ency in the 1 Evidence of energy levels (or energy shells) in an atom is also provided by examining the successive ionisation energies of an atom. 2 The table below lists the successive ionisation energies of the aluminium atom. No.ofelectrons | —_onisation energy Ig eliminated | (id mot) ionisation energy) te aa] _ 2745 344.~—~C*d 7 a 11578 | 4.06 | kJ mol" 18378 = T 426 - metas [iene ane! EZ 7 31862 | 4.50 | 38.458 [ 458 < i‘ 42655 “4. : _ 12 | 201 276 ees 5.30 m frequency eames) - 222313 535 1 3 3 A plot of Ig (ionisation energy) against the order of electrons ionised is plotted, . 7 / | ' (ionisation / | energy) ee eee eee 12345678 801 2 19 order of electrons removed 4 The graph shows that aluminium has 13 electrons. The successive ionisation , proton electron ratio. As a result, the remaining electrons are more tightly bound by the nucleus, energy increases because the species produced has an ever i There is a large increase between the third electron and the fourth electron as well as between the eleventh and the twelfth electrons, 30 6 This indicates that the fourth electron is closer to the nucleus as compared to the 10-2) third electron. The same goes for the eleventh and twelfth electron > Learning Outcome Students should be able to deduce the number and relative energies of the s,pand d orbitals for the principal quantum numbers 1, 2and 3, including the 4s orbitals. Firs ionisation energy of aluminium: Al) —> ANQ) +e Second ionisation energy of aluminium: Avg) —> APM) +e The 13th ionisation energy of aluminium: Dmg) Wig) +e Ag (ionisation energy) is used to condense the range ofthe ionisation energies ‘TAKE NOTE 35TAKE NOTE 36 Seruct 7 Hence, all the 13 electrons in aluminium can be grouped unde [ea] et | et [nes | Numberofelectrons | 2 | 8 3 8 The electronic configuration of aluminium is written as 2.8.3 which shows the number of electrons in each energy shell. The successive ionisation energy of element Q is shown below 1 314,3 388, 5 301, 7 469, 10989, 13 327,71 337, 84 080 (kJ mol") Determine the electronic configuration of . 3a | 3388 rasa [71357 | o4080 Wireaioneeayt aie Lae [372 [ar | aoe [are | as | a92 A graph of Ig (ionisation energy) against the number of electrons ionised is plotted. 4 energy) | +2345 678 order of electrons removed There is a big ‘jump’ between the 6" and 7" ionisation energy. Hence, Q has 6 electrons in the outer shell and 2 electrons in the inner shell. The electronic configuration of Q is 26. 261 Jn the electronic configuration of aluminium, 2.8.3. How are the 3 or 1 Consider ag 8 electrons in the third shell and second shell arrang ‘A more detailed study of the line spectrum shows that the lines representing transitions between the principal shells are in fact split into finer lines. This the presence of subshells with different energy values in each principal indicat shell antum 3. The number of subshells in a principal shell is the same as the princi number of the principal shell 4 In any subshell, the shell with the lowest energy is represented by the letter (which stands for sharp), followed by p (principal), d (diffuse), f fundamental), g and so on. NS)Energy 4 4 Second 7 L fh [Th 3539.34 L am eal les [pn 55.59.55659 | | Further experiments on the line spectra (in the presence of a magnetic field) shows |. that each subshell is further made up of several orbitals where the electrons are cae Principalshel! Subset = 6 The number of orbitals depends on the type of subshell ~ Subshell | No. of orbitals symbol | TAKE NOTE 5 1 5 zl p 3 Py. a 5 ty byte dg.od, | ees me _| The arrangement ofthe orbitals in order of inereasing energy (in an empty atom) is as follows: 5 Bl ae a toaorsaane as ja * ns ae 0 20. @ | = a rr Relative energy levels of atomic orbitals Us <2s<2p < 3s < 3p Learning Outcome students should be able to define and apply Aufbau principle, Hund’ ule and Pauli exclusion principle. P21) P1/a3 Any single orbital can hold only 2 electrons. “no itera spies oT 2s ortital 18 orbital 4. The p orbital has a “dumb bell’ shape. The three p orbitals are arranged along the x,y and z axes in space. 4 o potbtal <-->} shape of orbital T ‘The electronic configuration of an atom can be determined by usin: 1 The Aufbau Principle in ‘The Aufbau principle states that electrons must energy | ° 14 occupy available orbitals of lowest energy first before 2 they fill orbitals of higher energy. The diagram on the arrangement of the orbitals in order | right shows the of increasing energy. (Each orbital is represented by | ¥ 1 square box. The three boxes representing the three Oss ~ pp orbitals are joined, indicating that they have the 20 same energy, that is, they are degenerate orbitals Ces 1s It is the same for the five d orbitals.) 2. Pauli Exclusion Principle (a) The Pauli exclusion principle st occupied by two electrons of opposite spins only are represented by tandl. (b) Hence, the total number of electrons in an oF tates that each orbital (i.e. each box) can be | The spins of the electrons ital or set of orbitals is as follows: [Type of orbital | Maximum no. of electrons |od (©) The total number of electrons that can occupy a principal shell is 2n TAKE NOTE ail accra eral 1 2 Zrolt cnesemts oh) = “Tid | 3 plana Ow hank | Fourth 4[ 2 | Fifth s|_ 50 3 Hund’s Rule (—— aa a In a given set of orbitals of equivalent energy (e.g. the three p orbitals or the five | TAKENOTE orbitals), electrons tend to occupy the orbitals singularly (with parallel spins) frst before pairing up For example, the two electrons in a p orbital is[1[ T]_] and not [2] |] > Learning Outcome flowing he es in Seton 2.8, he lestonieconiguration of the clement inthe Stlessaudbe oe Periodic Table can be worked out. Gaiieaiantaaen 1 Hydrogen (Z = 1) has only one electron, Therefore, it will occupy the lowest eae ae energy leveVorbital available, that is, the Ls orbital. [1] This is written as 1s! (orb. Pues m7 1/03, 8c 2 The electronic configuration of helium (Z=2) is se F 7 P1/aisb This is written as 1s* (or 2), 3 The lithium atom (Z = 3) has three electrons. The first two go into the 1s orbital, while the third electron fills the next available empty orbital of 2s [5] C1] tists writen as 152 or 2.4, iF 4 Beryllium (Z = 4) has the electronic configuration of [4] [0] this is waitten as 15225? (or 22) 7 5 Boron (Z = 5) has five electrons. The first four go into the 1s and 2s orbitals while the fifth electron occupies one of the empty 2p orbitals. fi) fo This is written as 1s? 2s? 2p! (or 2.3) wer ee J 6 Caron = 6 has i elton. The 6h leon dss not oy the sme orbital as the fifth electron, but insteads occupies one of the two remaining empty ‘ 2p orbitals (Hund’s Rule). 1] @ and not | is 2s | @@ oto This is written as 1s? 2s* 2p? (or 2.4) 39Ground state configuration 10 u Nitrogen (Z eRe. 7 has the electronic configuration of ‘This is written as 1s? 2s? 2p* (or 2.5) Oxygen (Z = 8) has eight electrons. The eighth electron will have to pair up with cone of the unpaired electrons in one of the half-filled 2p orbitals, wo T [4] This is writen as 1* 2% 2p! (oF 26). (Z=18) is Repeating the process, the electronic configuration of argo This is written as 1s? 2s? 2p* 3s* 3p* (or 2.8.8). The next element potassium (Z = 19) has nineteen electrons. The nineteenth oa Gl ah Gh) @) GE mM i es This is written as Is? 2s? 2p 3s? 3p! 4s! (or 2.8.8.1). ‘The electronic configuration of the first 36 elements is shown in the following table. This is known as the ground state electronic configuration, that is, the configuration with the minimum energy possible [-Z [element [configuration | Z [Element | configuration Cl 1s! jhe K 18°2s*2p°3s°3p"4s' [alne [ae [20 [ca | staszprastapease [3]u pss a1 [se Lwapssaptas Fraenore aoe [1928 reasapaea—races | Se fee as [v saranaeacast | beter warer [ae le eeapseapaces | le etwas as [vn [warner ; [slo 1828p" | 26 | Fe [re2saptsstaprscras' | olF T [ar [co [saraparapaaes [ho (war 2 FSrP 40 5°25%2pk3s'3p'3d4s | 1522s%2p"3s"3p°3d%45 15:2522p35°3pr3d%45°4p" 15225'2p'38t 15228¢2p'3s'3p) 192512935939" [32 [Ge __ | 1'2s2p"3eap%adasap ap) [a3 [as | asapraeaptadvascap’ | [3a [se | 1s'25%apt3s%3pradeas'4p* | 35 [Br ___| tsiaszptastapradarap® 36 [kr | 1252p353p'30%4s4p | ite Gallia Th12 Note that for the electronic configuration of the transition elements (Z = 21 to Z = 30) the energy level of the 4s orbital is lower than that of the 3d orbitals, However, once the electron/(s) is/are filled into the 3d orbital, the order is reversed. ‘The 3d orbitals now have lower energy than the 4s orbital. (sieleheora th =™| ; “ I lll GET TT) ica Ss werefore the electronic configuration of scandium (Z = 21) is Ist 2s? 2p* 3s? 3p® 3a" 4s? (or 2.8.9.2) and not th Is? 2s? 2p8 3s? 3p! 4s? 3a! The first electron ionised off from the scandium atom is from the 4s orbital and not the 3d orbital 13. The electronic arrangement of chromium (Z= 24) is [Ar] 36 4s! and not [Ar] 3e 4s because the first arrangement, where the five 3d orbitals are exactly half filled, are more stable energetically. =) COON @ ooo © ud ra ad « energetically more stable energetically less stable 14 The electronic configuration of copper (Z = 29) is (Ar] 3d" 4s! and not [Ar] 30? 4s? because a completely filled d subshell is more stable. Inthe d* configuration the electron density Is evenly destributed among the five 3d orbitals GhEET) GO) 29.1 Chop) eet es sable @) * ae Cation electron removal: Lastin, fist ag 1 In the formation of cations (positive ions), electrons are removed in reverse order from of electron filling. That is, the last electron is removed first. 2 The electronic configuration of oxygen (Z= 8) is “&) @) Go) 2s 2p ‘The first electron to be removed is from the paired electron in the 2p orbital, Thus, the electronic arrangement for the O* ion is ] &) Com %p TAKE NOTE 41 ‘This is written as 1s? 2s* 2p? (or 2.5)3. Inthe formation of anions (negative ions), electrons are added in the same manner as the filling of electrons in the neutral atoms. Anion electron addition: same as neutral atoms > 4 The electronic configuration of fluorine is ae g Write the electronic configuration of the following ions. (a) AP (b) Cu © vr (@) () cl (a) 1s? 2s? 2p (or 2.8) (b) 1s? 28? 2p* 35° 3p" 3? (or 28.17) (©) 18? 2s? 2p 3s? 3p" 3d? 4s! (or 2.8.1.1) (d) 1s? 2s? 2p* (or 2.8) (©) 1s 25° 2p* 3s? 3p* (or 2.8.8) Emme. 1 The frequency of the first line in the Lyman series of the hydrogen atom is 2.466 x 10'S Hz. Calculate the difference in energy between the first and second principal shells of the hydrogen atom. 2. The transition between the seventh energy level and the first energy level in an hydrogen atom emits light with a wavelength of 9.31 x 10 m, Calculate the difference in energy between these two levels. 3 T 10.97 1066 1052 10.27 974 a2 wave number (% 10° m-) The Lyman series of the line spectrum of hydrogen is shown above. Calculate the 2.10.1 ionisation energy of hydrogen from the spectrum 1 1 aty [wave number =< ctengih pa 4. Using arrows, show how the following lines in 2 Alle the hydrogen spectrum are produced rows (a) The third line in the Lyman series. 3 Elen (b) The third line in the Balmer series. Be Which of the lines have higher frequency? oe Explain your answer. 5 Determine the maximum number of orbitals in (a) the third principal shell, (b) the first three principal shells of an atom. 42 rn is ond the 1 In the modem Periodic Table, the elements are arranged in the order of increasing proton numbers, Ine Periodic Law states that the properties of elements vary periodically with their proton numbers. 3 The modem Periodic Table has many forms. In the year 1984, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (TUPAC) formally recommended the format shown in below. 2.10.1 1 At present, there are 92 naturally-occurring elements. Elements with proton numbers greater than 92 are all artificially synthesised and are radioactive. Alll elements in the Periodic Table are grouped under 7 Periods (the horizontal rows) and 18 Groups (the vertical columns). 3 Elements in Group 1 and Group 2 are known as the s-block elements because their valence electrons occupy the s orbitals. Ce of | [Valence shell configura Ce =am [se Tomo [nc [usr | ate | ate ] [Valence shetlconfiguration [2s | 38 [ae [ss] es [op > Learning Outcome Students should be able (a) identity the position ‘of the elements in the Periodic Table as (0 lock swith valence configurations stands, i) block p, with valence shell configurations from Sp'tosp, Ain Block with valence shell configurations from Fs tod’s, (b)identty the position of elements in block fof the Periodic Table, rivers [axenore | Thesblockemens Se Groupe’ 434 Elements in Group 13 (or IID) to Group the highest orbital filled with el elements because 18 (or VII) are known as the p-block tron is the p orbitals ae 3 14 5 | 16 7 | 8 a a } am | wm {of om | AS 5 mepblockelamens Element = Dst Lr fs [2 | | ‘ cele [Valence shell configuration | 33 | 3e3p% | asp | 3836 | asap" | 3530" | 2 ut eae: oo — etiet tte wes 5 PPeSaTTE NET le 5 Elements in Group 3 through Group 12 are known as the d-block elements where ins electrons it Ives the d ort 3T che dblock elements filling of electrons involves the d ot bitals. —J ae ae s eS sé 71 # [9 wine na ement v [oe | |W | sc | az fas | o Loe [am |e Le | | Tal) ost Nace oe ad4s? | 34st | 34s? | 3dhas! | 34s | aehast | 30%4s! | 3chas? | 304s" | ads | 60 {configuration |" || | tt [peated aie © eset 6 Elements with proton numbers $8 —> 71 and from 90 —> 103 are known as the + Pblock elements. Proton ] aa ; ] | a a|sfeajale a|a|s|e)a@a|e@)|e| nin ¥ [immer | Le | [m | | lo} Lo [% [ee [im |» | eto lyspel ase esses sess tse rseursantsesmsesnseyesre | P configuration ak oh sc [aaccnons 7 The group number of an element indicates the number of valence electrons H while the period number indicates the outermost principal shell that is filled with electrons, 8 Forexample, bromine (proton number = 35) is found in Period 4 and Group 17 0f 43. ¢ the Periodic Table. Hence, its valence shell configuration is 4s° 4p" : 9 Eleven of the known elements are gases under room conditions. They are: H,, He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn, N,,O,,F, and Cy 10 Only two elements are liquids at room conditions: Hg (mercury) and Br Write the valence shell electronic configuration of the following elements. [set [coset [roto i 3 5 [+ 5: 7 az ‘6 4 Nx