 6.33) AKe = 9.31 — 0.035 é aya Skg = 0.35 al for AKe > 0 6.34) Sy Ske=0 for AKo <0 (6.35) Ineq. (6.33) Ghis the strain-hardening tangential modulus of the web given by: 4 EEn (6.36) Gh= aay) E+E where the strain-hardening modulus En is referred to the web. It can be immediately recognized that the axial load is not considered, therefore the above formulations can be applied only to the beams. ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.110 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso 6.6 - MEMBER BEHAVIOURAL CLASSES Definition Inthe previous sections it has been pointed that the rotation capacity of steel beams and beam-columns is influenced not only by the width-to-thickness ratios of the compressed parts of the cross-section, but also by the stress gradient along the cross-section (which can be taken into account by means of the concept of effective width of the web), by the longitudinal stress gradient due to the bending moment variation and by the distance between torsional restraints which plays a fundamental rule in preventing flexural-torsional buckling. As a consequence, it seems that the concept of cross-section behavioural classes should be substituted by the concept of member behavioural classes. The ductile behaviour corresponds to the capability of the member to provide high values of the rotation capacity (R>6 as an example), while the compact behaviour is associated with a moderate value of the rotation capacity (0 Pag.121 of this part is strictly related to the collapse mechanism type and to the magnitude of vertical loads. The ultimate displacement is attained when the maximum rotational capacity in the critical plastic hinge is requested. Inelastic behavioural parameters The most important behavioural parameters characterizing the inelastic performance of a structure can be listed as follows [91]: - global ductility p= 4¥6,; - plastic redistribution parameter %vo,; - slope of the softening branch y' = y 8} (being 5; the linear elastic top sway displacement under the design horizontal forces (a = 1) and -ythe slope of the softening branch of the nondimensional o — 8/81 curve); - rotational capacity of the critical plastic hinge R; - the type of collapse mechanism. Limitation of global ductili Ithas to be pointed out that plastic redistribution produces two effects. On one hand an increase of the load-carrying capacity with respect to first yielding is obtained; on the other hand the formation of plastic hinges is not contemporary so that some plastic hinges have to withstand higher inelastic rotations. This phenomenon can lead to a premature failure due to the limitations arising from local ductility of members. Moreover, as the slope of the softening branch increases as far as the magnitude of vertical loads increases, we can observe that global ductility can be limited by two events: - due to the required local ductility when the value of the critical elastic multiplier of vertical loads is high; - due to the high slope of the softening branch in the opposite case. In both cases the influence of collapse mechanism type is decisive. ECCS Document on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.122 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso Influence of collapse mechanism The collapse mechanism plays a very important role in seismic design of structures, because it influences the value of the available global ductility and the energy dissipation capacity of the structure. The effect of different types of collapse mechanism on the slope of the softening branch of the behavioural curve a8 are detailed in [20,91]. The case in which a framed structure fails according to a global type mechanism (fig.7.3) can be adopted as reference case, because it is generally considered able to exhibit enough ductility to withstand severe earthquakes. It has been pointed out [91] that the slope of the softening branch of the nondimensional curve o. — 6/81, for framed structures failing according to the global mechanism, can be obtained with good approximation by means of the following relation: 1 7.1) Y* OG being Or the critical elastic multiplier of vertical loads. It is useful to note that in case of a shear type portal frame the following equation can be stated: we (12) 1 Teer For a given value of the total vertical load, collapse mechanisms different from the global type determine an increase of y. As the softening branch of the Fig.7.3 - Global type mechanism a-6 curve is strictly related to the collapse mechanism, its slo- ECCS Document on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 7: «Global Ductility» Pag.123 pe can be obtained for any given collapse mechanism by means of the equilibrium equation of the structure in the collapse state considering its deformed shape. Slope of softening branch If we define ‘y,, the slope of the softening branch of the 0-5 curve in case of mechanisms different from the global type one, for any given value of the total vertical load the relation between y’ and ¥,,, can be found: Ym = 1 (7.3) where 1 assumes the meaning of amplification coefficient due to collapse mechanisms different from the global type one. Incase of frames without set-backs and/or off-sets, ithas been demonstrated in [91] that the values of 7 corresponding to the failure modes shown in fig.7.4 are given by the relations presented in the same figure. These relations are valid for a triangular distribution pattern of horizontal forces, according to the first vibration mode, together with an uniform distribution of vertical loads along the height. By means of the relations given in fig.7.4 it can be pointed out that the storey mechanism (mechanism type 3) always produces a very high value of 7) leading to intolerable values of Ym, with a strong reduction of the available ductility. Moreover, in case of type 1 and 2 mechanisms, the value of 7 is less than 2 only if the number of storeys involved by the collapse mechanism 1, is greater than (2/3)ns [91], being: - Mm = im for type 1; = Mm = Ns —im+1 for type 2; - Mm = 1 for type 3 mechanism. ECCS Document on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.124 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso GLOBAL MECHANISM. ‘TYPE1MECHANISM ——TYPE2. MECHANISM “TYPE 3 MECHANISM @_ ns(2ms+1) Qns+1 im) Min = in im + 1) 2im+ 1) +3 (rs = im) (ns +1 + im)] Q _ ns (as+1) ns (ns + 1) = im 1) [2 (ts +1) ~ im) im (ns-im+ 1) ns (ns + 1) (20s —3 im +4) + im (im— 1) (im - 2) @)_2nsQns+1) im 3 (ns + im) Fig.7.4 - The influence of the collapse mechanism on the slope of the softening branch of the multiplier of horizontal forces versus top sway curve 7.3 - DESIGN REQUIREMENTS Collapse mechanism requirement In modem seismic codes the problem of the reduction of the available ductility due to undesiderable collapse mechanisms is faced by providing design criteria which have the goal to guarantee the complete exploitation of ECCS Document on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 7: «Global Ductility> Pag.125 the plastic reserves of the structural scheme. It is, therefore, requested to avoid the formation of local failure modes which cannot exhibit enough ductility to withstand catastrofic earthquakes. For this reason a great effort has been spent in order to provide simple design rules able to lead to structures failing in global mode. In order to obtain a collapse mechanism of global type in framed structures, itis universally recognized by the modem seismic codes that flexural strength of columns has to be greater than flexural strength of beams. Therefore, at each beam-to-column joint the following condition has to be satisfied: = Me? L Mey (7A) being: - Mpc the sum of the resisting moments of the columns connected to the joint; -> mM, 'p,p the sum of the resisting moments of the beams connected to the joint. Codified methods The modem seismic codes are, therefore, oriented in providing the amplification of the bending resistance of columns, following different design criteria. In the ECCS design criterion [2] the amplification regards only the bending moment part in the columns, which is due to seismic actions. Therefore, the amplification coefficient o has to be computed by means of the following condition: X Mey + OL Mes = XL Mey a being: - Mc,o the column bending moment due to non seismic loads; ECCS Document on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.126 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso ~ Mc,s the column bending moment due to horizontal seismic forces. ‘Therefore, the value of the amplification coefficient is obtained: x Mp 3 Moo (7.6) > Mes and the design value of the column bending moment is given by: a Mce,d = Meo + OMe, (7.7) The Eurocode 8 [3] requires the fulfilment of the condition (7.4), but it doesn’t explicitely define a column moment amplification coefficient o. A different approach is adopted by CNR-GNDT code [92] in which the amplification of the total bending moment of the columns is proposed. Therefore, the following condition has to be satisfied: oy Me=>d Uppy (7.8) being: Mc = Mco + Mes (7.9) As a consequence, the amplification coefficient ct is given by: = rp (7.10) and the design column bending moment is computed as: Mc,d = OMe (7.11) a Moreover, CNR-GNDT code requires a 20 per cent amplification of the a value in case of first storey columns. Finally, when biaxial bending is neglected in performing safety checks of members an ulterior 30 per cent increment of the o value is requested. ECCS Document on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 7: «Global Ductility> Pag.127 Available results The inelastic response of steel frames, proportioned according to the above design criteria, has been investigated in [23,93] by using static inelastic analyses, leading to the characterization of the structural response by means of the behavioural curve 0-8 and the pattem of yieldings. A wide number of structural schemes have been considered and some conclusions about these design criteria have been derived [23]: - the codified design methods based upon the amplification of column bending moments are inadequate in order to guarantee that frames fail in a global mode; - the global failure mode formation is not a sufficient condition to obtain a q-factor greater than the one assumed in preliminary design; - the tapering of columns can be responsible to prevent the formation of the global type mechanism. 7.4- DESIGN METHOD Theoretical background In the plastic design of structures the attention is concentrated on the collapse state of the structure, while the elastic and partly-plastic preliminary stages are ignored. This assumption is justified when we are primarily intere- sted in the «strength» of a structure and in the corresponding failure mode. However, even if our attention is faced to the collapse state only, we would find that a complete investigation for a complicated structure might be very cumbersome. As an alternative, the theory of limit design provides the way for avoiding many of the difficulties arising from the step by step analysis of the complete structure, by means of the so-called «bound theorems». There are two approaches to the problem of calculation of collapse loads, which can conveniently call the «equilibrium» and the «geometry» approa- ECCS Document on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.128 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso ches respectively. In the equilibrium approach, by satisfying the equilibrium equations and yield conditions, we obtain the evaluation of the collapse load without considering the mode of deformation. On the contrary, in the geometry approach by considering the mode of deformation and the energy balance, we reach the evaluation of the collapse load without considering the equilibrium equations. The answers given by the two methods are different from each other. In fact, a collapse load predicted by the equilibrium method is always on the « side of the exact collapse load (lower bound), and, on the contrary, the collapse load predicted by the geometry approach is always on the Pag.131 being Fi the horizontal force applied to the k-th storey and np the number of storeys. The vector of the storey heights (h} is given by: {njT={ being hx the height of the k-th storey. For any given kinematically admissible mechanism, the corresponding kinematically admissible multiplier of the horizontal forces can be found by means of the principle of virtual works: a (F)Td{s)}=(Mp}74{0} 7.14) (7.13) being: - d{ s } the virtual displacements corresponding to the given mechanism; ~ { Mp } the vector of the plastic moments corresponding to the plastic hinges of the given mechanism; - d{ @ } the virtual rotations of the plastic hinges of the given mechanism. Global type mechanism The following notation is adopted: - a) is the multiplier of the horizontal forces corresponding, as kinematically admissible, to the global type mechanism; - Ng is the number of columns; ~ Np is the number of bays; - MQ) is the plastic moment, reduced for the presence of the axial load, of the i-th column of the first storey; - Mpbjk is the plastic moment of the j-th beam of the k-th storey. The kinematically admissible multiplier corresponding to the global type mechanism is provided by: ECCS Document on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.132 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso np { M vil + DY 2Mpoje k=l j=l (7.15) Type 1 mechanisms The kinematically admissible multiplier corresponding to the im-th mechanism of the type 1 is given by: ne x Mpn + y z 2Mpb,jk “Sa Mein (7.16) qy_ i=l i=l Om = im mp D Fk hk + hin D, Fe k=1 k=imt1 being Mein the plastic moment, reduced for the presence of the axial load, of the i-th column of the im-th storey. Type 2 mechanisms ‘The kinematically admissible multiplier corresponding to the im-th mecka- nism of the type 2 is given by: he ty Y Mptin+S, | D2 Myst (7.17) Q i=l k=im| j= Qin = ™ X Fe (hk = hine- 1) k=im ECCS Document on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 7: «Global Ductility> Pag. 133 Type 3 mechanisms With the notation: Ming = hig, ~ hing — 1 (7.18) The kinematically admissible multiplier of the im-th mechanism of the type 3 is given by: 5 7 ue, (7.19) pi; “ @)_ ist " Sin = D Fike Abin k=in 7.5 - DESIGN CONDITIONS Design global mechanism In order to design a frame failing in global mode, the cross-sections of columns have to be dimensioned in such a way that, according to the upper bound theorem, the kinematically admissible horizontal forces multiplier corresponding to the global type mechanism is the minimum among all kinematically admissible multipliers. As a consequence, the following design conditions have to be imposed: @ 20: g(t) < Sim i we) Wo tm (2) (7.21) a8) ig = 1 2B pep Vin ECCS Document on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.134 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso of (7.22) a) <5 im =1,2,3).00ttp vo Therefore, there are 3np design conditions to be satisfied in the case of a frame having np storeys. These conditions, which derive directly from the application of the upper bound theorem, will be integrated by conditions related to technological limitations. The coefficients v~? > 1 are introduced in order to take into account the influence of second order effects on the value of the kinematically admissible multiplier of the im-th mechanism of the i-th type. The value vi) = 1.15 is 2 (2) - , suggested with the exception vi =1 which corresponds to a mechanism cohincident with the global one. Conditions to avoid type 1 mechanisms The following notation is introduced: mp { Mb (7.23) a= 2 2 Mpb jk S y (7.24) Ie 2 Mpbiik Np (7.25) D Fe he ksh Nin =F ip DY Fe Ak + hind) Fk k=1 k=im+1 ECCS Document on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.135 (7.26) i=l By means of the above notation, the im-th condition to be satisfied in order to avoid type 1 collapse mechanisms can be written in the following form: "% a) (7.27) (im — Rim) S Mpsit + Vin 01 — Aim Sim a) Pin 2 A a) Yim >, Mp,it i=l which has to be applied for im=1,2,3,.....np. Conditions to avoid type 2 mechanisms A new series of parameters is introduced: Mp [ Mb (7.28) Gin= >, | DY 2Mpoe k=im| j=1 np (7.29) DY Fe he k=l Yin= DY Fe Ck hin 1) k=l ECCS Document on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.136 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso ne (7.30) Y Mpaiin ~ ne ” X Mpit i=l By means of the above parameters, the im-th condition to be satisfied in order to avoid type 2 collapse mechanisms can be written in the following form: (7.31) Conditions to avoid type 3 mechanisms ‘The following parameters are introduced: np (7.32) DY Fe hk (7.33) zw > Mpa i=l ECCS Document on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 7: «Global Ductility» Pag.137 By means of these parameters, the im-th condition to satisfy in order to avoid type 3 collapse mechanisms is expressed by the following relation: ne) (7.34) > Mpi+1 @) Per = @ 2Bim >, Mp,it i=l Technological conditions According to the above formulations, the 3np design conditions have been derived directly from the application of the upper bound theorem. In particular, for each storey there are three design conditions to be satisfied because three collapse mechanism typologies have been considered. As, for each storey, these design conditions have to be contemporary satisfied, the ratio: ) (7.35) M, LD. jim ne x 1 Pim ne Y Mp i=l between the sum of the reduced plastic moments of columns of the im-th storey and the same sum corresponding to the first storey columns allows to satisfy the above design conditions if the following relation is verified: 0 ® @ Pin=max { Pin > Pin » Pin (7:36) As the section of columns can only decrease along the height of the frame, the values of pj,, (with im=1,2,....np) obtained by means of the conditions derived through the application of the upper bound theorem have to be modified in order to satisfy the following technological limitation: ECCS Document on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.138 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso (137) Evaluation of axial load in the columns at the collapse state If the sum of the reduced plastic moment of columns of the first storey is specified, then the previously explained design conditions allow the definition, through the ratios px (k=1,2,....np), of the same sum corresponding to the k-th storey, which guarantees that failure doesn’t occurr according to mechanisms belonging to the three examined typologies. In order to define the plastic section modulus of the columns, the evaluation of the axial load in the columns at the collapse state is requested. With reference to the collapse state, the axial force of the j-th column of the k-th storey is expressed in the following form: Nje=Nje+Njee (7.38) being: -Njk. the axial force due to the vertical loads; -Njk. the axial force due to the horizontal forces at the collapse state. Both the axial force due to the vertical loads and the one due to the horizontal forces can be evaluated taking into account the magnitude of the uniform loads acting on the beams and by considering that, at the designed collapse state, both ends of all beams are yielded. In other words, the axial forces in the columns can be computed from the sum of the shear forces trasmitted by the beams in the designed collapse mechanism. 7.6 - DESIGN ALGORITHM Fulfilment of conditions It has been pointed that the upper bound theorem allows the definition of a condition for each undesired collapse mechanism, regarding the ratio between ECCS Document on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 7: «Global Ductility» Pag.139 the sum of the reduced plastic moments of the k-th storey column and the same sum corresponding to the first storey, to be satisfied in order to avoid the undesired failure mode. As three different collapse mechanism typologies have been considered, there are 3np design conditions to be satisfied which are provided by relations (7.27),(7.31) and (7.34). These design conditions have to be integrated by the technological condition (7.37). The above mentioned relations can be used in order to design a frame failing in global mode and, therefore, having an ultimate multiplier of the horizontal forces expressed by equation (7.15). Operational steps ‘The main steps of the algorithm to solve this problem are now presented. A more detailed description is provided in [72,73], while a worked example is given in chapter 11. 1. Computation of the overturning moment at the first storey corresponding to the design value of the horizontal forces (a=1). Itis provided by eq.(7.41) for k=1 and o®)=1. 2. Computation of the storey functions @jz, , Bim > Yim » im and Ej, , Which are provided by the equations (7.28), (7.32), (7.29), (7.25) and (7.24) respectively. 3. Computation, through equation (7.15), of a tentative value o; of the ultimate multiplier corresponding to the global mechanism by imposing that the reduced plastic moment of the first storey columns is not less than the plastic moment of the beams. 4. Computation of the limit values p{2) , p{2) and p{2) provided by equations (7.27), (7.31) and (7.34) respectively. 5. Computation of the value of pj,, which allows to avoid failure modes corresponding to the three examined collapse mechanism typologies: ; Y 2 ® Pin = 02% { Pi »Pim + Pin } ECCS Document on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.140 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso 6. Modification of the computed values of pi, in order to satisfy the following technological condition: P12 P22 P32... 2 Pp 7. Computation of the corresponding kinematically admissible multipliers of!) , cf and cr) provided by equations (7.16), (7.17) and (7.19) respectively. 8. Computation of the ultimate multiplier as the minimum among all the kinematically admissible multipliers: ou = min { oo?) with i= 152,35 vosnee Mp } (739) 9. If the condition: | Oty ~ Of | >0.01 (7.40) Ne is verified, then the value of Y, Mf} corresponding, through equation (7.15), i=l to Oy has to be computed and the procedure has to be repeated starting from point 4. In the opposite case, it can be assumed a8) = oy and the column sections can be derived according to the following steps. 10. Computation of the total axial force in the columns. 11. Computation, for each storey, of the sum of the reduced plastic moments by means of equation (7.35). The reduced plastic moment of each column can be now obtained by assuming that each column provide the same contribution to the above mentioned sum. 12, Definition of the section of the j-th column of the k-th storey, by assuming that the point ( Njx , Mp jk) belongs to the yielding surface. ECCS Document on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»CHAPTER 8 OF THE q-FACTOR 8.1 - HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Design requirements Structures are usually designed so that some of the energy input during severe earthquakes is dissipated through plastic deformations. In order to prevent collapse, the value of these plastic deformations must be limited according to the available local and global ductility of the structure. Design forces are usually derived from inelastic response spectra which provide the normalized pseudo-acceleration, required for a specified level of inelastic response, as a function of period T. These inelastic spectra are given in seismic codes by modifying a linear elastic design response spectrum by means of a factor, namely q-factor, which takes into account the dissipative capacity of the structure.Pag.142 FM. Mazzolani, V. Piluso Simplified methods The correct evaluation of the q-factor, which can also be defined as the minimum ratio between the acceleration leading to collapse and the one corresponding to the achievements of first yielding, requires several dynamic analysies for different ground motions. In case of multi-degree of freedom (MDOF) systems this type of analysis results very cumbersome and therefore it justifies the development of simplified methods which have been proposed by many authors. Different approaches The inelastic response spectra of single degree of freedom (SDOF) systems for earthquake motions have attracted considerable attention in the past 25 years. In the early work of Veletsos and Newmark (1960) [95] response analysies have been used to grasp the ratio between the maximum response deformations of the one-mass elastic-perfectly plastic system and the maximum response deformation in the elastic system. On the base of their studies Veletsos and Newmark proposed two approaches for relating the elasto-plastic spectrum to that of the corresponding elastic system. The first suggested approach, considering the maximum deformations to be the same in the two systems, leads to a shear force coefficient for the elasto-plastic system which is obtained dividing the corresponding value of the elastic system by the value of the ductility factor. This method, which is nowadays considered suitable for small magnitude of damping and for T>0.5 sec, is often recalled as the theory of ductility factor [95]. The second approach, useful for structures having natural period T<0.5 sec, makes an estimate of the value of q by assuming the equivalence in strain energy between the elastic and the elastic-perfectly plastic system. Therefore, the inelastic spectrum is reduced by the ratio 1/(2u+1)'/ with respect to the elastic one [95]. Penzien obtained a similar conclusion through the response analysis of the multi-mass elastic plastic system [96]. ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 8: «Evaluation of the q-factor» Pag.143 The above studies are the starting point of the well-known Newmark and Hall method (1973) [97]. In recent times Mahin and Bertero [98] have shown that the scatter in the peak response of systems designed according to the Newmark and Hall method is so large that it cannot be considered reliable in order to limit ductility demands to specified values, even for elastic-perfectly plastic simple degree of freedom systems. 8.2 - SIMPLIFIED METHODS Classification of methods The proposed methods for evaluating q-factor can be grouped in three categories: 1 - methods based on the theory of ductility factor; 2 - methods based on the extension of the results on the dynamic inelastic response of simple degree of freedom (SDOF) systems; 3 - methods based on the energy approach; Methods based on ductility factor theory In the methods of the first group, the theory of ductility factor (reliable for steel structures being generally T>0.5 sec) is used to establish relations between the q-factor and some parameters characterizing the post-elastic behaviour of steel frames which are easy to determine [91,99,100,101]. In other cases it is used to interpret the results of inelastic dynamic analysies [102,103,104,105,106]. In the first case, being the relations obtained from simplified models, the hypothesis of the so-called «structural regularity» is required. These relations are also deduced fora global type mechanism leaving ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Pag.144 F.M. Mazzolani, V. Piluso to a second phase the analysis of the effects due to undesiderable collapse mechanisms. Methods based on SDOF systems Methods belonging to the second group, starting from the dynamic behaviour of inelastic SDOF systems, require hypothesies of structural regularity and global collapse mechanism. As the research on inelastic spectra is rigorously applicable to SDOF systems, their use has been extended to multi-degree of freedom systems. The critical point of this extension derives from the number of parameters which are necessary to characterize the pattern of yieldings of multi-story frames. In fact, while a single parameter, such as the required global ductility, can be sufficient to characterize the SDOF response, in case of MDOF systems different patterns of yieldings could correspond to the same maximum inelastic displacement. Furthermore, the period of vibration and the partecipation factor of the «fundamental mode» are increased due to inelastic deformations as shown by Veletsos and Vann [107]. Moreover, when the structure becomes inelastic, axial forces in exterior columns can exceed the values predicted by modal analysis and inelastic spectra, leading to a reduction of plastic moment capacities and to an increase of required ductility [108]. Inelastic spectra of SDOF systems cannot take into account such effects. It is useful to note that the range of validity of the theory of ductility factor has been obtained from the analysis of SDOF systems [16]. The limitations explained above generally regard also the methods of the first group. Energy methods The third group methods are the most general ones. These methods, which. are an extension of the Housner’s methodology (1956) [30,31], don’t require structural regularity and global mechanism hypothesies. ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»Chapter 8: «Evaluation of the q-factor» Pag.145 It is useful to remember that, in the methodology used by Veletsos and Newmark, the equivalence of energy is only an aid to grasp the maximum deformation responses; the quantitative evaluation of the input energy is beyond the scope of this method. Nowadays, it is clear that the global ductility is not a sufficient parameter to estimate the structural damage. Many researchers have pointed out that a design based only on displacement ductility neglects the number of yield excursions and reversals, which may be useful to understand the amount of damage undergone by structures during an earthquake motion. Therefore, new parameters have been proposed in order to improve the inelastic response characterization [98,109,110,111]. These difficulties have shown the energy approach as the most promising to establish new methodologies to improve the seismic design of structures. Comparison among the methods A detailed presentation and discussion of a wide number of approximated methods for evaluating the q-factor, belonging tothe above groups, is provided in [19,20]. The energy method proposed by B.Kato and H.Akiyama, which represents the base of the japanese seismic code, allows a realistic prediction of the whole pattem of yielding of a structure subjected to severe earthquakes. For this reason, in the following reference will be made to this method. Finally, the last part of the chapter is devoted to a brief description of the Ballio-Setti method [102,103,104,105] and its modification proposed by Sedlacek [106]. 8.3 - KATO-AKIYAMA METHOD Range of applicability ‘The ultimate strength design method for steel-framed buildings, subjected to severe earthquakes, proposed by B. Kato and H. Akiyama, ECCS Manual on «Design of Steel Structures in Seismic Zones»

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