PROPULSION SYSTEMS

A. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF ROCKET ENGINES

The only known way to meet space-flight velocity requirements is through the use
of the rocket in one of its several forms.
Rocket thrust is the reaction force produced by expelling particles at high velocity
from a nozzle opening. These expelled particles may be solid, liquid, gaseous, or
even bundles of radiant energy. The engine's ability to produce thrust will endure
only so long as the supply of particles, or working fluid, holds out. Expulsion
of material is the essence of the thrust production, and without material to expel no
thrust can be produced, regardless of how much energy is available.
Because of this fundamental fact, a prime criterion for rating rocket performance is
specific impulse, which provides an index of the efficiency with which a rocket
uses its supply of propellant or working fluid for thrust production. For gaseous
working fluids, specific impulse can be increased by (1) attaining higher
temperatures in the combustion chamber and (2) increasing the proportion of
lighter gases, preferably hydrogen, in the exhaust.
The other important factor in assessing the merit of a propulsion system in a given
application is the weight of engine and working fluid container required, since
these weights influence achievable propellant fraction.
B. TYPES OF ROCKET ENGINES
Rocket engines are distinguished b the type of mechanism used to produce exhaust
material. The simplest "engine" is a compressed air bottle attached to a nozzle. The
exhaust gas is stored in the same form as it appears in the exhaust. Ejection of
compressed air, or other gas, from a nozzle is a perfectly satisfactory rocket
operation for some purposes.
The most common rocket engine is the chemical type in which hot exhaust gases
are produced by chemical combustion. The chemicals or propellants, are of two
types, fuel and oxidizer corresponding to gasoline and oxygen in an automobile
engine. Both are required for combustion. They may be solid or liquid chemicals.
In other types of rockets no chemical change takes place within the engines but the
working fluid may be converted to a hot gas for ejection by the addition of heat
from a nuclear reactor or some other energy source.
These and other variations of the rocket engine are discussed below.1
C. SOLID-PROPELLANT ROCKET

In the solid-chemical rocket, the fuel and oxidizer are intimately mixed together
and cast into a solid mass, called a grain, in the combustion
32 ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
chamber (fig. 1).2. The propellant grain is firmly cemented to the inside of the
metal or plastic case, and is usually cast with a hole down the center. This hole,
called the perforation, may be shaped in various ways, as star, gear, or other more
unusual outlines, The perforation shape and dimension affects the burning rate or
number of pounds of gas generated per second and, thereby, the thrust of the
engine.
After being ignited by a pyrotechnic device, which is usually triggered by an
electrical impulse, the propellant grain burns on the entire inside surface of the
perforation. The hot combustion gases pass down the grain and are ejected through
the nozzle to produce thrust.

Fig.1-Schematic of solid-propellant rocket

The propellant grain usually consist of 1 of 2 types of chemical. One type is
the double-base, which consists largely of nitroglycerine and nitrocellulose. It
resembles smokeless gunpowder. The second type, which is now predominant, is
thecomposite propellant, consisting of an oxidizing agent, such as ammonium
nitrate or ammonium perchlorate intimately mixed with an organic or metallic
fuel. Many of the fuels used are plastics, such as polyurethane.
A solid propellant must not only produce a desirable specific impulse, but it must
also exhibit satisfactory mechanical properties to withstand ground handling and
the flight environment. Should the propellant grain develop a crack, for example,
ignition would cause combustion to take place in the crack, with explosion as a
possible result.
It can be seen from figure 1 that the case walls are protected from the hot gas by
the propellant itself. Therefore, it is possible to use heat-treated alloys or plastics
for case construction. The production of light-weight, high-strength cases is a
major development problem in the solid-rocket field.
Since nozzles of solid rockets are exposed to the hot gas flowing through them,
they must be of heavy construction to retain adequate strength at high temperature.

Special inserts are often used in the region of the nozzle throat to protect the metal
from the erosive effects of the flowing gas.
For vehicle guidance it is necessary to terminate thrust sharply upon command.
This may be accomplished with solid rockets by blowing off the nozzle or opening
vents in the chamber walls. Either of these
ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS 33
techniques causes the pressure in the chamber to drop and, if properly done, will
extinguish the flame.
The specific impulse of various solid-propellant rockets now falls in the range 175
to 250 seconds. The higher figure of 250 applies to ammonium perchlorate-biased
propellants.3
D. LIQUID BIPROPELLANT CHEMICAL ROCKETS
The common liquid rocket is bipropellant; it uses two separate propellants, a liquid
fuel and liquid oxidizer. These are contained in separate tanks and are mixed only
upon injection into the combustion chamber. They may be fed to the combustion
chamber by pumps or by pressure in the tanks (fig 2).

Fig. 2-Schematic of liquid-propellant rocket

Propellant flow rates must be extremely large for high-thrust engines, often
hundreds of gallons per second. Pump-fed systems may require engines delivering
several thousand horsepower to drive the pumps.4 This power is usually developed
by a hot gas turbine, supplied from a gas generator which is actually a small
combustion chamber. The main rocket propellants can be used for the gas
generator

34 ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS

although, as in the case of the V-2 and the Redstone, a special fuel like hydrogen
peroxide can be used for this purpose.5
The pressure-feed system eliminates the need for pumps and turbines; however the
high pressure, perhaps 500 pounds per square inch, required in the tanks leads to
the necessity for heavier structures, thus adding dead weight to the vehicle that
may more than offset the weight saved by removing the pumping system. 6 On the
other hand, removal of pumping equipment may raise overall reliability,
The walls of the combustion chamber and nozzle must be protected from the
extremely high gas temperature. The method most commonly used is to provide
passage in the nozzle wall through which one of the propellants can be circulated.
In this way the walls are cooled by the propellant, which is later burned. This
technique is referred to as regenerative cooling. 7
Thrust termination is easily accomplished with the liquid rocket by simply shutting
the propellant valves; however, this operation must be precisely timed and
controlled. The amount of thrust delivered can be controlled by controlling the rate
of propellant flow.
E. LIQUID MONOPROPELLANT ROCKET
Certain liquid chemicals can be made to form hot gas for thrust production
by decomposition in a rocket chamber. The most common such monopropellant is
hydrogen peroxide. When this liquid is passed through a platinum catalyst mesh it
decomposes into hot steam and oxygen. These gases can then be ejected to develop
thrust.
Engines of this kind have comparatively low specific impulse, but have the
advantage of simplicity, require only one tank in the vehicle and can be readily
turned on and off. Since they are adaptable to repetitive operation they find
application in various control systems where efficiency of propellant utilization is
of minor importance.8
F. NUCLEAR ROCKETS
Research and development on the use of a nuclear reactor as a rocks energy source
is currently being carried out in Project Rover.9 The nuclear rocket does not utilize
any combustion process. Rather, the hot exhaust gas is developed by passing a
working fluid through fission reactor (fig. 3), Liquid hydrogen is the propellant
most often considered for a nuclear rocket because it yields the lightest exhaust gas
possible. The hydrogen could be stored in liquid form in a single tank and forced

into a reactor by a pump. After being heated in the reactor, it would be exhausted
through a conventional rocket nozzle to obtain thrust. 10
ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS 35

Fig.3-Nuclear rocket
Other methods of using the fission reactor have been proposed to avoid the severe
materials problem attendant on transferring heat to the gas directly by the
extremely hot reactor walls. One device would place gaseous fissile material in the
center of an open reactor retaining it in position by magnetic means. Then the
propellant gas would be heated by radiation from the hot gaseous fissile material
without the interposition of a solid wall. While feasibility of such a device is still a
subject of investigation.11
36 ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Specific impulse figures for conventional nuclear rockets may be as high as 1200
second.12-15
It has also been proposed that atom (fission) bombs of limited power be exploded
below a space vehicle to push it along. Heavy construction would be required to
protect the interior of the vehicle from blast and radiation effects. 16

G. THERMONUCLEAR ROCKETS
Harnessing thermonuclear reactions to obtain power is a subject of continuing
interest throughout the world. The United States effort is being conducted under
Project Sherwood.17 It is reasonable to suppose that a thermonuclear reactor could
be used as an energy source for a rocket in ways not basically different from those
suggested for nuclear reactors.18
The use of thermonuclear reactors or other advanced schemes for propulsion
(plasma rockets, ion rockets) involves phenomena of the type falling under the
general term, magnetohydrodynamics: study of the behavior of ionized gases acted
upon by electric and magnetic fields. Magnetohydrodynamics is one of the very
active fields of research in engineering today.19, 20
H. SOLAR PROPULSION
A number of schemes have been proposed to employ radiation from the Sun to
obtain propulsive power for a space ship. Although the energy density of solar
radiation in space is rather small in comparison with the tremendous power of
chemical launching rockets, it can be useful for propulsion in "open" spaces. Once
a vehicle is well away from the Earth or other planetary body, or is established in a
satellite orbit, a very small amount of thrust will serve to alter or accelerate its
flight significantly.
Solar propulsion schemes fall into two categories. In one, the radiation pressure of
solar rays would be used to supply thrust on a large, lightweight surface attached to
the space ship-quanta (bundles) of radiant energy, or photons, are the working
materials of such a rocket,
.
ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS 37
Thus, propellant is supplied in an endless stream from the Sun and no storage tanks
are required on the vehicle. This device has been called a solar sail (fig 4) .21 The
other approach is to use the solar rays to heat hydrogen gas, which is then expelled
through a nozzle to produce thrust.
In both of these approaches the weight of mechanism relative to the thrust
obtainable is likely to be so large as to severely limit the usefulness of solar
propulsion.

Fig. 4-Solar sail

I. ION PROPULSION
In the various devices for ion propulsion,22 each molecule of propellant (usually
assumed to be an alkali metal, notably cesium) is caused to have an electric charge;
that is, the propellant is ionized (fig. 5). This might be accomplished by passing the
propellant over heated metal grids. It is then possible to accelerate the charged
molecules, or ions, to very high velocities through a nozzle by means of an electric
field, (Electrons are accelerated in a television picture tube in this fashion.) The
performance of such an ion engine is very good with values of specific impulse
estimated to be as high as 20,000 seconds. 23 However, the amount of electric power
required is very
38 ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Fig. 5-Ion rocket engine

large, so weight of the power-generating equipment becomes a major obstacle to an
efficient vehicle. It is contemplated that some type of nuclear fission (or fusion,
farther in the future) could be used to supply the energy for the electric powerplant,
although this step would still not eliminate the need for heavy electrical generators,
unless direct conversion of fission to electrical energy in large quantities be came
practical.24-26
For example, an ion rocket offering 20,000 seconds of specific impulse, using
cesium for the propellant, would require about 2,100 kilovolts of electric power to

produce 1 pound of thrust, assuming good efficiency. Optimistic estimates of

electric-power-supply weight in dictate that the power unit would weigh about
8,500 pounds. The weight of the ion accelerator itself is small in comparison.
Therefore, an ion rocket can accelerate itself only very slowly (about 1/10,000 of 1
g in this example ) .
J. PLASMA ROCKET
Another possible method for using electric power to operate a rocket engine uses
electricity to heat the propellant directly by means of discharging a powerful arc
through it. In this way, very high temperatures can be obtained, leading to high
specific impulse, perhaps several thousand seconds, while avoiding the materials
problem involved in heating a gas by passing it over a hot surface, as would be
done, for example, in the conventional nuclear rocket. Such a device has been
generally termed a Plasma rocket.27, 28 It, too, requires large quantities of electric
power, about 150 kilowatts for each pound of thrust, While the included sketch
(fig. 6) shows a conventional cooled rocket nozzle,

ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS 39

it may be possible to use magnetic fields to direct the jet, as the heated propellant
has been ionized (made into a plasma) by the arc (another application of
magnetohydrodynamics).

Fig.6-Plasma jet
K. PHOTON ROCKET
It has been proposed by several different research workers that photons, that is,
light or other radiation, be generated and emitted from the rocket in a focused
beam. A certain amount of momentum is associated with the photon beam, and
thrust would be generated by such an engine. Such a system, however, would use
energy very inefficiently, unless matter could be converted completely into
energy.29 For example, a large military searchlight is a photon rocket in a sense, but

yields less than one ten-thousandth of a pound of thrust for a power consumption
of 100 kilowatts.
L. SUMMARY
There are two general measures of the performance of a rocket engine. One is the
specific impulse, which will determine the amount of propellant that must be used
to accomplish a given task. The second is the fixed weight of the engine, including
the necessary tankage, power supply, and structure.
The chemical rocket engine is a fairly lightweight device. However, the specific
impulse is not high. Solid and liquid propellants in present use deliver an impulse
of around 250 seconds. The best liquid propellants so far conceived and evaluated
yield an impulse of about 350 seconds. Certain solid propellants, proposed on the
basis of
40 ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
theory alone might yield 300 seconds, The fundamental theory of chemical binding
energies precludes the possibility of any substantial gains over these numbers,
Even some as-yet-undiscovered superfuel is unlikely to raise the specific impulse
beyond 400 seconds or thereabouts.
The heat transfer nuclear rocket is not limited by propellant binding energies, but
by the temperature limitations of wall materials. Using hydrogen as a propellant,
values of specific impulse of perhaps 1,000 seconds or more are feasible. Should
gaseous containment of the fissioning fuel be possible, specific impulses of several
thousand seconds might be achieved. This type of rocket engine appears very
promising, and research on nuclear rockets and controlled thermonuclear power
reactors may yield information useful to the construction of such a device.
The primary consideration in obtaining useful thrust from ion or plasma rockets is
the construction of lightweight electric power supplies. A gross reduction in
electrical generation equipment, as compared with the most advanced of present
equipments, is required to make the electric rocket really interesting for flight in
the solar system.
In any event, the electric rocket is likely to remain a low-thrust device. Therefore,
large chemical or nuclear rockets would still be required to boost a space ship from
the surface of the earth.
No prospects are now apparent for realization of propulsion schemes of the
"antigravity" variety, because the negation or reversal of the gravitational attraction
of matter would violate basic physical laws as presently understood. Pending

discovery of a new class of physical phenomena, the notion of antigravity now

stands in a state similar to that of the perpetual motion machine.
M. AIR-BREATHING AND RECOVERABLE BOOSTERS
The use of air-breathing engines, principally turbojets or turbo fans, as first-stage
missile boosters is certainly feasible. However, for boosting large missiles (current
ICBM's or larger) an air-breathing booster would be a relatively complex and
expensive device, either composed of many jet engines already being developed
for aircraft applications, or requiring the special development of large jet engines
having several times greater thrust than conventional jet engines. (Consequently,
from an economic point of view, air-breathing boosters are of interest only in these
cases where the operation permits the repeated use of the boosters (perhaps 10
times or more); thus, recoverable boosters might be of interest for possible future
large-scale satellite-launching operations, but not for ICBM systems requiring a
quick-reaction salvo capability. It is possible that, when all the operational factors
are considered, the potential savings from using recoverable air-breathing boosters
will turn out to be relatively small, perhaps considerably less than 20 percent.
ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS 41
Since the possible economic advantage of air-breathing recoverable boosters arises
from the recoverability and reuse feature of these boosters, rather than from the
fact that they are air-breathing, recoverable rocket boosters are also worthy of
consideration. For example, the rocket motor, and perhaps also the empty
propellant tank, of a liquid rocket booster could be returned to earth intact by
means of parachutes, gliding wings, lifting jet-engines, or a combination thereof. A
reasonable compromise among the desirable qualities of reliability of launch and
recovery, ease of return of booster to launch site, and minimum booster cost might
result in a liquid rocket booster, whose rocket motor is returned to the launch site
by means of relatively small turbojet engines; these jet engines would also assist
the rocket booster during ascent through the lower atmosphere.

Launch Systems and Launch Sites

Introduction

A rocket is a machine that develops thrust by the rapid expulsion of

matter. The major components of a chemical rocket assembly are a
rocket motor or engine, propellant consisting of fuel and an oxidizer, a
frame to hold the components, control systems and a cargo such as a
satellite. A rocket differs from other engines in that it carries its fuel
and oxidizer internally, therefore it will burn in the vacuum of space as
well as within the Earth's atmosphere. The cargo is commonly referred

to as the payload. A rocket is called a launch vehicle when it is used to

launch a satellite or other payload into space. A rocket becomes a
missile when the payload is a warhead and it is used as a weapon. At
present, rockets are the only means capable of achieving the altitude
and velocity necessary to put a payload into orbit.
Terms
There are a number of terms used to describe the power generated by a
toDescribeRocket rocket.
Power
Thrust is the force generated, measured in pounds or
kilograms. Thrust generated by the first stage must be greater
than the weight of the complete launch vehicle while standing
on the launch pad in order to get it moving. Once moving
upward, thrust must continue to be generated to accelerate the
launch vehicle against the force of the Earth's gravity. To place
a satellite into orbit around the Earth, thrust must continue until
the minimum altitude and orbital velocity have been attained or
the launch vehicle will fall back to the Earth. Minimum altitude
is rarely desirable, therefore thrust must continue to be
generated to gain additional orbital altitude.

6-2 Launch Vehicles

The impulse, sometimes called total impulse, is the product of

thrust and the effective firing duration. A shoulder fired rocket
such as the LAW has an average thrust of 600 lbs and a firing
duration of 0.2 seconds for an impulse of 120 lbsec. The Saturn
V rocket, used during the Apollo program, not only generated
much more thrust but also for a much longer time. It had an
impulse of 1.15 billion lbsec.

The efficiency of a rocket engine is measured by its specific

impulse (Isp). Specific impulse is defined as the thrust divided
by the mass of propellant consumed per second. The result is
expressed in seconds. The specific impulse can be thought of as
the number of seconds that one pound of propellant will
produce one pound of thrust. If thrust is expressed in pounds, a
specific impulse of 300 seconds is considered good. Higher
values are better.

A rocket's mass ratio is defined as the total mass at liftoff

divided by the mass remaining after all the propellant has been
consumed. A high mass ratio means that more propellant is
pushing less launch vehicle and payload mass, resulting in
higher velocity. A high mass ratio is necessary to achieve the
high velocities needed to put a payload into orbit.

LaunchVehicles

Most current launch vehicles

consist of two or more rockets or
stages that are stacked on top of
each other. The second stage is
on top of the first, and so on. The
first stage is the one that lifts the
rocket off the launch pad and
is sometimes known also as a
"booster" or "main stage".
When the first stage runs out of
propellant or has reached
the desired altitude and velocity,
its rocket engine is turned off
and it is separated so that the
subsequent stages do not have to
propel unnecessary mass.
Dropping away the
useless weight of stages whose
propellant has been expended
means less powerful engines can
be used to continue
the acceleration, which means
less propellant has to be
carried, which in turn means
more payload can be placed into
orbit.

RocketEngines

Many different types of rocket engines have been designed

or proposed. Currently, the most powerful are the
chemical propellant rocket engines. Other types being designed
or that are proposed are ion rockets, photon
rockets,magnetohydrodynamic drives and nuclear fission
rockets; however, they are generally more suitable for providing
long term thrust in space rather than launching a rocket and
its payload from the Earth's surface into space.

Categoriesof
ChemicalPropellants

There are three categories of chemical propellants for

rocket engines: liquid propellant, solid propellant, and
hybrid propellant. The propellant for a chemical rocket
engine usually consists of a fuel and an oxidizer. Sometimes
acatalyst is added to enhance the chemical reaction between the
fuel and the oxidizer. Each category has advantages and
disadvantages that make them best for certain applications and
unsuitable for others.

LiquidPropellants

Liquid propellant rocket engines burn two separately stored liquid

chemicals, a fuel and an oxidizer, to produce thrust. Typical
fuel/oxidizer combinations are:
TYPICAL LIQUID PROPELLANT PURL/OXIDIZER
COMBINATIONS

FUEL

TYPE

Liquid Hydrogen

Liquid Oxygen

Cryogenic

RP-1 Kerosene

Liquid Oxygen

Liquid/Cryogenic

Aniline

Nitric Acid

Hypergolic

Hydrazine
CryogenicPropellant

OXIDIZER

Monopropellant

A cryogenic propellant is one that uses very cold, liquefied gases

as the fuel and the oxidizer. Liquid oxygen boils at 297 F and
liquid hydrogen boils at 423 F. Cryogenic propellants require
special insulated containers and vents to allow gas from the
evaporating liquids to escape. The liquid fuel and oxidizer are
pumped from the storage tanks to an expansion chamber and
injected into the combustion chamber where they are mixed and
ignited by a flame or spark. The fuel expands as it burns and the
hot exhaust gases are directed out of the nozzle to provide thrust.

HypergolicPropellant A hypergolic propellant is composed of a fuel and oxidizer that

ignite when they come into contact with each other. No spark is
needed. Hypergolic propellants are typically corrosive so storage
requires special containers and safety facilities.
Mono-propellants

Monopropellants combine the properties of fuel and oxidizer in

one chemical. By their nature, monopropellants are unstable and
dangerous. Monopropellants are typically used in adjusting or
vernier rockets to provide thrust for making changes to orbits once
the payload is in orbit.

6-2 Launch Vehicles, cont'd

Advantages
andDisadvantages

Advantages of liquid propellant rockets include the highest energy

per unit of fuel mass, variable thrust, and a restart capability. Raw
materials, such as oxygen and hydrogen are in abundant supply and
a relatively easy to manufacture. Disadvantages of liquid propellant
rockets include requirements for complex storage
containers, complex plumbing, precise fuel and oxidizer injection
metering, high speed/high capacity pumps, and difficulty in storing
fueled rockets.

SolidPropellants

Solid propellant rockets are basically combustion chamber tubes

packed with a propellant that contains both fuel and oxidizer blended
together uniformly. The principal advantage is that a solid propellant
is relatively stable therefore it can be manufactured and stored for
future use. Solid propellants have a high density and can burn very
fast. They are relatively insensitive to shock, vibration
and acceleration. No propellant pumps are required thus the rocket
engines are less complicated. Disadvantages are that, once ignited,
solid propellants cannot be throttled, turned off and then restarted
because they burn until all the propellant is used. The surface area of
the burning propellant is critical in determining the amount of thrust
being generated. Cracks in the solid propellant increase the exposed

surface area, thus the propellant burns faster than planned. If too
many cracks develop, pressure inside the engine rises significantly
and the rocket engine may explode. Manufacture of a solid
propellant is an expensive, precision operation. Solid propellant
rockets range in size from the Light Antitank Weapon to the 100 foot
long Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs) used on the side of the main fuel
tank of the Space Shuttle. Other examples include air defense
missiles such as Patriot and Hawk, air to air missiles such as
Sidewinder, Sparrow, antitank missiles such as the TOW and
Hellfire, and Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs).
HypbridPropellants Hybrid propellant rocket engines attempt to capture the advantages
of both liquid and solid fueled rocket engines. The basic design of a
hybrid consists of a combustion chamber tube, similar to ordinary
solid fueled rockets, packed with a solid chemical, usually the fuel.
Above the combustion chamber tube is a tank, containing a
complementary reactive liquid chemical, usually the oxidizer.
The two chemicals are hypergolic, and when the liquid chemical is
injected into the combustion chamber containing the solid chemical,
ignition occurs and thrust is produced. The ability to throttle the
engine is achieved by varying the amount of liquid injected per unit
of time. The rocket engine can be stopped by cutting off the flow of
the liquid chemical. The engine can be restarted by resuming
the flow of the liquid chemical. Other advantages of hybrid
propellant rocket engines are that they provide higher energy than
standard solid propellant rockets, they can be throttled and restarted
like liquid propellant rockets, they can be stored for long periods like
solid propellant rockets, and they contain less than half the complex
machinery (pumps, plumbing) of standard liquid propellant
engines. They are also less sensitive to damage to the solid fuel
component than standard solid propellant system. Hybrid rockets
control the combustion rate by metering the liquid component of the
fuel. No matter how much solid component surface area is exposed,
only so much can be burned in the presence of the liquid
component. Disadvantages are that these engines do not generate as
much energy per pound of propellant as liquid propellant engines
and they are more complex than standard solid fueled engines.
Hybrid propellant rocket engines are still in development and are not
yet available for operational use. Versions with more than
220,000 lbs (100,000 kg) of thrust have been demonstrated. Hybrid
propellant rocket engines may eventually be used where reliability,
flexibility, storability, throttle control, and stop/restart capabilities
are required.
Section II: Launch Systems and Launch Sites 6-3 United States
Introduction

The current inventory of U.S. space launch vehicles includes a variety of

Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELVs) and the reusable Space Shuttles.

Atlas

Delta

The Atlas was developed in the early 1950's and became the United States'
first operational Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM). Thermonucleartipped Atlas ICBMs served as a strategic deterrent until 1966, when they
were phased out and replaced by the Minuteman. The Atlas missile was
also used as one of the early space launch vehicles. In 1958, an entire Atlas
was placed into low earth orbit (LEO) along with its Army developed
Project SCORE communications payload. Atlas D launchers were
used throughout the Mercury program. The first U.S. astronaut to orbit the
Earth, John Glenn, was launched into space by an Atlas D. Although fitted
with newer upper stageengines, the missile has changed only slightly over
the years. The first stage consists of two booster engines and a sustainer
engine, all of which ignite at launch. The propellant is RP1 kerosene fuel
and liquid oxygen as the oxidizer. There are also two vernier stabilization
rockets near the base which are oriented outward at a 45/ angle from the
long axis of the rocket. These two small rockets firing out to the side give
the Atlas its unique signature. Two minutes into its flight the boosters fall
away while the center sustainer continues to burn. The original missile had
no second stage. The Centaur or Centaur II advanced upper stage has been
added as a second stage to allowmuch larger payloads to be placed into
orbit. Current Atlas boosters provide a medium lift capability. The Atlas E,
launched from Vandenberg AFB, with a lift capacity of 1,800 lbs (820 kg)
into a polar, LEO is used to put DoD and NOAA weather satellites into low
Earth, sunsynchronous (polar) orbits. The Atlas I and the Atlas II
launch vehicles are launched from Cape Canaveral to put a variety of DoD,
NASA, and commercial satellites into low, medium or geosynchronous
orbits. The Atlas II has also been used to launch some communications
satellites for foreign customers. Launch preparations typically take about
10 weeks.
The Delta launch vehicle evolved from the Thor intermediate range
ballistic missile (IRBM). It was first flown in September, 1957, and was
later stationed in Turkey (among other places) through the early 1960s. The
first Delta ELV was launched in 1960. The Delta family of launch vehicles
has gone through many upgrades and is available in a variety of
configurations, depending on the needs of the customer. The first Delta II
was first launched in February , 1989. There are launch facilities
at Vandenberg AFB and Cape Canaveral. The current configuration has a
payload capacity of about 11,100 lbs (5,045 kg) into LEO or up to 4, 000
lbs (1,800 kg) into geostationarytransfer orbit. The Delta launchers have an
excellent reliability record, with a launch success percentage in excess of
95%. The first stage uses a liquid fuel with liquid oxygen as the oxidizer.
Upper stages use liquid propellants. To increase the initial thrust, solid
rocket boosters (SRBs) are strapped on to the first stage. The final stage is
a Payload Assist Module (PAM). The Delta II is the primary launch vehicle
for the Navstar GPS satellites, a variety of U.S. DoD, civil and foreign
communications satellites and some scientific payloads. In 1993, the Air
Force designated the Delta II as its Medium Launch Vehicle (MLV3).

6-3 United States. Cont'd

Titan

Scout

The first Titan I launch occurred on February 6, 1959. In

1962, the Titan I was replaced with the larger and more
powerful Titan II. Titan II ICBMs were deployed in 54 silos
in the U.S. from 1963 to 1987. Titan IIs were also the
launchers for the ten twoman Gemini flights. Fiftyfour of
the 103foot hypergolic propellant missiles with 9megaton
warheads were maintained in deep silos in
Arizona, Arkansas, and Kansas for twenty years. They were
finally deactivated because the propellants, being corrosive,
were dissolving the fuel tanks on the missiles. One of them
exploded in its silo because of this. Following the Shuttle
Challenger disaster, initiatives to develop a family of
reliable expendable launch vehicles with Shuttle payload
capabilities have resulted in the creation of a variety
of Titan configurations: Titan III, Titan 34D, and Titan I.
These are base configuration identifiers; each of these types
can be modified with various upper stages and solid rocket
boosters strapped on the first stage to accomplish specific
missions. The Titan III and Titan 34D boosters are launched
from Cape Canaveral. They are used by DoD and also for
commercial launches. The Titan IV is now the United
States' heavy lift vehicle, capable of injecting in excess
of 10,000 lbs (4,450 kg) into geosynchronous Earth orbit
(GEO), or up to 39,000 lbs (17,700 kg) into a low Earth
equatorial orbit. There is one Titan IV launch pad at
Vandenberg AFB and two at Cape Canaveral. Planned
upgrades to the solid rocket boosters and upper stages will
raise the lift capacity to almost that of the Shuttle. Launch
preparation of the Titan IV is about 6 months.
The Scout launch vehicle is a solid fuel, multistage launcher
of light satellites. It was initially assembled by NASA from
an Algol first stage rocket salvaged from a Polaris missile, a
second stage Thiokol Castor, and Antares and Altair third
and fourth stages borrowed from the venerable '50s era
Navy Vanguard rocket system. It was first launched in July
of 1960. It is considered inexpensive, although the price per
pound to orbit of its payloads is roughly twice of that
projected for Pegasus. It is capable of placing 480 lbs (220
kg) into a 350 mile high circular equatorial orbit. Its
principle launch sites are Vandenberg AFB and
Wallops Island, and it enjoys a 96% success rate over the
life of the system, although early in the life of the program
it was not nearly so successful.

Pegasus is a winged, three stage rocket, launched from

under the wing of an aircraft. It weighs about 40,000 lbs
(18,000 kg), and is almost 50 feet long with a 22 foot
wingspan. The initial launches have been made from a
modified B52 bomber that supports NASA activities. The
first launch was made in early 1990, successfully placing a
small Navy communications satellite and a NASA
scientific satellite into LEO. There are plans to use a
Lockeed L1011 aircraft in future flights. In a typical launch
profile, the rocket is released at a speed of mach 0.8 and an
altitude of 40,000 feet. The first stage then ignites and
boosts the rocket to an altitude of 38 miles. The first stage
drops away and the second stage propels the rocket to an
altitude of 105 miles and a speed of 13,125 mph. The rocket
then coasts for 6.6 minutes to an altitude of 285 miles but
the speed decreases to 11,850 mph. The third (final) stage
then fires to accelerate the rocket 18,700 mph which is
sufficient to insert the payload into orbit. The system has
the capability to place up to 272 kg into low polar orbits or
410 kg into equatorial low Earth orbit. An advantage of the
Pegasus is that the launcher (the aircraft) can fly almost
anywhere to provide the optimum launch point for
a particular mission. The Pegasus promises low cost per
pound to orbit launches for light tactical or commercial
satellites. Another advantage of Pegasus is the ability to
"warehouse" launch systems and generic payloads for fast
launch in times of crisis.

Pegasus

SpaceTransportationSystem The Space Transportation System (STS) includes the space

shuttle fleet, boosters and upper stages, launch and landing
facilities, and training and control facilities. There are
currently four shuttle spacecraft: Discovery,
Endeavor,Atlantis, and Columbia. The Challenger was
destroyed in an explosion of the launch vehicle on 28
January 1986, 73 seconds after liftoff. The seven astronauts
on board were killed.
6-3 United States, cont'd
Shuttle Launch

The space shuttle is launched with two solid propellant rocket

boosters and three cryogenic liquid propellant (liquid
hydrogen/liquid oxygen) main rocket engines burning at liftoff.
Each solid propellant rocket booster generates 2.9 million lbs of
thrust at liftoff and each main rocket engine generates between
375,000 to 475,000 lbs of thrust (variable throttle engines). Two
minutes after liftoff, at an altitude of approximately 27 miles (43
km) altitude, traveling at a speed of 3,700 mph, the solid rocket
boosters separate and parachute back to land in the Atlantic Ocean
where they are retrieved, refurbished and reused. The shuttle's main
engines continue to burn using the liquid hydrogen and liquid

oxygen in the large external fuel tank. After sustainer engine cutoff
(SECO) the large external fuel tank is separated over the Indian
Ocean, where it reenters the atmosphere and burns up. Shortly
thereafter the orbital maneuvering system is fired to complete
orbital insertion. The orbital maneuvering system consists of two
6,000 lbs thrust rocket engines which use a hypergolic liquid fuel
and oxidizer. Once in orbit, there are more than 40 Reaction Control
System (RCS) rocket engines located in the nose and tail to control
roll, pitch and yaw. The shuttle is capable of carrying eight
astronauts (normally seven) and approximately 22.5 metric tons
into 28.5/ inclined LEO from its two launch pads at Kennedy Space
Center.
ShuttleLanding Sites Four primary landing sites have been constructed for the shuttle:
Edwards AFB, White Sands, Vandenberg AFB, and Kennedy Space
Center. For safety reasons, the preferred landing facility is Kennedy
Space Center, but there have been landings at all of these sites
except Vandenberg AFB. The shuttle system allows humans to
interact directly with LEO satellites. Satellites can be checked out
before they are released to go into orbit, defective satellites can be
repaired while they are in orbit, adjustments can be made to orbits
of satellites, and orbiting satellites can be retrieved and returned to
Earth for repairs or study. All of these capabilities have
been demonstrated.
6-4 Space Launch Facilities, United States
Eastern Space and The Eastern Space and Missile Center (ESMC) is located on the east
Missile Center
coast of Florida. It is operated by the 45th Space Wing of the Air
Force Space Command. The ESMC includes Cape Canaveral Air
Force Station where most of the launch pads are located, Patrick
AFB where the headquarters is, the Eastern Test Range and other
supporting facilities in east central Florida. The Eastern Test Range
(ETR) extends from Cape Canaveral, acrossthe Atlantic Ocean and
Africa into the Indian Ocean. The ETR includes tracking stations on
Antigua and Ascension Island.
Cape Canaveral

The United States' largest space launch facility is located at Cape

Canaveral Air Force Station. Since 1950, more than 40 launch
complexes have been constructed. Some of the launch pads were built
to test ICBMs and Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles.
Many launch complexes are now obsolete and some have been
destroyed because of corrosion from the salty sea air. The principal
active space launch complexes are:
Space Launch Complex (SLC)

Launcher

17 A, 17 B

Delta

36 A, 36 B

Atlas

40, 41

Titan

(* SLC 41 is actually on a small island, just inside the boundary of

Kennedy Space Center.)
Cap Canaveral

Cape Canaveral is located at 28.5 north latitude. The optimum launch

(most fuel efficient or heaviest payload) is attained by launching
directly to the east (azimuth of 90) to take maximum advantage of the
Earth's rotational speed, thus the minimum inclination of a satellite's
initial orbit is 28.5. Safety considerations limit the launch azimuth to a
minimum of 35 to a maximum of 120 for an initial orbit inclination of
57 and 39, respectively.

6-4 Space Launch Facilities, United States, cont'd

Kennedy SpaceCenter Kennedy Space Center is located on Merritt Island, just to the
north of Cape Canaveral. It is operated by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).
Considerable support is provided by the Air Force Space
Command's Eastern Missile and Space Center. The Space Shuttles
are launched from Space Launch Complexes 39A and 39B. The
preparation and launch of the shuttles requires many other
supporting facilities. The principalsupporting facilities
are: Vehicle Assembly Building Mobile Launcher
Platform CrawlerTransporter Orbiter Processing Facility Orbiter
Modification and Refurbishment Facility Processing and Surge
Facility SRB Assembly and Refurbishment Facility Shuttle
Logistics Facility Shuttle Landing Facility Payload Operations
and Checkout Building Spacecraft Assembly and Encapsulation
Facility
Western Spaceand

The Western Space and Missile Center (WSMC) is located at

MissileCenter

Vandenberg AFB, California. It is operated by the 30th Space

Wing of the Air Force Space Command. It is responsible for the
missile and space launches from Vandenberg AFB and the
Western Test Range which extends westward over the Pacific
Ocean and into the Indian Ocean where it meets the Eastern Test
Range. The nearest land mass directly to the south of Vandenberg
isAntarctica. For this reason, launches to the south into polar
orbits can be safely made. Surveillance satellites, low earth orbit
(LEO) weather satellites, and environmental and terrain
monitoring satellites like Landsat are launched from this facility.
The safety limit of the launch azimuth is from 158 to 201 for an
initial orbit inclination of 70 to 104, respectively.

There are approximately 52 launch pads, silos, and other

sites to support launching the entire family of military and
commercial rockets and missiles. The principal active
space launch complexes are:
Space Launch Complex (SLC)

Launcher

w@

Delta

3W

Atlas

4E, 4W

Titan

Scout

Titan IV

Shuttle Launch Complex 6, originally planned to support shuttle

launches into polar orbit and then deactivated, is now under
modification to support launches of the Titan IV family of heavy
expendable launch vehicles .
6-4 Space Launch Facilities, United States, cont'd

Wallops FlightFacility The National Aeronautics and Space Administration operates the
Wallops Flight Facility, located on Wallops Island on the Atlantic
coast, a few miles south of the Maryland and Virginia border. The
principal activity now is the launch of sounding rockets
although 21 satellites have been launched using the Scout
launcher. Italian missile crews who launched Scouts from their
facility off the coast of Kenya were trained here. Privately funded
launches for commercial lifters (such as Scout and Conestoga)
have been negotiated.
Poker Flats,Alaska

Poker Flats Research Range, located northeast of Fairbanks, is

owned and operated by the Geophysical Institute, University of
Alaska, Fairbanks. It has the distinction of being the world's only
universityowned launch range. Established in 1968, the range
launches between ten and fifteen major sounding rockets, and a
number of meteorological rockets, annually. Total launches to date
is approaching three hundred. It also supports continuous ozone
measurements and observations. NASA provides various range
support radar and tracking systems and facilities.

6-5 Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)

Introduction

The Commonwealth of Independent States, formerly what was most

of the Soviet Union, has a variety of capable launch systems. The
Soviet Union's approach to space launcher design and construction
was to build for simplicity and reliability, while
incorporating technological advances if they substantially improved
launcher performance. Their launch systems typically are large for the
amount of onorbit payload delivered. This is partly due to the extra
weight that the use of older technology entails, and partly to the
use of less efficient liquid, noncryogenic propellants for many of their
main engines.Another reason for the relatively large size of their
space launchers is that most were derived from military missiles built
to carry massive nuclear warheads, and had to be proportionally large
to do so. The breakup of the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact has
resulted in a surplus of these launchers and missiles, which has
prompted economies of this region to attempt marketing of launch
services to customers worldwide.

Space LaunchVehicles

The Soviet Union developed an impressive array of space launchers,

most derived from ICBMs. On more than one occasion, the ability to
conduct multiple launches within a short period has been
demonstrated. The names of the space launch vehicles used in
the discussion below were assigned by the Soviets. The "SL"
designation is assigned by the U.S. DoD. The letternumber
designations were developed by Dr. Charles Sheldon, U.S.
Congressional Research Service to differentiate between launch
vehicle families and their variants. The following table gives the
equivalent denotations:
Soviet/CIS Name

U.S.

Sheldon Designation

DOD Designatio

Vostok

Vostok

SL-3

A-1

Soyuz

SL-4

A-2

Molniya

SL-6

A-2-e

Kosmos (or
Interkosmos)

SL-7

B-1

Kosmos

SL-8

C-1

(No name)

SL-11

F-1

Proton (or
Gorizont)

SL-12

D-1-e

Proton

SL-13

D-1

Tsyklon (or
Meteor)

SL-14

F-2

Zenit

SL-16

J-1

Energiya

SL-17

K-1

The Vostok (SL3 or A1) was the first of the Soviet

space launchers. It, along with the SL4 and SL6, is
a derivation of the SS6 Sapwood ICBM. It
launched Sputnik I and many other satellites since.
The Vostok launcher has two stages. The first stage
uses four kerosene fueled, disposable, strapon
boosters alongside a core engine, providing for
20 main engines all of which are ignited at launch.
The oxidizer is liquid oxygen. The second stage has
a single rocket engine (also keroseneliquid oxygen
propellant). The Vostok is capable of placing
approximately 10,300 lbs (4,700 kg) into LEO. It
launched Sputnik I in 1957, Cosmonaut Yuri
Gagarin in 1961 , Meteor weather satellites, and
more than 160 other payloads. It has proven to be a
very reliable launcher. The Vostok is also marketed
as a commercial launcher. India's IRS1A,
Geostationary Weather Satellite was launched in
1988. It is under contract for follow on IRS
satellites for India, as well. The Vostok is launched
from Plesetsk and Tyuratamfrom which it can place
satellites into both equatorial and polar inclined
orbits.

6-5 Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), cont'd

Soyuz

The Soyuz (SL4/A2), an upgraded Vostok, made

its debut in 1963. The first stage is similar to the
Vostok but the second stage has significantly more
power, thus giving it a lift capacity of more than
15,400 lbs (7,000 kg) into LEO. It is the most
frequently employed space launcher in the world.
Since 1964, the Soyuz has launched all of
the Soviet and CIS manned space flights. It is also
used to ferry cargo to the Russian space station
Mir and to launch photoreconnaissance and Earth
resources satellites. As with Vostok, this launcher
is now available commercially. There are launch
facilities at Plesetsk and Tyuratam. The assembled
Soyuz, with the payload already mated to
the launcher, is normally brought to the launch pad
in a horizontal position and erected less than 48
hours before launch. The launcher has an
extremely high reliability rate and has repeatedly
demonstrated the ability to be launched during
severe weather conditions including extreme cold,
high winds and rain.

Molniya

The Molniya launcher (SL6/A2e) is the most powerful of the SS6 Sapwood
derivatives. It uses an even more capable upper stage engine than the Soyuz. Its
principal use has been to place payloads (principally Molniya communications
satellites and Cosmos military payloads) into highly inclined, highly eccentric
orbits. The first satellite placed into this highly eccentric, highly inclined orbit
was called a Molniya; from this both the orbit type andlauncher have drawn
their name. This launcher has not flown any geostationary missions. It launched,
in February of 1961, the Venera 1 Venus probe, and possibly two attempts
at Mars probe launches in 1960. Its main launch facility is Plesetsk, although it
has also been launched from Tyuratam. As with the previous two boosters, the
Molniya launcher is also available commercially.

Cosmos (or
Kosmos)

The name Cosmos (or Kosmos) has been assigned to at least two different
systems, the SL7/B1, and the SL8/C1. The SL7 variant is a derivative of the SS4
Sandal, a medium range military missile. It has a capability to deliver up to 650
kg to LEO, and was principally launched from Plesetsk and Kapustin Yar
beginning in 1962. It flew a total of 144 orbital missions before being retired,
although it is a potential commercial offering now as a small payload
launcher. The SL8 variant derives from the SS5 Skean medium range military
missile and is the only booster launched from all three former Soviet sites. It is
the smallest launcher in the current CIS inventory. It uses a hypergolic
propellant (nitric acid and Unsymmetrical DimethylHydrazine (UDMH)) in its
first stage, is capable of lifting 1.5 metric tons to LEO, and is commercially
available. It was first launched in 1964, but in recent years its use has tapered off
as payloads were transferred to the SL14.

Proton

The Proton (SL12/D1e and SL13/D1) is the largest

currently available space launcher from the former
Soviet Union. The SL12/D1e variant has four
stages and was introduced in 1967. The SL13/D1
variant has three stages. The first three stages are
powered by ahypergolic propellant (N2O4 and
UDMH). The first stage has six rocket engines.
The second stage has four rocket engines and the
third stage has one rocket engine. The fourth
stage of the SL12/D1e variant uses kerosene and
liquid oxygen to power one, restartable rocket
engine. The SL12/D1e variant has a lift capacity
of about 5,500 lbs (2,500 kg) into GEO. It has
been used to launch numerous scientific payloads
to the Moon and Mars, and to put communications
satellites into geostationary orbit. The three stage
SL13/D1 variant can put about 46,200 lbs (21,000
kg) into LEO. It has only been used to
launch components of the Mir space station. The
SL12 Proton has been marketed commercially as
a launcher for geostationary commercial
communications satellites, such as Inmarsat.

6-5 Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), cont'd

Tsyklon(Cyclone)

The SL11/F1, a derivative of the SS9 Scarp ICBM,

was introduced in 1966 as a two stage launcher for
space payloads, typically ocean surveillance satellites,
launchedfrom Tyuratam. There is no known Soviet
name for this launcher. The SL11/F1 has a lift
capacity of about 8,800 lbs (4,000 kg) into LEO. In
1977, a third stage was added. The resulting launch
vehicle, the Tsyklon, was given the designation of SL14/F2. The SL14/F2 assumed many of the missions
previously performed by the Kosmos SL8 such
asELINT, Meteor weather satellites, LEO
communications satellites and some
scientific payloads. The SL14/F2 has only been
launched from Plesetsk. In 1987, it was offered as a
commercial launch vehicle with a lift capacity of
about 8,800 lbs (4,000 kg) into LEO. Its six firststage
chambers are fueled by nitrogen tetroxide and
UDMH.

Zenit
The Zenit (SL16/J1) is a modern booster with
capabilities between those of Soyuz and Proton.
Flight testing began in 1985, and since becoming
operational it has been usedexclusively from
Tyuratam for launch of ELINT satellites. Standard
versions can place 28,600 lbs (13,000 kg) into a
moderately inclined LEO, or 1320 lbs (600 kg) into
GEO. It is also used in a slightly different
configuration as a strapon booster for the Energia
heavylift launch system. This booster has been
proposed as a candidate for the Cape York (Australia)
Space Agency venture as the booster of choice for
heavy payloads, as it is capable, with modification, of
lifting up to 52,800 lbs (24,000 kg) to LEO.

6-5 Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), cont'd

Energia

The Energia is a huge Saturn Vclass booster also known as

an SL17/K1 (Figure 613), took over 13 years to develop,
and has great potential as a very heavy booster with flexible
configurations, depending on mission. It can be configured
with from two to eight SL16 (see Zenit, above) liquid
fueled strapon boosters that are capable of being recovered,
giving it a range of lift capabilities from 143,000 lbs (65,000
kg) up to 440,000 lbs (200,000 kg) to LEO. Its central core
engine is the region's first dual cryogenic main stage,
using liquid hydrogen and oxygen for its energy. Second
stages are of two types: a lowenergy, long mission duration
(up to two years) second stage fueled by liquid oxygen and
kerosene, and a high energy dual cryogenic upper stage
with a mission duration of four days. Both upper stages are
capable of multiple, although finite, restarts. Two Energias
have been launched. The first was a test, and the second, in
November of 1988, launched a pilotless Soviet space shuttle
Buran. Energia is being marketed commercially by NPO
Energia. Several have been built and are available.

Buran(SiberianSnowstorm) The Buran is very much like the U.S. space shuttles in
appearance, dimension,and capability, except that it lacks
shuttlelike main propulsion engines. Instead, it relies on
the Energia booster to provide it the energy to achieve all
but the last 100 200 m/s velocity change (delta v) needed
to achieve orbit. This spacecraft has only flown once on a
three hour, twentyfive minute orbital mission in robotic
unpiloted mode. It landed three hours and 25 minutes after
launch at an airfield 12 km from its launch pad. The space

shuttlelike spacecraft fleet size has been reduced from a

planned five to three, but even this level lacks highlevel
support. Although the Buran has a stated mission
frequency of one flight per year, it may never be launched
again.